CEP ASSIGNMENT

SCANNNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

EFFORTS BY:
NIMRA RIZWAN (MM-014)
ANOSHA MIRZA (MM-020)
HAMZA SUHARWARDI (MM-039)
TASHFEEN SALEEM (MM-045)

FINAL YEAR (B.E)

SUBMITTED TO: SIR FAAZ BUTT
INTRODUCTION

SEM is used in materials science, for quality control, failure analysis and research
work.

Nowadays, its investigations into Nano-tubes, nano-fibres, high temperature

superconductors, mesoporous (membrane) architectonics and alloy strength, all
depends heavily on the practice of SEM for
research and development.

In reality, all materials from aerospace to

chemistry to electronics to energy usage, are only
been made possible by virtue of SEM.

PRINCIPLE:

Activated electrons in SEM haul tremendous amounts of lively energy; this energy is
consumed by variety of signals originated by electron-sample interactions.

ELECTRON-SAMPLE INTERACTIONS

When the impact electrons are cut down within solid sample. These signals admit
secondary electrons (formed images), backscattered electrons, diffracted backscattered
electrons (which are wont to analyze the crystal structures and orientations of grain
boundaries), photons (characteristic X-rays that are used for an elemental analysis),
actinic radiation (cathode luminescence), and heat.

SECONDARY ELECTRONS

Secondary electrons are most assets for show morphology and topography on specimen
and backscattered electrons are for estimating contrasts in composition at multiphase
samples (i.e. for rapid phase discrimination). Secondary electrons and backscattered
electrons are mostly used as imaging samples.

INELASTIC COLLISIONS

X-ray generation is formed by inelastic collisions of the primary electrons with

electrons in different shells of atoms within the sample because the excited electrons
return to lower energy states, the turnout X-rays which have fixed wavelength
(basically rest on on the alteration in energy levels of electrons in frequent shells. Thus,
characteristic X-rays are produced for every constituent by the excitation of ray.

AUGER ELECTRON

The energy of Auger electrons is given by the

difference between the first excitation energy
and therefore the separation energy of the outer shell from which electron was ejected.
Typical Auger electron energies are within the range of a number of hundred eV to a
number of keV and are strongly absorbed within the specimen, an alternate to X-ray
emission as an ionized atom returns to state

CONSTRUCTION OF SEM

The requirements of SEM includes electron optical system to yield an electron probe, a
stage for placing a specimen, a detector for detecting secondary electrons named as
Scintillator, a unit for image display, and to accomplish several processes on operating
system. The electron optical system comprise of an electron gun, magnetic condenser
lens, scanning coil, an objective lens, and other constituents. The electron optical
system and specimen surrounding space are kept
vacuum to avoid any contamination.

These components are used to carry out various

functions of microscope and micro chemical analysis.
The SEM instrumentation may include secondary and
that scatter electron detector, energy dispersive x-ray
spectrometer, low vacuum detector, electron detector.
In accumulation to this constituents secondary
equipment searches vacuum pump water chiller and
electronics form any necessary part of the total system
without which the SEM cannot function.

ELECTRON OPTICAL SYSTEM

The construction of our SEM was based totally on this analysis, which suggested
guidelines for the scale of every component and locations for those components inside
the SEM. Precise measurements of the ray characteristics, like spot size and density,
can't be easily obtained in an exceedingly real SEM because of the restrictions of the
sensors installed inside it. Through this analysis, we demonstrated that the scale of the
SEM components and their placement strongly affected the SEM resolution. Thus, a
SEM design is often optimized using this numerical analysis. The finite element
analysis indirectly demonstrated that the magnetic flux and ray deflection were
dependent solely on this on the coil. Expensive equipment or special sensors to live the
physical quantities aren't required when using simulated results
ELECTRON COLOMN

Electron column of a SEM is the long cylindrical body located above the
specimen chamber and electron column holds an electron gun to a more
electron lenses scan coils and condenser and objective apertures within
its body as illustrated by the diagram and electron column is kept under
vacuum at all times.

ELECTRON GUN

It is a thermionic emission gun. These thermo-electrons

combines to form electron beam, flowing to the metal plate
which is an anode, by providing a voltage of 1-30kV to
anode. A small hole is made to anode plate to allow the
beam to pass throw it. When you place an electrode also
called wehnelt electrode between cathode and anode and
provide negative voltage to it, at this point the beam get
focused by wehnelt electrode. Crossover is formed which is the finest line of beam
having a diameter of 15-20um.

Thermo-electrons are emitted from a filament which is a cathode comprises of thin

tungsten wire and raising it to high temperature. This invention relates to the electronic
device and electron emitters for cathode ray tubes. It provides electron beam. The upper
section of the column is occupied by assembly of cathode and associated electrodes
termed as electron gun, which is connected from the outside to high voltage 30 to 40
kilo volt power cable. Schematic diagram of the inner section of an electron column
shows the location of the electron gain at the top most section of the electron column.
The electron gun service is the source of electron that can be varied in magnitude and
acceleration. The primary function of the electron gun is to generate electrons which
are then accelerated through the column by virtue of a potential difference that exist
within the gun assembly. electron travel by force by which the column depends on the
accelerating voltage used which is typically varied from 2 to 30 kV depending on the
 type of sample examined nature of analysis and the required information an electron
operates in a vacuum to avoid smattering of emitted electron four important type of
electron guns are tungsten filament, LaB6 emitter, schottky field emission and Gold
Field emission gun. It provides an arrangement in electron emitter which provide
simple assembly while closely holding tolerance between emitting surface which is
actual and aperture area. An important factor added the in the construction of electro
gun whereby outflow across lining supporting cathode sheaths from grid cylinder.
Another important object in the construction consists of mounting of cathode cylinder
in disc made of ceramic support assisting the heat loss to be minimum.

MAGNETIC LENS

A coil wound electric wire when an instantaneous current

passes through it a rotationally symmetric flux is
generated on beam of electron. By increasing a density of
those magnetic lines a robust magnetic lens is created.
Thus to surpass the flux from a narrow gap the coil
surroundings are sealed by yokes. A pole-piece, narrow
gapped portion is meant accurately to avoid extra outflow
the most property of magnetic lens is; if current passing
through the coil is change the strength of the lens will
change itself too. The flux is given by a coil positioned at
the highest of the ferromagnetic circuit. The strength of
the lens may be altered by varying the flux B this can be
done by modifying the geometry of the pole piece, namely
the space between the pole pieces, and therefore the
current flowing into the coils (excitation).

CONDENSER AND OBJECTIVE LENS

These magnetic lenses played a vital role in deflecting the electron

beams so on focus them at a particular point.so on predict the
beam trajectory, the electromagnetic field originating from the
magnetic lenses was calculated employing a finite element
analysis. A lens is placed below electrode that allows to manage
the diameter of non-particulate radiation. Our electron optical
system consisted three magnetic lenses: two condenser lenses and
an objective lens. The condenser lens sand objective lens focuses
the non-particulate radiation from electrode and produce a little
electron probe. With a smaller ratio of b/a the probe (beam of electron) becomes
narrower, or if it's weakened the probe is broader.
APERTURE

It is made of thin metallic plate, allows the beam of electron to reach

objective lens. If it increases the excitation of condenser lens the
amount of electrons reaching the objective lens will be decreased by the
broadening of aperture and vice versa. In-short we can change the
electron beam diameter and current of probe by adjusting the excitation
on condenser lens.

SPECIMEN STAGE

Stages equipped with electronic equipment for manipulating samples

during observation, measuring systems that allow precise measurements
to be remodeled very small distances, stages allow measurements over
many specimen angles, and other specific phases that perform a
countless of distinctive functions. The specimen stage is formed so
simple and it can perform movements like horizontal movement, vertical
movement, tilting and rotating.

The eucentric specimen stages are mostly employed by SEM. this

kind of stage are used therefore the shifting of observation area
doesn’t required while the main focus of specimen and tilting of
specimen doesn’t alter after shifting the view of field while is
specimen is tilted. Further physical driven phases, motor driven
stages, computer controlled stage are being employed. In computer
driven stage, the stage works by a click of mouse, and eucentric
capabilities may be used.

SECONDARY ELECTRON DETECTOR

This detector is also called “through the lens” or TTL detector.

The secondary electron emitted from specimen is detected in
secondary electron detector. A scintillator is a luminous
substance that is glazed on the detector tip and a voltage of 10kV
is supplied to it. To this high voltage the secondary electrons
from sample are attracted and smash the scintillator and
producing light. Then this light travels to photomultiplier tube
(PMT), from the alteration of this light into the electrons
which are amplified as an electric signal. A collector or
supplementary electrode is positioned before scintillator a
few hundred voltage is applied to collector in order to help
scintillator acquire electrons, the number of electrons can
be controlled by changing voltage. SE detector is placed above objective lens and with
the help of lens magnetic field the secondary electrons are detected

PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE (PMT)

A photomultiplier transforms light signals to an electrical signal, then intensifies the

signal to a valuable side by production of secondary electrons. It is made
up of

- A photocathode which alters light flux into electron flux;

- An electron-optical input method which emphases and speed up
the electron flux;
- An electron multiplier comprising of a chains of
secondary-emission electrodes;
- An anode which assembles the electron flux from the multiplier
and delivers the output signal.

IMAGE DISPLAY UNIT AND RECORDING

The secondary electron detector emits output signals that are intensified and further
transmitted to display unit, where the scanning is coordinated
with the help of electron probe scan. The scan velocity of
electron probe can be altered. For observation extreme fast
scan velocity is used and for saving image slow scan velocity
is used. A cathode ray tube is used for the display purpose as
display unit which forms a SEM image but, due to high
resolution and advantages now SEM image is recorded in an
electronic file for electronic file the image format with 1M
pixels is used.

VACUUM SYSTEM

The great vacuum of 10-3 to 10-4 Pa is kept inside electron optical

system and the sample chamber. A diffusion drive is generally used for
the evacuation. A turbo molecular drive is used for an oil-free
environment. As the SEM incorporates the field emission gun (which
requires ultra high vacuum), a sputter ion drive is used.

DEFLECTOR COILS
Rolls of wire that faces one another to form a magnetic flux that pushes the
beam from side to side.
WORKING:
Since the SEM image appears as if you observe an object with
the naked eye, you may intuitively understand the features of
the object. However, the SEM image often produces a contrast
that is difficult to explain. Working of SEM is as follows:

INTERACTION OF ELECTRONS

When electrons move in the specimen, the electrons are

dispersed within the sample and slowly drop their energy, so they are absorbed in the
sample. The scattering range of the electrons inside the
sample is different depending on the electron energy, the
atomic number (Z) of the elements making up the sample
and the density of the constituent atoms. With the
increase in energy, scattering range also rises. On the
contrary, if the atomic number (Z) and density increase,
the scattering range decreases. The “Monte Carlo”
simulation allows us to understand these spectacles. The
energy of secondary electrons is limited to less or equal
to 50eV; however the energy supply of backscattered 1: Monte Carlo simulation showing the scattering
behavior of electrons within the specimen
electrons is extensive, ranging from energy of the
incident-electron energy to 50 eV, which is very low than the incident-electron energy.
Small peaks that appear in the range of backscattered electrons resemble to Auger
electrons.

SECONDARY ELECTRON GENERATION

When the incident electron beam moves in the specimen, secondary electrons are
produced because of the valence electrons of the constituent
atoms in the sample. Those generated at a deep region are
quickly absorbed by the specimen because the energy of
secondary electron is very less. Only those generated at the top
surface of the specimen are released outside of the sample. This
means that secondary electrons are very sensitive to the surface
compared to when the incident electron beam enters
perpendicularly to the sample, the amount of the secondary
electron emission is greater when the electron beam move in
implicitly. The difference in the brightness of the crystal surface
is due to the difference of the incidence angle of the beam of electron. Thus, the
secondary electron is used to observe the topography of the sample surface. Since the
secondary electron possesses a slight energy, it is influenced by the potential near the
sample. An anomalous contrast ascends when a sample is electrically charged; and the
secondary electron is often used to measure the operating voltage of a circuit in a
semiconductor device.

BACKSCATTERED ELECTRON GENERATION

Backscattered electrons are those reflected backward and ejected out of the sample,
when the incident electrons are dispersed in the sample. They are
sometimes called reflected e-. Information from a relatively deep
region is limited in the backscattered electrons because
backscattered electrons hold greater energy than secondary
electrons,. The backscattered electrons are profound to the
composition of the sample. The atomic number (Z) of the
constituent atoms in the sample is greater; the backscattered
electron yield is greater. An area that consists of a heavy atom
seems bright in the backscattered electron image. Thus, this image is suitable for seeing
a difference in composition. The intensity of the backscattered electrons becomes
greater in the direction of specular reflection if the sample surface has irregularity.

X-RAYS GENERATION

To balance the difference of energy when an electron from outer shell trades with the
one from inner shell, X - Rays are produced. When tungsten wire is heated by current,
the electron gun produces a beam of electron. The electron beam is accelerated by the
anode. The beam travels through electromagnetic fields and lenses, which contributes
in focusing the beam down on the sample. A mechanism of deflection coils leads the
beam which then scans the surface of
the sample in a rectangular frame
(raster pattern). When the beam
touches the surface of the specimen, it
produces: - Secondary electrons (SE),
- Back scattered electrons (BSE), -
X-Rays. The emitted Secondary
Electrons are put into place by
detector and convert this in signals
that are sent to a screen which
produces final image. Additional
detectors collect these X-rays,
Back-scattered Secondary Electrons and produce these images.
INFLUENCE OF ACCELERATING VOLTAGE

The penetration depth of the incident electrons deviates with

the accelerating voltage. The accelerating voltage increases
with the penetration depth. If the accelerating voltage is
greater, information from the inside of the sample provides rise
to the background, mortifying the contrast on the sample
surface. If a structural object happens to be inside the sample, a
higher accelerating voltage causes a blurred image of this thing
that overlaps on the surface image. With the increase in edge
effect the accelerating voltage increases. Accordingly, in order
to clearly detect surface structures, it is recommended to use a lower accelerating
voltage.

RESOLUTION

In SEM, the spatial resolution depends on the dimensions of the electron spot, which
depends on both the electron wave-length and the electron-optical system which yields
the scanning beam. The resolution is limited by the extent to which the material
interacts with the electron beam or the size of the interaction volume. When the
distance separating the two tiny objects is small the resolution is finest. Resolution is
determined by the wavelength of light, and the light-gathering intensity of the objective
and condenser lenses. The spot size and the volume interaction are both great related to
the spaces between atoms, so the resolution of the SEM is low enough to image single
atoms.

MAGNIFICATION

The data are collected over a particular area of the surface and a 2D image is produced
that shows spatial variations in these characteristics. In width mode using conventional
SEM techniques (magnification range from 20X to around 30,000X, spatial resolution
of 50 to 100nm) areas ranging from nearly 1cm to 5 microns can be observed by
scanning. The SEM also performs analyses of selected point locations on the specimen;
this approach is suitable in qualitatively or semi-quantitatively analyzing chemical
compositions, crystal structures, and crystal orientation.
DEPTH OF FIELD

The height over which a sample can be clearly focused is called the Depth of Field.
The SEM has a large depth of field which yields the images that appear 3-dimensional
in nature.

Depth of field is improved by:

 Longer working distance

 Smaller objective apertures

 Lower magnifications

CONCLUSION

For a long time, scientists were longing for such an instrument which could change the
perspective of how one look at an object. Oatley, in 1948 changed that for scientists
who are curious and want to study everything. SEM provides us 3d images and brilliant
resolution and magnification and it has made the life of an engineer easy for good. SEM
is not difficult to construct but involves a lot of resources but the outcomes can be
astonishing and we cannot deny.