ARTICLE IN PRESS

Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 52–63

www.elsevier.com/locate/cageo

3-D symbolization of L–S fabrics as an aid to the analysis of

geological structures
Eric A. de Kempa,, Ernst M. Schetselaarb, Kevin Spraguea
a
Natural Resources Canada, Earth Sciences Sector, 615 Booth St. Ottawa, Ont., Canada K1A 0E9
b
International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, Hengelosestraat 99 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands
Received 22 April 2004; received in revised form 22 April 2005; accepted 23 April 2005

Abstract

The digital capture and management of primary field observations has expanded the potential to represent site-
specific geological information in a more intuitive manner, ultimately optimizing the interpretation of map-related
geological field observations. In structural mapping, for example, the geometry and kinematics of large-scale structures
needs to be reconstructed from local measurements and observations of linear and planar fabric elements. The
traditional methods for fabric representations are inherently restrictive because they do not allow simultaneous
representation of the orientation and nature of the fabric with respect to the structural level of observation.
To overcome these limitations we represent planar (S) fabric elements as the flat portion of a 3-D ellipsoid or
‘surfboard’ symbol according to their strike/dip attributes. The associated linear (L) fabric elements are represented by
the elongation direction of the ‘surfboard’, thus reflecting the pitch of the linear element in the fabric plane. The
resulting composite linear–planar fabric (L–S) representation is positioned in 3-D space according to its location in (x,
y, z) space. By adjusting the principal axis of the ‘surfboard’, variations in the shape of the elements can be used as an
additional symbolization of the strain-state of the fabric, ranging from pure L to L4S, S4L to pure S fabrics. Various
colour mappings of the ‘surfboard’ can be used to indicate the degree of co-planarity between lineations and planar
fabric orientations. This 3-D visualization of L–S fabrics aids in first-order interpretation of regional scale ductile
structures, such as thrusts and low-angle detachment faults.
An application is presented from the Mulhacen metamorphic complex of the Internal Zone of the Betic Cordillera,
SE Spain, demonstrating the 3-D fabric visualization method. This method facilitates recognition of variations in
lineation trends with respect to the structural level within a ductile nappe structure and subsequent overprinting
deformation events. The approach is considered relevant to all other applications where local field-based measurements
and descriptions are fundamental to the reconstruction of macro-scale geologic processes.
Crown Copyright r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: 3-D GIS; Structural geology; L–S fabric; 3-D symbol library

1. Introduction

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 613 9473738; The development of methods and technologies for the
fax: +1 613 9959273. digital capture and management of geological field
E-mail address: edekemp@nrcan.gc.ca (E.A. de Kemp). observations in the last two decades has yielded large

0098-3004/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2005.04.006
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E.A. de Kemp et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 52–63
efficiency gains in the management of corporate
geoscience databases and geological map production
(Broome, 1997; Soller et al., 2002). These developments,
however, have had a relatively minor impact on the
methods geologists use to represent and interpret site-
specific geological data. In a way the methods of
traditional geological cartography, born out of conven-
tions, practicalities and limits of manual drafting, have
been transferred into a digital environment without
paying much attention to the enhanced visualization
capabilities that such environments have to offer. This is
understandable in so far as geological maps have been
the most widely accepted and are very often still the
most suitable and most practical means of communicat-
ing geological facts and hypotheses (Lisle, 1988). Yet, in
our opinion alternative methods for the representation
of outcrop observations remain unnecessarily under-
developed.
Standard analytical and cartographic capabilities of
geographic information systems (GIS) are not well
adapted to compiling and analyzing geological field
observations which are inherently 3-D (Meng, 2002).
The interactive map compilation, generalization and
projection of structural data in the 2-D GIS environ-
ment, for example, often requires development of
additional programs and scripts (Schetselaar, 1995,
2000). Although 3-D GIS is better suited for compiling
and modelling of geological data, it has been applied
mainly for volumetric modelling of petroleum reservoirs,
aquifers and ore bodies on the basis of borehole and
seismic data (Groshong, 1999). Several 3-D representa-
tion methods have been developed for other geological
applications but they provide either cartoon-type depic-
tions (Schwerdtner, 1977) or show the results of forward
kinematic models (Guglielmo, 1993) without being
spatially constrained by field observations. Similar to
2-D GIS environments, earth scientists who attempt
to use 3-D GIS packages for the representation and
interpretation of their discipline specific field observa-
tions will be confronted with limitations and will need
to develop their own routines. For example, develop-
ment of additional routines based on Bézier functions
were required in order to reconstruct fold structures
from structural field observations in a 3-D GIS
environment (de Kemp, 2000a, b; de Kemp and
Sprague, 2003; Sprague and de Kemp, 2005). In
this paper, we further expand on the basic requirements
for representing and interpreting structural geologic
data in a 3-D GIS environment by addressing a method
for the visualization of rock fabrics. We propose
a symbolization method that provides an intuitive
representation of the planar and linear aspects of rock
fabrics (i.e. L–S fabrics) that in combination with
geological maps and relief-shaded topography facilitates
the 3-D geometric and kinematic interpretation of
regional structures.
53
2. L–S fabrics and their representation
The fabric of a rock includes the complete spatial and
geometrical configuration of all those components that
make up a rock (Passchier and Trouw, 1996, Chapter 5).
A distinction is made between S and L fabric elements. S
elements constitute planar minerals, mineral aggregates,
layering or other features with a planar shape that occur
penetratively throughout the rock. Similarly, L elements
may constitute linear minerals, mineral aggregates,
pebbles or other linear objects that occur penetratively
throughout a rock. L elements, however, can also be
apparent when planar elements preferentially intersect a
particular associated S element along the outer surface of
the exposure, such as an intersection lineation on a
foliation plane. In many cases, the fabric is neither purely
composed of S or L elements, but appears to be a mixture
of both, or composed of a single element that has planar
as well as linear shape attributes (i.e. stretched and
flattened pebbles). Such a transitional L–S fabric is
particularly common in zones of high strain where rocks
have been strongly flattened and extended.
S, and particularly L, elements provide essential
information concerning the geometry of regional struc-
tures and an indication of the tectonic movement
direction (Woodward et al., 1986). In addition, S and
L elements can be used as markers for recognizing
structures related to older or younger deformation
events (Ramsay, 1967; Cosgrove, 1980). The use of
orientation symbology for linear (L) and planar (S)
fabric elements as an aid to such geometric and
kinematic interpretations has traditionally been based
on various strike/dip and trend/plunge representations
on 2-D maps (Fig. 1A). This abstract form of
representing L–S fabrics has several limitations:

If it has been observed that an L element is lying
within an associated S element, it can only be
approximately verified if this parallelism is reflected
in the orientation measurements.

Although structural observations and elevation con-
tour lines can be represented together on a 2-D map,
it is difficult to perceive systematic variations in the
orientation of the fabric elements with structural
depth.

It is difficult to perceive the nature of systematic and
non-systematic spatial variations in fabric attitude, as
this requires simultaneous perception of dip direction
and trend with dip and plunge numeric annotation of
numerous field stations.
The visualization method, we propose, overcomes the
above limitations by first representing rock fabrics in
3-D form and second by bringing site observations from
the map projection plane to the elevation level on which
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54 E.A. de Kemp et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 52–63
Fig. 1. L–S fabric representations (A) classic 2-D map
representation of strike-, oblique- and dip-lineated fabrics,
where S dips 451 towards 135; (B) 3-D ‘surfboard’ representa-
tion of fabrics shown in (A) viewed from S, hue gradient is
parallel to dip direction, long axis is parallel to plunge vector;
(C) same as B but view looking horizontally to west, or to left of
image (A). (D) fabric representations ranging from planar S
(lower left), transitional L–S to linear L fabrics (upper right).
the data were recorded. Instead of representation of the L
and S elements as two distinct symbols, we represent it as a
single volumetric object in 3-D space, similar to how fabric
elements are disposed in a rock outcrop (Fig 1B). The
‘surfboard’ shape is chosen because it allows representing
the orientation of planar and linear fabric elements with a
similar shape as lenses and layers of fine grained material
in a range of rock fabrics, including mylonites and L–S
tectonites (Passchier and Trouw, 1996, pp. 103).
The planar (S) fabric element is represented as the flat
portion of a 3-D ellipsoid or ‘surfboard’ symbol
according to their strike/dip attributes. The associated
linear (L) fabric element is represented by the elongation
direction of the ‘surfboard’, thus reflecting the pitch of
the linear element in the fabric plane. The resulting
composite linear–planar fabric (L–S) representation is
positioned in 3-D space according to its location in (x, y,
z) space. By adjusting the principal axes of the
‘surfboard’, variations in the shape of the elements can
be used as an additional symbolization of the strain-
state of the fabric, ranging from pure L to L4S, S4L to
pure S fabrics (Fig. 1D). In addition, various colour
mappings of the ‘surfboard’ can be used to indicate the
degree of co-planarity between lineations and planar
fabric orientations (Fig. 1C).
3. A case study from the Betic Movement Zone (BMZ)
We have tested the fabric visualization method on
L–S fabric elements recorded in the footwall and
hanging wall of a regionally significant subhorizontal
to moderately dipping tectonic contact in the Betic
Cordillera of SE Spain. The L–S fabrics were measured
in a key area of 5  3 km along the southern margin of
the Sierra de los Filabres about 4 km north of Tabernas
where erosional remnants of the Alpujarride complex
tectonically overly units of the Nevado Filabride
complex (Fig. 2). This tectonic contact, known as the
BMZ (Platt and Vissers, 1989) juxtaposes structural
units of two distinct nappe complexes that experienced
distinct PTt paths during burial metamorphism (Goffe
et al., 1989; Tubia and Gil-Ibarguchi, 1991; Azañon et
al., 1998; Vissers, 1981; Bakker et al., 1989; De Jong,
1992).
Refolded L–S fabrics in the footwall of the BMZ,
combined with the steeply incised terrain results in
apparent complex fabric trends. In terrains with such
topographic and structural complexities it is difficult to
perceive trends in fabric elements in 3-D space using the
conventional 2-D map representations of the aggregated
strike-dip and lineation symbols. Moreover, systematic
variations have been reported in the orientation of the
elongation lineation with respect to depth in the footwall
beneath the BMZ in the study area and elsewhere (e.g.
Vissers et al., 1995). For these reasons the study area
provides an interesting case for investigating the added
value of the 3-D-fabric visualization method.
3.1. Regional geologic setting
Although discontinuously exposed at the margins of
the structural culminations forming the present-day
mountain chains of the Betic Cordillera, the BMZ has
been traced for about 230 km from the Western Sierra
Nevada to the Eastern Mediterranean coast (Fig. 2). The
Nevado Filabride complex in the footwall consists of
Paleozoic sequence of graphite schist, metasandstone
and marble overlain by mica-schist and marble with
tectonic inclusions of orthogneiss, amphibolite, eclogite
and serpentinite likely of Permo-Triasic age. High-
pressure, low-temperature metamorphism in locally
preserved glaucophane schists and eclogite in metabasic
rocks (De Roever and Nijhuis, 1964) indicates pressures
in the range of 1.0–1.2 GPa (10–12 kbar) and tempera-
tures between 500 and 550 1C (Bakker et al., 1989). The
Alpujarride complex in the hanging wall comprises
similar protoliths as recognized in the Nevado–Filabride
complex, Permo-Triassic phyllite and quartzite and
Mid- to Late Triassic dolomitized platform carbonates.
Metamorphic grade during the Early Alpine evolution in
structural units of the Alpujarride complex that overly
the Nevado–Filabride complex was however dominantly
lower with regional pressures in the 0.6–0.7 GPa
(6–7 kbar) range and temperatures between 300 and
400 1C (Bakker et al., 1989). Elsewhere, however, at
higher structural levels and in the vicinity of the Ronda
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Fig. 2. Tectonic sketch map of internal zone of Betic Cordillera generalized from Platt and Behrmann (1986). Inset shows tectonic
subdivision of Iberian Peninsula.
peridotites in the Western Betics, much higher pressures
in the 1.0–1.7 Gpa (10–17 kbar) range and temperatures
between 600 and 800 1C have been reported (Goffé et al.,
1989; Tubia and Gil-Ibarguchi, 1991; Azañon et al.,
1998).
The BMZ has classically been interpreted to represent
the thrust contacts between the Nevado–Filabride and
Alpujarride complexes in a compressional setting of
nappe tectonics (Egeler and Simon, 1969). Although
controversy still exists on the role of the BMZ in
accommodating the early tectonic stacking and later
reactivation events, it is now widely accepted that the
BMZ accommodated an important phase of Early
Miocene extension throughout the Betic Cordillera
(Platt et al., 1984; Galindo-Zaldı́var et al., 1989; Jabaloy
et al., 1993; Vissers et al., 1995 among others).
The footwall of the BMZ is marked by a gradient of
upward increasing strain culminating in a ca. 500-m
thick high-strain zone that is included in the upper
tectonic unit of the Nevado–Filabride complex and is
known as the Mulhacen complex (De Jong, 1992). The
fabric dips to the SE and is protomylonitic in the
55
uppermost garnet- and chloritoid-bearing graphite schist
and the overlying feldspathic metasandstone and garnet-
chlorite schist. It becomes mylonitic in tourmaline-
bearing orthogneiss and quartz-rich graphite schist. The
fabric is formed by a strong planar alignment of mica
and transposition lenses of platy quartz often arranged
in rootless isoclinal folds, the axes of which parallel a
pronounced stretching lineation (Fig. 3) that generally
trends between WNW–ESE to NW–SE directions
(Fig. 4).
Other L fabric elements constitute the preferred
orientation of white mica, pressure shadows of quartz
around garnet, a weakly to moderately preferred
orientation of chloritoid and a strongly developed
mineral aggregate lineation. Aggregates with a strong
preferred orientation of phengite and chlorite replace
chloritoid as a result of syn- to post-kinematic (D2)
retrogression (De Jong, 1992). Fig. 5 shows a schematic
block diagram with the most commonly found fabric
elements. Extensional crenulation fabrics, quartz pres-
sure shadow around garnet in graphite schists and
sigma-type albite porphyroclasts in tourmaline bearing
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Fig. 3. Equal angle lower hemisphere projection of structural
data used for L–S fabric visualization (modified Kamb method
contouring (Vollmer, 1995) in which densities are calculated on
sphere). Poles to foliations (S elements) are contoured and
depicted as closed yellow dots, stretching lineations (L
elements) as closed red dots. N ¼ 57.
Fig. 4. Stretching lineation of quartz rods and white mica in
mylonitized graphite schist of Mulhacen complex.
quartzo-feldspathic mylonite indicate top to the
WNW–NW tectonic transport. This kinematic inference
is consistent with previous regional kinematic studies
(Platt et al., 1984; De Jong, 1992; Jabaloy et al., 1993;
Vissers et al., 1995).
The L–S fabric in the footwall has been folded by S-
to SE vergent folds with wavelengths of several
hundreds of meters. In outcrop, this deformation phase
is recognized as a crenulation with a weakly developed
spaced cleavage dipping steeply ENE–NE. This defor-
mation phase only affected the footwall and has
tentatively been interpreted to result from extensional
unloading of the hanging wall accompanied with back
rotation of the main foliation in a regional sigmoidal
swell between two extensional shear zones (De Jong,
1992).
A strong discontinuity, directly above the zone of
ductile deformation in the footwall, is marked by an
abrupt increase in brittle deformation and decrease in
metamorphic grade (Vissers et al., 1995). The rocks
above the contact were predominantly deformed under
brittle conditions comprising 20–100 m thick, subhor-
izontal dipping zones of carbonate breccias and thin
irregular zones of calcmylonite. Blocks of mylonitized
tourmaline gneiss involved at the base of the brittle
shear zones, suggest that ductilely deformed segments of
the BMZ were reworked under brittle deformation
conditions during progressive exhumation.
Low-angle shear zones are also encountered further
south in tectonic windows cutting down into the
Alpujarride complex. A subhorizontal detachment shear
zone is locally exposed in steeply incised valleys. This
detachment juxtaposes subhorizontal dipping low-grade
grey phyllite in its hanging wall against steeply dipping
black garnet bearing graphite schist with folded
quartzite intercalations in its footwall (Fig. 6). The
break in foliation attitude occurs at the base of the 20-m
thick zone with strong development of extensional
crenulation that indicate top to the NW movement.
A phase of dominantly southward thrusting, re-
activating the BMZ, has brought Nevado–Filabride
units up against and locally (in the east, Fig. 7) on top of
the Alpujarride Complex. This phase of thrusting is
related to the final uplift of both metamorphic nappe
complexes and interpreted to postdate the ductile and
brittle faulting along the BMZ and low-angle brittle–
ductile detachment faults (De Jong, 1992).
4. Methodology for 3-D fabric representation of the
BMZ
The structural data for construction of the 3-D L–S
‘surfboards’ were collected at various structural levels
within the footwall and hanging wall of the BMZ. Field
stations were referenced in UTM coordinates, zone 30 N
Hayford Ellipsoid and European 1950 datum using
single handheld GPS that had a nominal accuracy
between 10 and 20 m (sigma values).
The structural data were captured in the field with a
palm pilot handheld PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
and single GPS receiver. The coordinate site measure-
ments (Table 1) and structural data (Table 2) were
imported and linked in an AccessTM relational database
on their station identification. The group field in the
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Fig. 5. Characteristic fabric elements seen in footwall of Betic Movement Zone.
Fig. 6. Detachment fault between garnet bearing graphite
schists and grey phyllites in Alpujarride Complex at UTM
549946, 4102248 indicating top to NW tectonic transport. C’S
extensional crenulation, ST: transposition foliation.
structure table facilitated the selective extraction of
those records where L and S elements could be recorded
together on a single site. The data were reformatted such
that the geometric properties of both linear and planar
elements for the same observation site were referenced in
a common record within the table (Table 3).
Elevation coordinates were sampled on UTM co-
ordinates from a digital elevation model with a gridded
resolution of 25 m (Instituto Geográfico y Catastral de
España). Conventional plots of L and S symbol elements
were generated by importing Table 3 into ArcGISTM
(Fig. 7). Observations at distances smaller then 200 m to
each other were interactively removed. This not only
avoided clutter but also removed a false impression of
the precision in elevation obtained from sampling the
digital elevation model. From a total of 90 stations with
L and S measurements, 57 stations were selected for final
3-D representation.
The ‘surfboard’ symbol is defined by a major A,
intermediate B and minor axis C. The orientation and
57
length of these vectors are computed from the structural
measurements as follows:
0 1
cosðlÞ sinðmÞ
B cosðlÞ cosðmÞ C
A ¼ a@ A, (1)
 sinðlÞ
B ¼ cðA  CÞ, (2)
0 1
sinðaÞ sinðbÞ
B C
C ¼ b@ sinðaÞ cosðbÞ A, (3)
cosðaÞ
where l and m are the plunge and trend in degrees,
respectively, a and b are the dip and dip direction,
respectively, in degrees and a, b, c the lengths of the axes.
The factors a, b and c can be chosen in proportion to
the average dimensions of representative L–S fabric
elements, such as minerals or mineral aggregates
observed in outcrop. In our preliminary compilations
we have set the proportion of the axes a:b:c ¼ 10:3:1 as
such triaxial ‘surfboards’ provided optimal perception of
S and L shapes. In forthcoming visualization, attempts
will be made to render the qualitatively described
upward increasing strain gradient (Platt et al., 1984;
Bakker et al., 1989; De Jong, 1992). Alternatively, if
detailed results of strain analysis are available and if it
can be assumed that the A- and B-axes are subparallel to
the X- and Y-axes, the ‘surfboard’ axes can be
represented in proportion to the X-, Y- and Z-axes of
the finite strain ellipsoid.
The position and orientation of each ‘surfboard’
principal axis was calculated through an avenue script in
ArcviewTM (ESRI, 1999) and imported into gOcadr
(T-Surf Corp, 2001). Initially, we rendered ‘surfboard’
objects using the gOcadr ellipsoid generation function
from the principal axis point sets that were generated
from 2-D GIS. These are depicted in Fig. 1. Presently,
the surfboard renderings have been incorporated into
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58 E.A. de Kemp et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 52–63

Fig. 7. 2-D structural map indicating distribution of L–S fabrics, geologic map units and shaded topographic relief.

Table 1 Table 2
Table format for storing site identification and location Table format for storing structural data
coordinates
Site ID Feature Dip dir/trend Dip/Plunge Group
Site ID X Y Unit
E040 S2 124 21 L–S
E040 547528 4102393 Marble E040 Lstr2 90 11 L–S
A095 548229 4102200 Graphite schist A095 S2 170 35 L–S
A095 Lstr2 134 30 L–S
A097 S2 150 45

3-D oriented symbology functionality in Earth Decision

Sciences gOcadr environment as a plug-in called
SPARSEr (Sprague and de Kemp, 2005), see Figs. 8 reference surface. The digital topographic elevation
and 9. These ‘surfboard’s were then compiled into a model was relief shaded with an illumination source
regional fabric representation with the topography as a from the NE and combined with a transparent colour
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Table 3
Table format input to L–S fabric compilation routine
Site ID X Y Z UNIT
E040 547528 4102393 573 Marble
A095 548229 4102200 599 Graphite schist
Fig. 8. 3-D perspective view of L–S fabrics depicted as flattened
ellipsoids, traces of tectonic contacts, geology and relief shaded
digital elevation model. Rock units correspond to those of 2-D
map as summarized in legend of Fig. 7. (a) Perspective view
without cross-section. L–S symbols coloured yellow for foot
wall rocks (Nevado–Filabride complex) and red for hanging
wall (Alpujarride complex) (b) with pre-Neogene interpreted
geologic cross-section. Red outline indicates plane of section
A–A0 . Thicker dark blue lines on map indicate trace of
brittle–ductile extensional fault corresponding to blue lines
with blue sphere ornamentation on cross-section. Betic Move-
ment Zone (BMZ) extensional and reactivated thrust traces in
red and ornamented with red cubes on cross-section. See Fig. 10
for subsurface interpretation.
rendition of the geological units and the traces of major
low-angle detachment and strike-slip fault surfaces. The
‘surfboard’s’ themselves were illuminated from the SW
to enhance 3-D perception. Many variations to the
example shown in Fig. 8 may be imagined including the
visualization of additional lithological and structural
attributes.
59
Dip dir Dip Trend Plunge
124 21 90 11
170 35 134 30
Fig. 9. Perspective view of terrain-draped traces of BMZ and
L–S fabric orientations. Hanging wall Alpujarride complex
structural fabric observations depicted as red surfboards,
footwall Nevado–Filabride complex L–S observations symbo-
lized with yellow surfboards. Red curves indicate map trace of
BMZ and blue curves indicate map trace of brittle–ductile
extensional fault.
5. Interpretation
The intuitive perception and realism of 3-D visualiza-
tions of L–S fabrics such as shown in Fig. 8 enhances
kinematic interpretations of regional geological struc-
tures. Even though Fig. 8 only shows the first preliminary
trials of our visualization method, it stimulates attempts
to link the geometric interpretation of the BMZ with
models of its tectonic evolution. Some observations from
our work that may be relevant to such models are:
1. The fabric elements in the footwall are relatively
constant in their trend and dip direction in compar-
ison to the attitudes in the hanging wall (Figs. 9–11).
The hanging wall structures plunge more shallowly
and variably towards E–ESE and W–WNW direc-
tions and more or less appear to follow the radial
pattern of the low-angle fault traces. This suggests a
complex kinematic evolution of the BMZ with
partitioned kinematics in the footwall and hanging
wall. Fig. 9 shows a perspective from the SW in order
to emphasize the contrasting spatial variations
between L–S fabrics in the hanging wall and footwall.
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60 E.A. de Kemp et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 52–63

2. There is an evident SE-directed steepening of the L–S
fabrics in the footwall. This trend appears to be
associated with upright SE vergent macroscopic folds
near the contact between the Alpujarride and
Nevado–Filabride complexes. This folding does not
appear to affect the fabrics in the hanging wall, an
observation that is consistent with previous
studies (Bakker et al., 1989; De Jong 1992). An
extension of the fabric visualization along strike of
the BMZ would allow verification of the regional
significance and geometrical variations of this stee-
pening trend.
3. The steep attitude of dip-lineated elements recorded
in small exposures of graphite schist in valley
bottoms appears to deviate from the shallowly
dipping oblique- to strike-lineated fabrics in phyllite
and marble. This may suggest that the locally
exposed brittle–ductile detachment zone with phyllite
in the hanging wall and graphite schist in the footwall
shown in Fig. 6 is a significant structure that soles
into the BMZ and that perhaps represents an
extensional tectonic window into the Nevado–Filab-
ride complex.

6. Discussion

Although the effectiveness of a particular visualiza-

tion method in facilitating interpretation is obviously a
matter of personal preference and experience, we believe
that this fabric visualization, due to its simplicity and 3-
D realism, has significant advantages over the conven-
tional ways of representing L–S fabrics:

1. Systematic regional variations in the attitude of the

Fig. 10. Schematic and interpretative pre-Neogene geologic
cross-section A–A0 . Black form lines indicate S1/S0 fabric
trajectory. Thicker dark blue lines with blue sphere ornamenta-
tion indicate brittle–ductile extensional fault. Betic Movement
Zone (BMZ) extensional and reactivated thrust depicted in red
line ornamented with red cubes. Map units correspond to those
of 2-D map as summarized in legend of Fig. 7. Unornamented
red line indicates present-day topography.
fabric elements are immediately obvious. For exam-
ple, a steepening trend in the footwall towards the SE
along NE–SW trending axes is evident as shown in
Fig. 8. This trend, as described above, is due to a
phase of refolding, confirmed by field observations of
mesoscopic and macroscopic upright SE vergent
folds. The recognition of this steepening trend on

Fig. 11. Equal Angle (Wulf net) lower hemisphere structural plots of L–S fabrics, yellow dots indicate poles to foliation and red dots
stretching lineations (modified Kamb method contouring (Vollmer, 1995) in which densities are calculated on sphere) within (a)
footwall rocks of Nevado–Filabride complex (N ¼ 43), and (b) hanging wall rocks of Alpujaridde complex (N ¼ 14).
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the 2-D representation in Fig. 7 would require the
scanning of several plunge readings in the general dip
direction while simultaneously trying to mentally
reconstruct the geometric variation in plunge angle.
Perhaps a simple task for the experienced structural
geologist. However, for other non-experts this
activity is far from intuitive when using only 2-D
annotated maps.
2. Considering a fixed representation scale, trends in the
attitude of the fabric remain visible in areas of dense
observation, whereas in the 2-D map representation
the aggregated symbols of arrows and strike-dip
readings tend to result in unreadable clutter. This
argument becomes even more relevant if the fabric
elements of earlier or later deformation phases are
included in the visualization.
3. The fabric elements are represented with respect to
the structural level of observations. This enhances the
recognition of systematic variations in attitude with
structural depth, and facilitates the reconstruction of
fabric trajectories in 3-D space. This becomes critical
in high-relief regions or when dealing with structural
data from several mine levels.
4. The model can be rotated to optimize the perspective
of the interpreter. This advantage becomes obvious if
we imagine the extreme case where fabric elements
are recorded through a subhorizontal shear zone in
mountainous terrain above each other on approxi-
mately the same (x, y) location.
5. Additional shape attributes of the fabric, for
example, those obtained from strain analysis, can
be easily incorporated in the visualization method by
linking the proportionality of the axes to strain
estimates or the colouring of the symbol surface to
other structural parameters.
The 3-D L–S fabric visualization method, however,
also has some disadvantages:
1. The 2-D representation provides a verifiable quanti-
fied representation of the dip direction, dip, trend
and plunge angles for each site, whereas in the 3-D
visualization method the attitude of individual
elements can only be perceived in a relative sense
with respect to other fabric elements and topography.
2. The fabric representation method is computationally
expensive and at this stage time consuming. No
doubt this will not be the case as computational
power increases and more advanced representations
become available for orientation data in 3-D
environments.
It is clear in any regional compilation and interpreta-
tion effort that 2-D and 3-D methods should be used
together in combination with structural projection plots
61
(stereonets). The 3-D visualization method appears to be
best suited for easy recognition of trends and insight into
the regional 3-D geometry of geologic structure, whereas
the 2-D map representation provides a more quantita-
tive and verifiable representation of individual fabric
elements. On the horizon the need for a much more
integrated suite of spatial, statistical and 3-D visualiza-
tion tools to be available for regional 3-D compilations
can be foreseen. This would be a basic requirement for
any interpretative task that involves the analysis of
structural orientation data. Ideally, an interpreter
should be able to move seamlessly back and forth from
3-D symbolization, to GIS type querying of point
observations to a statistical characterization of structur-
al data with a variety of structural plots.
7. Other composite fabrics
There are of course a variety of other composite
fabrics that include both planner and linear elements. In
the single L–S case presented herein we focus on a
stretching lineation that has its locus in, or near the
plane of a foliation, and which tends to form synchro-
nously during a protracted strain event. One can
imagine depicting other composite fabrics such as
bedding–cleavage intersection lineations with their
associated planar elements as a ‘V’- or ‘X’-shaped
geometry with variable intersection angles. 3-D render-
ing of fabric relationships, i.e. crenulation, fabrics could
aid in the unravelling of distinct deformation phases in
polydeformed terrain where complex geology is not
readily interpretable from a 2-D map representation.
Similarly, for fracture patterns where intersecting
fracture sets form complex patterns that may have
interpretive interest for rock mechanics. There is also a
host of micro- and macro-fabric elements that are
indicative of kinematic polarity such as delta-shaped
porphyroblasts, asymmetric boudinage and slicken
fibres. These more complex composite elements would
have a rotational direction in addition to linear and
planar elements, so at a minimum there would need to
be at least 5 scalar properties (strike, dip, trend, plunge,
movement sense) and a standard for depicting and
measuring movement sense. At a more regional scale it
would be useful to jointly represent fold hinges with
their axial surfaces, perhaps with a tube-like curvilinear
ornament joined to a ribbon surface that follows the
local trajectory of the axial plane.
Analogous to database implementations for the
representation of interpretative geological surfaces and
units (Apel, 2004), a data model for field-based point
observations is required. This ideally should include
those observations that describe the relationships
between geological surfaces and bodies that underpin
the spatio-temporal reasoning mechanisms employed in
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
62 E.A. de Kemp et al. / Computers & Geosciences 32 (2006) 52–63
the reconstruction of 4-D spatial–historic geological
models.
Given the host of 2-D symbol sets available for
structural fabrics, a full structural symbol representation
in 3-D will be a significant task. It is probably prudent to
first define which application areas will benefit from a 3-
D symbolic rendering and then develop a symbol library
to support a range of specific applications.
8. Conclusion
Proper visualization of primary data is a core
requirement for interpreting geological models. It is in
fact the starting point when undertaking the tedious and
complex task of interpreting geologic cross-sections in
polydeformed terrain. Inclusion of 3-D oriented sym-
bology, with embedded descriptive attributes in 3-D
systems, will be essential for interpreting complex
structural geometries. 3-D GIS, although in its infancy,
will be increasingly useful to earth scientists if more
intuitive representations such as those presented here
become available without recourse to added program-
ming and data conversion steps. The example presented
here highlights the need for a smoother integration
between the emerging GIS functionality for 3-D model-
ling and field data acquisition. As interest in 3-D
subsurface mapping continues to grow it will become
increasingly important for software developers of these
modelling systems to provide more advanced symboliza-
tion that is meaningful to clients and adaptable to the
needs of relevant geoscientific disciplines.
Acknowledgements
Le Thi Chau Ha, John Karumba and Ebenezer
Agyakwabadu are thanked for their contribution to
the collection and efficient management of structural
data during the 2000 and 2001 field courses of ITC’s
Geological Survey Division. Russel Hope is acknowl-
edged for internet support between Mojacar (Spain) and
Ottawa that was needed for the preparation of this
paper. Advice on symbolic representation in gOcadr
from Fabien Bosquet at Earth Decision Sciences is
greatly appreciated. Many thanks to Winston Wong for
implementation of Structural Plots in the SPARSEr
plug-in to gOcadr. Earth Science Sector Contribution
No. 2005022.
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