Proposed Construction of a Concrete Farm-to-Market Road

in Barangay Pamplora, San Andres, Quezon

A Project Study

Presented to the Faculty

of the College of Engineering under the

Expanded Tertiary Education Equivalency and Accreditation Program (ETEEAP)

Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation

Lucena City

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

TADEO V. EMPRESE

January 2012
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UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The study examines the technical, financial, socioeconomic and institutional elements

attending sustainable rural roads construction in the country, using the proposed construction of

the Segaras-Yugno farm-to-market road (FMR) in San Andres, Quezon as a point of discussion

and analysis.

The roads less travelled, traditionally known as low-volume roads (LVR), are perceived

to be one of the pillars for socio-economic growth in a developing country like the Philippines.

These roads are the veins of the road network. They are the last vital link connecting (mainly

rural) households to markets and other economic and social services, and constitute a key

element in any poverty reduction strategy, given that lack of access is a key indicator of poverty.

Rural roads carrying fewer than 500 vehicles per day, are essential as they support a

nation’s leading income generators like agriculture (i.e. farming, sheep and cattle raising, dairy,

and wine making), forestry and tourism. More specifically, without reasonable access, farmers

have difficulty transporting their crops to markets with obvious financial losses both to the

individual and the nation.

The road network of the Philippines has a total length of 199,685 kilometers of which

27,897 kilometers (14%) are national roads and 171,788 kilometers (86%) are under the

responsibility of the various local government units (LGUs). The local roads are further

distributed into: 28,503 kilometers provincial roads; 15,816 kilometers municipal roads; and

121,702 kilometers of barangay roads, mostly classified as farm-to-market roads. Data indicate
 2

that only 14% of local roads are paved while the remaining 86% are either earth or gravel/laterite

roads.

Thus, unsealed rural roads with earth and gravel surfaces comprise the greater proportion

of the length of public road in rural areas in our country. They account for almost 60 per cent of

the main road network, or about 1.2 million kilometers. In addition, there exists an estimated 5 to

6 million kilometers of designated minor roads and passable tracks, and an extensive network of

undesignated tracks and paths, perhaps several times the extent of the designated network.

Limited funding available for the maintenance, and other factors, have meant that much of the

rural road network has fallen into disrepair.

About fifty years ago a ‘rule of thumb’ was established which stipulated that roads

carrying more than 50 motorized vehicles per day merited upgrading from earth to gravel, and

from gravel to a first generation bitumen surface at 200 vehicles per day.

Figure 1. Traditional Approach to Determining Road Type Needed

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These rough and ready figures were based on assessments of whole life costs (the total of

construction, maintenance, and road user costs). However, conditions have changed.

Technology, research and knowledge have moved on apace. Unfortunately this outdated ‘rule of

thumb’ still persists in the minds of many.

San Andres, a 4th class municipality in the province of Quezon, is an archetype of the

national situation, with nearly only 10% of local roads paved while the remaining 90% are either

earth or gravel/laterite roads. Thus, it was chosen as the site of this study.

About fifty years ago a ‘rule of thumb’ was established which stipulated that roads

carrying more than 50 motorized vehicles per day merited upgrading from earth to gravel, and

from gravel to a first generation bitumen surface at 200 vehicles per day.

Figure 1. Traditional Approach to Determining Road Type Needed

These rough and ready figures were based on assessments of whole life costs (the total of

construction, maintenance, and road user costs). However, conditions have changed.
 4

Technology, research and knowledge have moved on apace. Unfortunately this outdated ‘rule of

thumb’ still persists in the minds of many.

Our rural transport sector is generally deprived of funds and in the absence of rational

and practical guidelines and specifications for the design, construction and maintenance, rural

roads have generally not been able to provide satisfactory service. Considering the vast network

of existing rural roads, this study was encouraged by the apparent need for rationalization of the

design approach to achieve significant reduction in life cycle costs.

Hence, there is a need to optimize the design of pavements by developing more rational

design criterion for low volume rural roads. An attempt has been made here to develop an

empirical performance criterion for rural roads, using the performance data collected from the

ongoing study.

An effort shall be made by the researcher to develop the design for the rural road under

study, based on the Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standards (PAES) and other prevailing

standards, which specify the minimum requirements for the design and construction of one-lane

and two lane earth, gravel, bituminous and concrete farm-to-market roads for use in the

preparation of program of works.

The nonlinear material property of the granular layer along with the properties of the

subgrade soils shall also be considered in the finite element modeling for mechanistic evaluation

of the roads. Threshold limits for different riding qualities shall likewise be proposed.

Objectives of the Study

Very few studies have been conducted on rural roads in the Philippines. Keeping this in

mind, this study will to seek:

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1. To design a farm-to-market road, using standards prescribed by Philippine

Agricultural Engineering Standards (PAES), the National Structural Code of

the Philippines (NSCP) and the Philippine Department of Public Works and

Highways (DPWH).

2. To prepare technical specifications, bill of materials and cost estimate of

program of works in relation to the proposed construction of the farm-to-market

road.

3. To evaluate the proposed design of the farm-to-market road in terms of strength,

functionality and cost.

Significance of the Study

Very few studies have been conducted on rural roads in the Philippines. The study shall

thus provide a better understanding on how national government and/or local government units

(LGUs) construct and manage rural road assets. The outcome is expected to contribute to a

framework for the effective development of the rural road network.

Scope and Delimitation

This study shall be conducted in the Municipality of San Andres, Quezon. The selection

of the study site was based on the profile road density by population and area, income

classification, accessibility and peace and order conditions, which mirrors the general conditions

prevailing in the country.

In terms of the technical aspect, the researcher seeks to establish answers to the

following questions:

1. What project management scheme is proposed for the project?

2. Does the proposed site possess the accessibility, weight bearing capacity and
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the topography suitable for the proposed farm-to-market road project?

3. What are the general guidelines on road development to be followed?

4. What design methods are proposed for the project in general?

5. What development plan is proposed for the project?

6. What is the projected completion time for project?

On the financial aspect, the researcher sought to determine the following:

1. What is the expected total project cost, and its breakdown according to major

components?

2. What are the proposed sources of financing and scheme of fund release?

One of the difficulties of any study on rural roads in the Philippines is the lack of reliable

data, whether financial or technical. It is for example estimated that there are some 120,000

kilometers of Barangay (basically farm-to-market) roads in the country servicing the 41,969

barangays. However, the length of road is not based on any reliable data. Moreover what

percentage of the total that does exist remains in a trafficable condition is not known with any

degree of confidence.

Conceptual Framework

The study covers the technical, financial and institutional elements surrounding rural

roads construction and operations. Actual LGU experiences and practices shall be examined to

help identify issues, problems and concerns for the recommendation of appropriate and relevant

actions. The main objective of this study, therefore, is to devise to develop a more rational

design for a low volume rural road. Our approach is rendered in the research paradigm shown in

Figure 2 on the next page.

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Aside from economic considerations, concerns are being voiced regarding the dwindling

availability of suitable gravel resources and the increasing cost of longer haul distances. The

local capacity to achieve re-gravelling targets, the continuous maintenance burden, and socio-

environmental issues, notably the adverse effect on air quality of dust raised by vehicles using

gravel roads, are all providing impetus to promoting provision of alternative surfacing

technologies. Localized ‘spot improvements’ such as improving drainage or providing gravel

or other paving options over key short lengths shall also be considered to enhance the utility of

earth roads by extending their ability to carry traffic in wet weather conditions.

Proposed Farm-to-Market Road

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

PAES, Component: Procedure: A Detailed
Policies  Technical - User Demand Design
and Laws  Socioeconomic Survey
 Institutional - Review of LGU
 Financial Development
Plans Analysis and
- Field Review Evaluation of
- Detailed Design Proposed Design
 Preliminary 1. Strength
Plan 2. Functionality
 Program of 3. Cost
Work
( technical
specifications,
bill of materials
cost estimate)

Figure 2. Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

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Definition of Terms

Several terms that have been used in the study are operationally and conceptually defined

in this section to promote easy understanding among readers. They are as follows:

Construction, in this study, refers to the act of building a road that involves the

choice of technology, the definition of work tasks, the estimation of the required

resources and durations for individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions

among the different work tasks.

Course is the structural component of specified thickness. It may consist of one

layer or more.

Farm-to-Market Road is a rural road which serves to

connect rural or agricultural areas to market towns. These routes serve as a better quality

road, usually a highway, which allows farmers to transport their products to market

towns and/or distribution centers.

Rational Design Criteria is a set of measures and standards that designers

should meet in designing some system or device.

Sustainable Rural Roads are roads that allows the basic access and development

needs of individuals, companies and society to be met safely and in a manner consistent

with human and ecosystem health, and promotes equity within and between successive

generations.

Acronyms

The following acronyms are used in this study:

DILG - Department of the Interior and Local Government

DPWH - Department of Public Works and Highways

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FMR - Farm-to-Market Road

IRI - International Roughness Index

LGU - Local Government Unit

MRDP - Mindanao Rural Development Program

NGO - Non-Governmental Organization

PSI - Present Serviceability Index

SRRIP - Second Rural Road Improvement Project

VPD - Vehicles per Day

Nomenclature

The following set or system of official names, terms, or specialized engineering

vocabulary are used in this study and defined in this section to facilitate easy understanding:

Aggregates are granular material of mineral composition such as sand, gravel,

shell, crushed and uncrushed stone or light weight materials.

Backfill refers to suitable material used to replace other materials removed

during construction.

Backslope refers to the slope from the bottom of the ditch to natural ground, on

the opposite side of the foreslope.

Base course is the layer of aggregate, soil-treated aggregate, treated soil, or soil

aggregate that rests upon the sub base, or if no sub base, upon the sub-grade.

Treatment may include application of chemical-based soil additives such as soil-

stabilizers and/or any approved method.

Bitumen refers to any of various flammable mixtures of hydrocarbons and other

substances, occurring naturally or obtained by distillation from coal or petroleum, that

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are a component of asphalt and tar and are used for surfacing roads and for

waterproofing.

Borrow refer to the suitable material used for embankments.

Bridge is a structure, including supports, erected over a depression or an

obstruction, such as water, a highway, or a railway; having a roadway or track for

carrying traffic or other moving loads; and having an opening measured along the

center of the roadway between faces of abutments, spring lines of arches, or extreme

ends of the opening for multiple box culverts or multiple pipes that are 60 inches or

more in diameter and that have a clear distance between openings of not less than half

of the smallest pipe diameter.

Clearing refers to the removal and disposal of trees, vegetation or other unwanted

materials from the ground surface.

Compaction is the application of pressure to aggregates to result in a dense mass

free of excessive voids. Compaction minimizes settlement, decreases permeability and

increases strength.

Low-volume road is considered a road that has relatively low use (an Average

Daily Traffic of less than 400 vehicles per day), low design speeds (typically less than

80 kph), and corresponding geometry.

Construction Costs are those costs after the contract has been let. This includes

engineering, survey, inspection, in addition to those actual construction costs. The

written contract between the Department and the contractor setting forth the obligations

of the parties, including, but not limited to, the performance of the work, the furnishing

of labor and materials, and the basis of state highway payment.

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Culvert is the drainage structure that may or may not, directly support and that

extends across and beneath a highway street, driveway, alley, arterial, or other public

way.

Crushed gravel is the product resulting from the mechanical crushing of gravel,

with substantially all fragments having at least one face resulting from fracture.

Drainage refers to the removal of water from the road area by the use of culverts,

ditches, channels and other several structures.

Earthworks are operations connected with excavating and placing embankments

with soil, earth or rock.

Erosion control refers to protection of soil from disclosing by water, wind, or

other agent.

Excavation is the act of cutting, digging, or scooping to remove material.

Field density test is the determination of the degree of compactness of the soil.

Fill refers to the embankment material placed above natural ground line .

Grade is the slope of a roadway, channel, or natural ground .

Grading is the preparation of the sub-grade, in line and elevation, for application

of pavement materials including base and surfacing materials.

One-lane road is a roadway, where one way is a clearly marked lane for

vehicular traffic.

Riprap refers to quarried stone especially selected, graded and placed to prevent

erosion and thereby preserve the shape of a surface, slope, or underlying structure.

Road bed is the graded portion of a highway between top and side slopes,

prepared as a foundation for the pavement structure and shoulder.

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Specifications are written technical description of materials, equipment,

construction systems, standards, and workmanship that, in conjunction with the

drawings, detail the requirements for acceptable completion of the work.

Sub base course refers to the layer of the specified or selected materials of

designated thickness in a pavement structure immediately above the sub-grade and

below the base course.

Subgrade is a level layer of rock or earth upon which the foundation of a road or

railway is laid; the ground beneath a roadway or pavement.

Subgrade (earth road) is the roadbed upon which the pavement structures is

placed.

Subgrade (gravel road) refers to the upper portion of material which act as

foundation sub base course.

Subgrade (bituminous, concrete road) is the top surface of the roadbed upon

which the pavement is placed.

Traffic refers to vehicular and non-vehicular movement along a route such as

pedestrians, vehicles, animals, etc.

Two-lane road is a roadway, where two (2) ways are marked lanes for vehicular

traffic.

Design Hourly Volume is a volume determined for use in design representing

the traffic that is expected to use the highway in any designated year. It is an hourly

volume, usually the 30th highest hourly volume expected during the design year.
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UNIT II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Engineering literature was reviewed for information relevant to constructing farm-to-

market roads. A discussion of literature reviews, informational articles or publications, research

papers, studies and dissertations are presented in this chapter.

Related Literature

The road network of the whole country has a total length of 199,685 kilometers of which

27,897 kilometers (14%) are national roads and 171,788 kilometers (86%) are under the

responsibility of the various local government units. Only 14% of local roads are paved while the

remaining 86% are either earth or gravel roads. The ADB-DILG Policy Framework Report

mentions that among the ASEAN countries, the Philippines has the highest road density but the

lowest in terms of paved ratio (PIARC Road Maintenance Handbook, 2004).

Recognition of the importance of rural roads has rarely been reflected in the formulation

of poverty reduction policies and interventions. Urban development tends to concentrate on the

development of the urban areas and neglects both its impact and dependence on rural areas,

while rural development policies tends to focus on agriculture-related interventions and ignores

the urban areas, as if rural areas exist in isolation. A number of factors have reinforced this

artificial separation. Under the present economic climate, urban areas are generally recognized

as engines of economic growth and, therefore, the focus of most development policies.

Furthermore, increasing urbanization has brought attention to the need for addressing urban-

based economic growth and the reduction of urban poverty. Unfortunately, even this has focused

on capital cities and large urban agglomerations while the potential of small towns and
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secondary cities for economic growth, reducing poverty and mitigating rural-urban migration

from mega-cities has often been neglected. Finally, even in those situations where attempts have

been made to deal with urban and rural areas as part of one system, efforts have been hampered

by the administrative and sectoral division of areas into urban and rural.

Thus, main road networks are understandably given high priority in the allocation of

funds in recognition of their economic importance. Conversely, rural roads--- despite their

acknowledged importance--- are given lower priority in the allocation of funding because they

carry much lower volumes of motorized traffic.

The Philippines almost exclusively favors the use of more expensive concrete for paving

while Malaysia and Thailand prefer other options for their roads. Malaysia and Thailand,

relatively rich states, understandably exhibit high paved ratios among the five countries.

Government policies that influence LGU actions on rural roads operation and

maintenance are contained in the following: Republic Act No. 917 or the "Philippine Highway

Act" provided for the classification of roads as: National, Provincial, City, Municipal and

Barangay roads; and Executive Order No. 113, issued in 1955 clearly defining the classification

prescribed in RA 917.

In the Philippines, the arterial road network expanded quantitatively by intensive

investment after independence until the 1980s, in response to the increasing road traffic demand.

Because consideration of the functionality of road and the grade of pavement was not prioritized,

aging temporarily-built bridges, unpaved and/or narrow roads had inhibited traffic efficiency.

There was a strong need to improve qualitative conditions such as the modification of unpaved

roads to paved and improving the temporary bridges into permanent bridges to secure an

efficient, safe and reliable road network. Road improvement projects, however, had primarily
 15

focused on establishing the major arterial road network rather than rural roads, as mentioned

above (ADB, 2005).

The DPWH Design Guidelines Criteria and Standards for Public Works and Highways

are documents still in use and referred to with regards to road construction and maintenance.

These documents provide geometric standards for roads, depending on the terrain where the

infrastructure is constructed, and the type of materials for embankments and/or cuttings. The

DPWH document also provides guidance in the formulation of road maintenance manuals such

as the Road Maintenance Manual prepared by the Department of the Interior and Local

Government (DILG) under the Second Rural Road Improvement Project (SRRIP) and the

Mindanao Rural Development Program (MRDP) Maintenance Manual of the Department of

Agriculture (ADB, 2005). However these are not accepted as being standards for the whole

country.

The SRRIP Road Maintenance Manual incorporates the Road Maintenance Management

System (RMMS) adopted by the then Ministry of Public Works and Highways (MPWH) and the

Ministry of Local Government (MLG), developed in 1983 and later revised in 1992. The Manual

was first tested in 14 SRRIP provincial units and 9 DILG regional offices covering the SRRIP

provinces and a final version was produced in 1993. With the enactment of the Local

Government Code and the resulting decentralization of many functions and responsibilities to

LGUs, including maintenance of local roads, the “Manual is no longer issued on a mandatory

basis but rather as an advisory code of practice following considerable consultation and as a

supporting document to aid the further development of good road maintenance practice” (ADB,

2005).

According to a study conducted by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the road network in

the Philippines is generally adequate in extent, but many roads are in poor condition due to
 16

inadequate management that includes planning, design, construction and maintenance. The

increasing traffic, heavy vehicles and bad weather conditions contribute greatly to the deterioration

of these roads. An Asian Development Bank (ADB) study12 pointed out the deficiency in the

planning process of the DPWH where project selection is influenced by politics and is not based on

systematic analysis of the general network needs. Furthermore, priorities are not frequently

determined in terms of economics and technical appraisals, therefore, influencing funding allocation

and project selection. The ADB (2005) also recognized the fact that the problem of maintaining the

non-national roads (local roads), which make up more than 80% of the road network cannot be

ignored. Encouraging good governance is imperative to dealing with this problem.

Rural Transport is still to be called the step-child of infrastructure provision in Third

World countries: nobody really feels responsible, but everybody claims it being of utmost

importance. This holds true in particular for Africa, despite the fact that the main focus of

international co-operation is directed to this continent since many decades, but many countries in

Asia and other parts of the world are concerned too. This state of affairs applies not only to the

provision of roads and tracks, but also to the use of appropriate means of transport such as

vehicles, ox-carts or bicycles. In fact, one may talk about a great confusion among professionals,

as even basic questions are by no means solved and haven’t found an internationally agreed

answer: what defines a Rural Road, from where to where does it lead, who should be

responsible, who should take care and pay for it (Pidwerbesky et al., 2007) .

Relatively little serious examination of rural road construction and maintenance has been

carried out in the Philippines. This, partly because the responsibility for this activity was

decentralized to the Local Government Units (LGUs) under the 1991 Local Government Code.

Consequently, while the overall responsibility for rural roads rests with the Department of Local

Government, there has been no coordinated response to the rural road construction and
 17

maintenance. Also, at the local government level, there is very little technical capacity of any

kind to carry out the work.

Moreover, despite the impact that the poor condition of rural roads can have on

livelihoods, few countries, the Philippines included, are likely to be able to provide sufficient

funding to fully improve and maintain networks to an acceptable paved standard in the

foreseeable future. Rural authorities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the local

communities, need methods whereby all weather access can be maintained at reasonable cost.

With very restricted resources and on very substantial networks this objective is impossible to

achieve using current road provision and maintenance strategies.

The search for a new rural transport planning paradigm began in a somewhat unfocused

manner. The initial point of departure was simply dissatisfaction with the existing implied policy

- reliance on infrastructure investment for conventional motorized vehicles as both the catalyst

for economic and social change, and the prime means of enhancing accessibility and personal

mobility, with vehicle supply being left to the private sector. Early criticism focused on the

unnecessarily high design standards applied to local - feeder, penetration or development- roads,

and the resulting slow and uncertain rate of network development; the unaffordability and indeed

non-availability of motor vehicles to the mass of the population; and the neglect of effective

policies for the development of the local transport and vehicle system (Howe, 2005).

In mechanistic design methods, the limiting values of stresses and/or strains at which a

given degree of distress will occur are commonly known as the performance criteria.

Performance criterion is generally developed considering a failure condition, which may be

either structural or functional. While most of the mechanistic-empirical flexible pavement design

methods consider the cracking of bound layers and rutting along the wheel paths as main
 18

distresses to be addressed, some design methods have different functional parameters such as

Present Serviceability Index (PSI), roughness or other such indices that reflect the user’s

perspective. In the case of low volume roads, the bituminous surfacing (for paved roads) is

usually thin (less than 40 mm) and is not expected to contribute significantly to the structural

capacity of the pavement (Pidwerbesky et al., 2007). Hence cracking of bituminous surfacing

cannot be considered as a main mode of failure in such pavements. Rutting is the major mode of

structural failure in granular pavements with thin bituminous surfacing. The permanent

deformation in the subgrade and granular layers caused by repeated applications of wheel loads,

manifests at the surface of pavement as rutting. The concept of measuring serviceability of

pavement in terms of PSI, adopted by AASHTO (2003) is also used by some agencies as

performance criterion for design of rural roads. PSI is estimated using structural distress

parameters as well as surface profile characteristics. Another simple parameter used to evaluate

pavement performance is roughness, which reflects the user perspective. The roughness of the

road can be measured by different techniques and equipments resulting in different roughness

indices; hence it is to be expressed in terms of International Roughness Index (IRI). Rutting and

roughness have been identified as two major distresses in case of thin surfaced granular

pavements.

Related Studies

Foreign Studies

In many developing countries, the main road network carries about 80 to 90 per cent of

passenger and freight transport and it is, therefore, of key importance to the economy. In the

South East Asian region two examples serve to illustrate the under-developed state of the rural
 19

road networks. A recent report (Ministry of Rural Development, December 2001) on the

Cambodian road network assessed that 75% of the 4,165 km of national (main and provincial)

roads were not in a maintainable condition. A previous survey in 1999 assessed that of the

approximately 28,000 km of rural road network, only about 6,000 km (21%) had been

rehabilitated since the severe disruption of the Khmer Rouge regime. These roads were mostly

rebuilt to gravel/laterite standards. However maintenance funding is only available for a small

portion of the rehabilitated network. There is thus justifiable concern for the sustainability of a

‘gravel-only’ strategy for rural roads in Cambodia.

Vietnam has a road network of approximately 210,000 km, this represents a density that

is twice that of Thailand or Malaysia. However, only 13.5% of the road network is considered to

be in good condition, just 26% has two or more lanes, and 29% is bituminised. Over 10% of

villages are inaccessible by road for at least one month of the year. While funding is a major

issue, questions are being raised regarding whether provision and maintenance of large unpaved

networks is sustainable using the traditional strategies from a financial, resource management

(gravels are a non-renewable natural resource) or environmental perspective (Vietnam CIuntry

Report, 2001).

A broader view of user travel demand characteristics started to emerge simultaneously in

the 1970s from a number of sources. Among the first was the work of Tripathi (1972) and

Ramaswamy (1977) on bullock cart users in India; the Overseas Development Group, University

of East Anglia’s studies of the small farm sector in Bangladesh (Government of Bangladesh,

1977) and Nepal (Blaikie, et. al. 1977); and a specially commissioned study of small farm

transport needs and constraints in Kenya, financed by the World Bank (World Bank, 1977b).
 20

The very first effort to actually introduce new types of NMT in Africa with community

involvement, under a transport project with international funding, was under a World Bank

funded roads project in Ghana (1988). By giving prominence to the petty nature of most small

farmer transport needs in Bangladesh and Nepal, the work of the Overseas Development Group

cast serious doubt about the benefits impoverished peasant societies were likely to receive from

conventional road and motor vehicle based investments, and thus the whole basis of the rural

transport development policies being implemented in those countries. Again it is a lesson which

has been largely ignored. Although the issue of benefit distribution has been extensively

discussed in the literature on economic appraisal techniques, operational applications have been

restricted by ideological considerations (Howe and Richards, 2004).

Similarly, the study in Kenya served to highlight that the rural travel demands of most

small farmers are much different to what is commonly supposed. It showed that most transport

needs could be characterized as the movement of small loads (10-150 kg units) over relatively

short distances (1-25 km). For transport related directly with the farming activity, the range of

loads was likely to be the same, but the typical distances were shorter (1-13 km). Rarely were

motorized transport services available, affordable or even necessary for such demands. The

findings from this early unstructured research stimulated the ILO to commission a further series

of studies in Asia and Africa. These combined with other informal studies formed the core of the

book Rural Transport in Developing Countries (Barwell, et. al., 2005). The ten case studies

presented covered three broad aspects:

i) micro-level surveys of the transport patterns of rural farming communities in

Malaysia, India, Nigeria, and Kenya;

ii) brief investigations of seven local-level transport modes in the Philippines, the
 21

Republic of Korea, and Western Samoa; and

iii) broader evaluations of transport policy and planning, and their implications

for the rural communities in Bangladesh, Kenya and Tanzania.

These studies did not have a common research framework or methodology. The feature

which linked them was their examination of transport conditions and problems from the

perspective of rural people rather than the modern transport system. The studies thus paid

explicit attention to transport activities, which took place remote from the motorable road system

and borrowing from the generic study in Kenya, characterized movements as on-or-off farm.

They attempted to define the nature of small farmer and household transport needs and the

physical and other constraints within which these had to be satisfied. The style of questioning

was relatively loose and did not try to quantify the totality of household movement demands in a

precise way, nor did it give prominence to questions of transport access by income group and

gender. The research focus was more on physical mobility than the factors governing people’s

use of resources and the reach of services. The studies reported in Rural Transport in Developing

Countries led to a number of robust conclusions, especially when combined with the findings of

a six-country case study -India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Tunisia on

rural transport services published the previous year by the World Bank (Carapetis, et. al. 2004).

These conclusions can be summarized as follows:

 Correlation between the type and quality of infrastructure and the type and quality

of transport services. Where all-weather roads exist motor vehicles frequently

provide services. These are not normally available on dry season roads except at

premiums of 200 to 400% above those on all-weather routes. Non-motorized

 22

vehicles sometimes fill the gap in services on dry season roads but at high unit

costs.

 Limited extent of the effective road system and the poor prospects for its

extension. A significant proportion - in some cases the large majority - of the

population is not accessible under all-weather conditions. At the time of the

surveys it was concluded that this situation could only be expected to improve

very slowly, but in many of the poorer countries economic prospects have

worsened since then.

 Significant numbers of people are effectively disenfranchised of any form of

transport facility. Among those of the population who do have physical access to

all-weather roads there is a significant proportion unable to afford those services

that are provided.

 Lack of perception of local level transport problems by policy makers. Many of

the real transport problems faced by the rural population remain unperceived and

neglected by policy makers and planners. Existing policy analysis and planning

procedures have evolved to deal with the more visible parts of the economy such

as exports, imports, industry, and their major investment and infrastructure

requirements. The procedures and criteria by which investment programs are

determined tend to ignore the non-users of transport services and the local level

movement needs of rural people. These are only likely to be addressed if the

starting point of the analysis is a local-level perspective.

Local Studies
 23

The ILO (2006) conducted a study in the Philippines that illustrates that development

activities at local level, especially those that would require the use of local resources, should

have the full support of the local chief executive (LCE). In most LGUs, the LCE is the

acknowledged key person that will lead the people either to development or stagnation. It is

evident that the rural areas are still experiencing a prolonged hangover from its feudalistic

beginnings such that everybody looks up to the leader to decide on a range of issues. In current

times, the thinking persists that an elected official is regarded by his constituents as the ready and

convenient protector, provider and problem solver.

This perception is reinforced by the key informants who refer to the LCE as the leader

whose decisions should not be questioned and whose support should be solicited right at the start

of any development undertaking. To illustrate, the team received comments such as like, "there is

no need to conduct a roads conditions survey as the LCE disregarded the last one and went ahead

with his pre-conceived set of priorities," or "we may come up with the best development option

but it is always the LCE's option that prevails." And still some stated that "if you want to have

something done in the LGU, make sure you have the LCE with you." It is therefore obvious that

the LCEs - the Provincial Governor, Municipal Mayor and the Barangay Chairman - are the key

LGU functionaries that can make things happen at local level, including maintenance of rural

roads.

Another local study looked at various specifications but found multivariate linear

relationships to be the most suitable. The most significant model that was developed showed that

distance to the market center and use of fertilizers had the most significant effect on coconut and

corn productivity. However, for bananas, the models results were contrary to logic and the

coefficients were not significant, and therefore no models for banana were accepted. The
 24

possible explanation for this may be that the difference in the way bananas are marketed. While

farmers growing coconut and corn need to travel much to the market center to sell their products,

farmers growing banana do not need to travel much since they rent their land to the traders, who

collect the produce at the farm (Dhakal, 2009).

 25

UNIT III

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The research methodology is described in this section, including the research design,

population and sample, locale of the study, instrument used to collect the data, procedures for

conducting the research and analysis of data.

Methods of Research (RESTRUCTURE)

Whenever possible, the researcher will use an integrated methodology which builds on

the complementarities between methods in order to build on strengths, crosscheck and

triangulate the information which is most crucial for addressing the particular research questions

concerned and also try to disseminate information in different ways for different audiences in

order to ensure, as far as possible, benefits for outcomes for participants.

To determine the state of practice, both design and construction related, of farm-to-

market design, the Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standards (PAES) shall be visited to

survey current design practice and to assess the technical personnel’s experience and opinions

related to the local state of rural road performance. The PAES specifies the minimum

requirements for the design and construction of one-lane and two lane earth, gravel, bituminous

and concrete farm-to-market roads for use in the preparation of program of works. It includes

related structures such as drainage (roadside ditch and culvert), slope protection and erosion

control.
 26

Procedures of Research

This study is primarily descriptive in nature, hence, it is data-intensive. Since the narrow

sense of the market has been selected for study, primary data is essential for market

identification, needs, and capabilities. This is achieved by aid of a questionnaire intended for the

prospective and end-users of the proposed Segaras-Yugno farm-to-market road (FMR) in San

Andres, Quezon.

However, for inferential purposes, data on the rural road network for Quezon Province

to the broad aspect of the market shall be gathered from previous studies on the matter, by

various government agencies. With reference to this study, data on such a network is classified

as secondary in nature.

Primary technical data shall be supplied by technical resource persons in the Department

of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) Engineering District Office and the Municipal

Government of San Andres, Quezon who have proven to be a goldmine in complementing the

researcher’s inadequacies on certain aspects.

On financial aspects, researches on prevailing averages on costs of material and labor

shall be updated by the researcher. Previous DPWH estimates shall also be used in making

clear the general concepts as well as details of the FMR project.

In addition, the researcher shall rely on actual observation, substantial information from

books and other reading materials and online information. The researcher shall also conduct a

survey and personal interviews with persons he believes to be knowledgeable about the topic of

research.

In an attempt to assess the needs, level of awareness and knowledge of residents

pertaining to farm-to-market road construction and other related subjects, a descriptive survey
 27

research shall be used since it was most applicable to the nature of investigation. The researcher

will seek to determine the needs as well as perceived impacts of a road project on the

respondents.

Some 30 purposively selected residents of San Andres, Quezon, and 10 LGU executive

and engineering officials shall be asked to participate in the study. Each will be requested to

accomplish a questionnaire about the technical, socio-economic, institutional and financial

aspects of the proposed Segaras-Yugno farm-to-market road (FMR) in San Andres, Quezon.

As the study covered a relatively small sample size, its findings are confined to trends

and/or patterns on rural roads maintenance procedures and practices that are current in the local

government unit (LGU) studied.

Research Design

The descriptive method of research was used for this study. To define the descriptive type

of research, Creswell (1994) has s stated that the descriptive method of research is to gather

information about the present existing condition. The emphasis is on describing rather than on

judging or interpreting.

Descriptive research is thus a type of research that is mainly concerned with describing

the nature or condition and the degree in detail of the present situation. This method is used to

describe the nature of a situation, and to obtain an accurate profile of the people, events or

situations. With this research type, it is essential that the researcher already has a clear view or

picture of the phenomena being investigated before the data collection procedure is carried out.

The researcher used this kind of research to obtain first hand data from the respondents so as to

formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study.
 28

In this study, the descriptive research method was employed so as to identify the

significance of using prevailing design standards and design criteria for rural roads. The

researcher opted to use this research method considering the objective to obtain first hand data

from the road planners and end-users. The descriptive method is advantageous for the researcher

due to its flexibility; this method can use either qualitative or quantitative data or both, giving the

researcher greater options in selecting the instrument for data-gathering. The aim of the research

is to examines the technical, financial, socioeconomic and institutional elements attending

sustainable rural roads construction in the country, using the proposed construction of the

Segaras-Yugno farm-to-market road (FMR) in San Andres, Quezon as a point of discussion and

analysis. T he descriptive method is then appropriate for this research since this method is used

for gathering prevailing conditions.

The research shall use stakeholders as respondents in order to gather relevant data; the

descriptive method is then appropriate as this can allow the identification of the similarities and

differences of the respondents’ answers. For this research, two types of data were gathered,

namely: the primary and secondary data types. The primary data were derived form the answers

the participants gave during the survey process. The secondary data on the other hand, were

obtained from published documents and literatures that were relevant to rural road design. With

the use of the survey questionnaire and published literatures, this study took on the combined

quantitative and qualitative approach of research. By means of employing this combined

approach, the researcher was able to obtain the advantages of both quantitative and qualitative

approaches and overcome their limitations.

 29

Research Environment

The study shall be conducted in San Andres, Quezon, which was chosen as the

research locale because the researcher is a native of San Andres, thus the knowledge and

accessibility of the respondents. Further, this study will primarily benefit the community in San

Andres , Quezon Province and the country as a whole, by contributing to the development of a

of design criteria for farm-to-market roads.

San Andres is a 4th class municipality in the province of Quezon. According to the 2007

census, it has a population of 29,216 people in 5,549 households.

A checklist-type survey tool has been designed to gather primary data about the proposed

farm-to-market road (see Annex “A”). On the market aspects in particular, the researcher shall

seek to answer the following questions:

1. Who are the prospective end-users of the proposed Segaras-Yugno farm-to-market

road (FMR), based on the following:

a) Present demographic profile

b) Present road access situation

2. What are their perceived impacts of the proposed project?

In terms of the technical aspect, the researcher shall seek to establish answers to the

following questions:

1. What project management scheme is proposed for the project?

2. Does the proposed site possess the accessibility, weight bearing capacity and

the topography suitable for the proposed farm-to-market road project?

3. What are the general guidelines on road development to be followed?

4. What design methods are proposed for the project in general?

 30

5. What development plan is proposed for the project?

6. What is the projected completion time for project?

On the financial aspect, the researcher sought to determine the following:

1. What is the expected total project cost, and its breakdown according to major

components?

2. What are the proposed sources of financing and scheme of fund release?
 31

REFERENCES

AASHTO, (1993) “AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures 1993,” American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Washington, D.C.

Barwell, I., G.A.Edmonds, J.D.G.F. Howe and J.de Veen (2005): Rural transport in developing
countries. London, (Intermediate Technology Publications).

Cambodian Rural Transport Infrastructure Program, A Sub-Sector Overview, Ministry of Rural

Development, December 2001.

Carapetis, S., H.L. Beenhakker and J.D.G.F. Howe (2004): The supply and quality of rural
transport services in developing countries: a comparative review. World Bank Staff
Working Paper No. 654. Washington, DC: World Bank

Dhakal, Nirajan (2009) Impact of Road Accessibility on Agricultural Production: Evidence from
Mati, Davao Oriental, Philippines. U.P. School of Urban and Regional Planning.

Howe, J. (1995): Enhancing non-motorised transport use in Africa - changing the policy climate.
Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, 22nd-26th January, Washington, D.C.

Howe, J. and P. Richards (2004): Rural roads and poverty alleviation. London, (Intermediate
Technology Publications Ltd).

Maintenance of Unpaved Roads, International Road Maintenance Handbook, Vol. I, PIARC

Road Maintenance Handbook, 2004.

Maintenance Study in the Philippines, International Labour Organization 2006.

Pidwerbesky, B. D, Steven, B. D. and Arnold, G., (2007) “Subgrade Strain Criterion for Limiting
Rutting in Asphalt Pavements,” Proceedings of Eighth International Conference on
Asphalt Pavements, Seattle, Washington, pp. 1529-1544.

Qiu, Y., Dennis, N.D. and Elliott, R.P., (2005) “Design Criteria for Permanent Deformation of
Subgrade Soils in Flexible Pavements for Low-volume Roads,” Journal of the Japanese
Geotechnical Society of Soils and Foundations, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp.1-10.

Rural Roads Maintenance Policy Framework Philippines, Final Report, Asian Development
Bank – Department of the Interior and Local Government, 2005.

Secondary and Feeder Road Development Programme Final report, Department of State Roads,
Ministry of Transport and Energy, Government of Zimbabwe. November 2007.
 32

Annex “A”

Checklist for Enhanced Technical/Institutional Identification, Prioritization and Selection

of Farm to Market Roads

BASIC INFORMATION OF THE PROJECT

Name of the Project: ______________________________________________________________

(Specific Road Sections, from___ to___)

Location
Barangay: ______________________ City/Municipality: _________________ District: _________
Province: ______________________________________________ Region: ___________________

Estimated Cost of the Project (Php): ____________________________

Scope of Work:

Excavation Embankment Subgrade Preparation

Aggregate Subbase Course Aggregate Base Course PCCP

Others, Specify: ______________________________

______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________

Road Width (in meters): ______________________________

Net Road Length (in km): _________________ Total Road Length (in km): ___________________
(Sum of the Aggregate Road Sections to be covered (The whole stretch of the road starting from point zero of the
by the project) 1st road section up to the end of the last road section that will
be covered by the project)

Related Structures:

Bridge Vented Spillway Overflow Spillway Box Culvert

Drainage Pipe Culvert Side Drainage Ditch Side Slope Protection

Others, Specify: _____________________________

_____________________________
_____________________________

Present Road Surface Condition

Earth Gravel Asphalt PCCP

 33

Present Road Classification

Barangay Road Municipal Road Provincial Road National Secondary Road

National Highway Trail/ Foot path Private Road

Accessibility of the Area

Name of road, which the proposed FMR will be connected: _________________________________

Class of Road: Barangay Municipal Provincial National

Distance to the Nearest Market/Trading Center (in km): ____________

Name of Market: _______________________________ Specific Location: ______________________

Proximity to Nearest Parallel Road (in km): ________________

Counterpart Funding Scheme:

Source Kind Amount

(LGU, etc.) (Labor, Materials, Cash) (PhP)

________________________ _________________________ ___________________

________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________
_________________________ ___________________

Development Type:

Construction of new road / road opening

Rehabilitation (restoration, re-graveling)

Improvement (widening, rerouting of existing road or trail, graveling, concreting, asphalting)

 34

Mode of Implementation

By Administration Equipment Base LBES By Contract

DPWH LGU Others, specify ___________________

Connectivity Rating

Flooding Siltation Erosion Drought

Others specify: _____________________________ ___________________________

_____________________________ ___________________________

Justification:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

Proponent’s Profile

Name: __________________________________ Position: ______________________________

Agency: _________________________________ Address: _____________________________

Contact Number: __________________________

Validated by: _____________________________ Date of Validation: _______________________

Office: __________________________________