HYDRAULICS

Hydraulics: The Engineering science pertaining to liquid pressure and flow.

The word hydraulics is based on the Greek word for water, and originally covered the study of the physical
behavior of water at rest and in motion. Use has broadened its meaning to include the behavior of all liquids,
although it is primarily concerned with the motion of liquids.

Hydraulics is a branch of engineering concerned mainly with moving liquids. The term is applied commonly to
the study of the mechanical properties of water, other liquids, and even gases when the effects of
compressibility are small. Hydraulics includes the way liquids act in tanks and pipes, deals with their properties,
and explores ways to take advantage of these properties.

Hydraulics can be divided into two areas, Hydrostatics and Hydrokinetics.

 Hydrostatics
The consideration of liquids at rest, involves problems of buoyancy and flotation, pressure on dams and
submerged devices, and hydraulic presses. The relative incompressibility of liquids is one of its basic
principles.
Hydrostatics is about the pressures exerted by a fluid at rest. Any fluid is meant, not just water. Research
and careful study on water yields many useful results of its own, however, such as forces on dams, buoyancy
and hydraulic actuation, and is well worth studying for such practical reasons.

The definition of a fluid deserves careful consideration. Although time is not a factor in hydrostatics, it enters in
the approach to hydrostatic equilibrium. It is usually stated that a fluid is a substance that cannot resist a
shearing stress, so that pressures are normal to confining surfaces. Geology has now shown us clearly that there
are substances which can resist shearing forces over short time intervals, and appear to be typical solids, but
which flow like liquids over long time intervals.

 Hydrokinetics
Hydrokinetics is relating to the motions of fluids or the forces which produce or affect such motions.
Hydrokinetic energy is the energy generated by the movement of a body of water.

Hydrokinetic technologies produce renewable electricity by harnessing the kinetic energy of a body of water,
the energy that results from its motion. Since water is 832 times denser than air, our tides, waves, ocean
currents, and free-flowing rivers represent an untapped, powerful, highly concentrated and clean energy
resource.

History and Development of Hydraulics

Although the modern development of hydraulics is comparatively recent, the ancients were familiar with many
hydraulic principles and their applications. The Egyptians and the ancient people of Persia, India, and China
conveyed water along channels for irrigation and domestic purposes, using dams and sluice gates to control the
flow. The ancient Cretans had an elaborate plumbing system. Archimedes studied the laws of floating and
submerged bodies. The Romans constructed aqueducts to carry water to their cities.

After the breakup of the ancient world, there were few new developments for many centuries. Then, over a
comparatively short period, beginning near the end of the seventeenth century, Italian physicist, Evangelista
Torricelle, French physicist, Edme Mariotte, and later, Daniel Bernoulli conducted experiments to study the
elements of force in the discharge of water through small openings in the sides of tanks and through short pipes.
During the same period, Blaise Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the fundamental law for the science of
hydraulics. Pascal’s law states that increase in pressure on the surface of a confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished throughout the confining vessel or system.

For Pascal’s law to be made effective for practical applications, it was necessary to have a piston that "fit exactly."
It was not until the latter part of the eighteenth century that methods were found to make these snugly fitted
parts required in hydraulic systems.

This was accomplished by the invention of machines that were used to cut and shape the necessary closely
fitted parts and, particularly, by the development of gaskets and packings. Since that time, components such as
valves, pumps, actuating cylinders, and motors have been developed and refined to make hydraulics one of the
leading methods of transmitting power.

Liquids are almost incompressible. For example, if a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch (psi) is applied to a
given volume of water that is at atmospheric pressure, the volume will decrease by only 0.03 percent. It would
take a force of approximately 32 tons to reduce its volume by 10 percent; however, when this force is removed,
the water immediately returns to its original volume. Other liquids behave in about the same manner as water.

Another characteristic of a liquid is the tendency to keep its free surface level. If the surface is not level, liquids
will flow in the direction which will tend to make the surface level.

Hydraulic Engineering

Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water flowing in an isolated
environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel (river, lake, ocean). Civil engineers are primarily concerned
with open channel flow, which is governed by the interdependent interaction between the water and the
channel.
Civil engineers play a vital role in the optimal planning, design and operation of water resource systems.
Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle -- the distribution and
circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans. Surface runof f is measured as the
difference between precipitation and abstractions, such as infiltration (which replenishes groundwater flow),
surface storage and evaporation. Applications include the management of the urban water supply, the design
of urban storm-sewer systems, and flood forecasting.

Applications include the design of hydraulic structures, such as sewage conduits, dams and breakwaters, the
management of waterways, such as erosion protection and flood protection, and environmental
management, such as prediction of the mixing and transport of pollutants in surface water. Hydroelectric -
power development, water supply, irrigation and navigation are some familiar applications of water
resources engineering involving the utilization of water for beneficial purposes. More recently, concern for
preserving our natural environment and meeting the needs of developing countries has increased the
importance of water resources engineering.
Hydrological Analysis

The study of water flow, including its properties and behavior, entails the application of hydrologic and hydraulic
principles and methods. Hydrologic analysis are performed to quantify the volumetric flow rate of water
draining from a watershed (i.e., drainage area) over time. The amount of water that flows from a watershed
depends on the characteristics of the watershed (e.g., size, land cover, antecedent moisture, and steepness)
and the presence of water (e.g., the intensity and duration of a precipitation event, rate of snowmelt, or
regulation from a dam). Hydraulic analyses are performed to determine the depth of flow, flow velocity, and
forces from flowing water on a surface or at hydraulic structures. These studies are important components in
the hydraulic design and analysis of many structures.

BASIC HYDRAULICS OF WATER SYSTEM

The cornerstone of any healthy population is access to safe drinking water. The population growth in developing
countries almost entirely wiped out the gains. In fact, nearly as many people lack those services. Study of the
Hydraulics of water system are concerned with application of the basic principles of fluid mechanics to open
channel flows and real fluid flow hydrodynamics. Examples of open channels are natural streams and rivers.
Man-made channels include irrigation and navigation canals, drainage ditches, sewer and culvert pipes running
partially full, and spillways.

Energy, Piezometric and pressure Head

Elevation Head: this is an amount of flow potential energy in one cross section defined by the elevation. This
correspond to Z in cross section
Pressure Head: This is an amount of the flow potential energy in one cross section defined by the water
pressure.
Piezometric Head: This is the sum of elevation and pressure head in one cross section.
Velocity Head: This is an amount of flow kinetic energy in one cross section defined by the water velocity.
Head (Energy) Losses: When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistance due to
which some of energy (head) of fluid is lost.

Compound Pipe flow

The system is called compound pipe flow: When two or more pipes with different diameters are connected head
to tail (in series) or connected to two common nodes (in parallel).
a. Flow Through Pipes in Series: Pipes of different lengths and different diameters connected end to end
(in series) to form a pipeline
b. Flow Through Parallel Pipes: If a main pipe divides into two or more branches and again join together
downstream to form a single pipe, then the branched pipes are said to be connected in parallel
(compound pipes).

MODERN WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

All water transport and distribution system and devices must satisfy the following criteria:
a. To be constructed and/or manufactured of materials that are not harmful for human being life.
b. To be resistant to mechanical; and chemical attacks possible in distribution system
c. To be constructed and manufactured of durable materials.

Urban water distribution is composed of three major components:

• Distribution piping
• Distribution storage
• Pumping stations
These components can be further divided into subcomponents, which can in turn be divided into sub-
subcomponents.
The pumping station component consists of structural, electrical, piping, and pumping unit subcomponents.
The pumping unit can be further divided into sub-subcomponents: Pump, driver, controls, power transmission,
piping and valves.
The exact definition of components, subcomponents, and sub subcomponents is somewhat fluid and depends
on the level of detail of the required analysis and, to a somewhat greater extent, the level of detail of available
data.

Hierarchical relationship of Components, Subcomponent, and sub-subcomponent. (Cullinane, 1989)

System Components
Transmission: This is the basic part of water transport and distribution system that represents a large proportion
of investment. It consists of various types of pipes, joints, fittings and connections, that operate together with
miscellaneous control equipment.
Pipes
• Pipe sections or links are the most abundant elements in the network. These sections are constant in
diameter and may contain fittings and other appurtenances, such as valves, storage facilities, and
pumps.
• Pipes are the largest capital investment in a distribution system.

Pipes used in water supply are made of various materials. They can be categorized in three large groups:
• Rigid (iron, prestressed concrete, asbestos cement)
• Semi-rigid (steel, ductile iron)
• Flexible (PVC, PE, HDPE, glass reinforced plastic)
Trunk main: To transport water from the source to the distribution area. (usually above 400mm to few meters).
Secondary main: To link main distribution pipes with the service reservoir or /and with the trunk distribution
mains.
Distribution Main: carry water from the secondary main to the smaller consumers. These are in particular pipes
laid in the roads and streets of urban areas with diameters in principal 100-200mm.
 Service pipe: To bring water from distribution main directly to a public dwelling. In case of domestic supplies
service pipes are generally less than 25mm diameter.

Design Criteria: Are the design limitations required to get the most efficient and economical water-distribution
network. Velocity Pressure Pipe Sizes Head Losses Design Period Average Water Consumption
• The design criteria for water distribution system can be divided in nonhydraulic and hydraulic design
consideration.
• One of the non-hydraulic criteria can be the ability to isolate part of the system especially during emergency
operation.
• Hydraulic design criteria are primarily related to the flow and pressure in the network. Moreover, criteria for
minimum and maximum pipe capacities, flow velocities, pressure fluctuations and pressure gradients are
relevant factors.

1. Velocity
• Not be lower than 0.6 m/s to prevent sedimentation.
• Not be more than 2 m/s to prevent erosion and high head losses.
• Commonly used values are 1 - 1.5 m/sec.
• Instead of pressure gradient, the velocity can also be used as a design criterion (both parameters are
correlated by friction loss calculations).
 2. Pressure
• Pressure in municipal distribution systems ranges from 150-300 kPa in residential districts with
structures of four stories or less and 400-500 kPa in commercial districts.
• Also, for fire hydrants the pressure should not be less than 150 kPa (15 m of water).
• In general, for any node in the network the pressure should not be less than 25 m of water.
• Moreover, the maximum pressure should be limited to 70 m of water
The pressure criterion can be formulated as a min. /max. In general, 5 mwc above the highest tap is sufficient.
For urban areas this means min. 20-25 mwc above street level. In case of high building, internal posting system
must be installed. As mentioned in the Standard Handbook, in multi-storied structures the following pressures
are satisfactory.

3. Pipe Sizes
• Lines which provide only domestic flow may be as small as 100 mm (4 in) but should not exceed 400 m
in length (if dead-ended) or 600 m if connected to the system at both ends.
• Lines as small as 50-75 mm (2-3 in) are sometimes used in small communities with length not to exceed
100 m (if dead-ended) or 200 m if connected at both ends.
• The size of the small distribution mains is seldom less than 150 mm (6 in) with cross mains located at
intervals not more than 180 m.
• In high-value districts the minimum size is 200 mm (8 in) with cross-mains at the same maximum spacing.
Major streets are provided with lines not less than 305 mm (12 in) in diameter.
General requirement for pipe network
a) Mains should be divided into sections and valves should be provided so that any section may be taken
out of operation for repair.
b) Dead ends are to be avoided. If a dead-end is must, a hydrant should be provided for cleaning.
c) Air valves at summits and drains at the lowest point between summits should be installed.
d) Mains should follow the general contour of the ground.
e) The minimum cover under roadway should be 90cm and under paths 75 cm.
f) Proper installation and operation of water supply system requires that a number of appurtenances be
provided in the pipeline;
a. Gate valve: they are used at summits and to isolate a particular section.
 b. Sluice gate: They are used in pipelines laid at steep grades or in openings into wells
c. Check valves: (non-return valve): to allow flow in one direction only.
g) Pipes constructed of steel and other flexible material must have valves that automatically allow air to
enter when the pipeline is emptied in order to prevent a vacuum, which will cause the pipe to collapse.

Network Layout
• Estimate pipe sizes based on water demand and local code requirements.
• The pipes are then drawn on a digital map (using AutoCAD, for example) starting from the water source.
• All the components (pipes, valves, fire hydrants) of the water network should be shown on the lines.

Hydraulic Analysis
After completing all preliminary studies and layout drawing of the network, one of the methods of hydraulic
analysis is used to

 Size the pipes and

 Assign the pressures and velocities required.
Hydraulic Analysis of Water Networks

 The solution to the problem is based on the same basic hydraulic principles that govern simple and
compound pipes that were discussed previously.
 The following are the most common methods used to analyze the Grid-system networks
1.Hardy Cross method.
2. Sections method.
3. Circle method.
Hardy Cross Method

 This method is applicable to closed-loop pipe networks (a complex set of pipes in parallel).
 It depends on the idea of head balance method
 Was originally devised by professor Hardy Cross.