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La concezione urbanistica della città (Movimento
moderno)
(XV lezione, 22 aprile 2002)

La carta d’Atene
Ci riferiamo alla seconda edizione del testo (1957) pubblicato a cura di Le Corbusier,
così come riportato nell’appendice documentaria al volume a cura di Paola di Biagi, La
carta d’Atene. Manifesto e frammento dell’urbanistica moderna, Officina Edizioni,
Roma 1998, che raccoglie gli atti del convegno omonimo tenutosi a Venezia il 20 e 21
marzo del 1997.
Questo manifesto dell’urbanistica moderna nella versione rielaborata da Le Corbusier,
ma prodotto originariamente dal IV CIAM (Congressi di Architettura Moderna) su una
nave in viaggio da Marsilia ad Atene nell’agosto 1933, è articolato in 95 punti suddivisi
in tre parti. La seconda, ossia quella centrale, si compone di quattro capitoli
rispettivamente sull’abitazione, sul tempo libero, sul lavoro e sulla circolazione.
Ognuno di questi tre temi, ritenuti fondamentali per la costruzione della città moderna,
vengono espresse osservazioni critiche sullo stato attuale, seguite dalle esigenze per lo
stato futuro.
Vediamo in dettaglio l’intera struttura e il discorso complessivo della Carta.
Nella prima parte, La città e la sua regione, possiamo cogliere i fondamenti della
concezione urbana espressi dalla Carta. Essi sono molto diversi da quelli che abbiamo
visto finora. Qui non si guarda alla città del passato e all’opera dei predecessori con
l’intento di scoprire qualche regola o fondamento per la progettazione del futuro urbano.
La Carta basa le sue tesi, da una lato sui valori dell’uomo che ritiene costanti e che
considera di «ordine psicologico e fisiologico» e dall’altro dai «valori economici,
sociali e politici». Il contenuto di questi ultimi varia nel tempo, ma pur nella variazione
del loro contenuto questi valori formano sempre il contesto collettivo dell’individuo
umano. Ogni persona umana subisce sempre l’influenza dell’ambiente costituito oltre
che dal contesto sociale, variabile nel tempo, da quello geografico e topografico, diverso
da luogo a luogo.
Lo scopo, sembra di poter dire, della pianificazione urbanistica è quello di armonizzare
il necessario rapporto tra l’individuo, nei sui costanti valori psicologici e fisiologici, con
la dimensione collettiva, variabile soprattutto nelle sue manifestazioni politiche e
amministrative, e le diverse esigenze dell’ambiente naturale.

Nel punto due la Carta afferma:

«La vita si sviluppa nella misura in cui si accordano i due principi contraddittori che
reggono la personalità umana: l’individuale e il collettivo».
Qui vale al pena di seguire per intero lo sviluppo discorsivo di questo assunto, ossia
l’argomentazione che lo sostiene, perché è una giustificazione dell’esistenza della città,
in quanto vita sociale, espressa nella forma di un mito d’origine. Ciascuno di voi potrà
cogliere differenze e analogie con altri racconti simili del pensiero e della tradizione
dell’Occidente – Pensate a esempio al mito di Prometeo nella versione platonica di
Protagora citata nella lezione precedente.
pp. 445-446 «Isolato, l’uomo si sente disarmato; perciò si aggrega spontaneamente ad
un gruppo. Abbandonato alle sue uniche forze egli costruirebbe solo la propria capanna
e condurrebbe, nell’insicurezza, una vita soggetta a pericoli e a fatiche resi più gravi da
tutte le angosce della solitudine. Incorporato nel gruppo, sente pesare su di sé la
costrizione di inevitabili discipline, ma in cambio è al sicuro, entro certi limiti, dalla
violenza, dalla malattia, dalla fame; può procurarsi di migliorare la propria abitazione e
appagare anche il profondo bisogno di vita sociale. Divenuto elemento costitutivo di
una società che lo protegge, egli collabora direttamente o indirettamente alle mille
attività che assicurano la sua vita fisica e sviluppano la sua vita spirituale. Le sue
iniziative divengono più fruttuose, e la sua libertà, meglio difesa, finisce dove
minaccerebbe quella degli altri. Se le attività del gruppo sono sagge, la vita
dell’individuo risulta ampliata e nobilitata. Se prevalgono la pigrizia, la stoltezza e
l’egoismo, il gruppo, privo di forza e abbandonato al disordine, arreca ad ogni suo
membro soltanto rivalità, odio e disillusione. Una piano è saggio quando consente una
collaborazione fruttuosa e nello stesso tempo tiene conto al massimo della libertà
individuale. Potenziamento della persona nell’ambito del civismo».

Il terzo punto si riferisce al contesto naturale.

p. 446-447 «La geografia e la topografia hanno molta parte nel destino degli uomini.
Non bisogna mai dimenticare che il sole comanda, imponendo la propria legge ad ogni
attività che ha per fine la tutela dell’essere umano. Pianure, colline e montagne
intervengono anch’esse a modellare una sensibilità e a determinare una mentalità […].
Sono state le creste dei monti a delimitare le zone di raccolta dove, a poco a poco,
riuniti da consuetudini e usanze comuni, gli uomini sono diventati una popolazione
[…]. Secondo l’incidenza del sole sulla curva dei meridiani, le stagioni si scontrano
bruscamente o si succedono con dolce passaggio e, benché nella sua estrema sfericità, di
particella in particella, la terra non conosca fratture, sorgono innumerevoli
combinazioni, ognuna con caratteri particolari. Inoltre le razze, con le loro varie
religioni o filosofie, moltiplicano la diversità delle iniziative e ciascuna di esse propone
una maniera di vedere e una ragione di vivere personali».

Il quarto punto si riferisce alla situazione economica.

«La situazione economica, ricchezza o povertà, costituisce uno dei grandi moventi delle
vita […]. Essa ha la funzione di un motore […]. La città circondata da un regione ricca
di colture vi trova garantiti i suoi rifornimenti. Quella che dispone di un prezioso
sottosuolo si arricchisce di materie prime […]. La tensione del movente economico, se
dipende in parte da circostanze immutabili, può però venir modificata in qualsiasi
momento dalla comparsa di forze impreviste […]. Né le ricchezze nascoste che bisogna
voler sfruttare, né l’energia individuale, hanno carattere assoluto. Tutto è movimento e
il valore economico, in conclusione, altro non è che un valore momentaneo».

Il quinto punto si riferisce alla politica.

Considerata «Fenomeno variabile più di ogni altro, segno della vitalità del paese […].
Se la politica è per sua natura variabile, il suo frutto, il sistema amministrativo, possiede

2
una stabilità naturale che gli consente, nel tempo, di durare più a lungo e non permette
modifiche troppo frequenti […]. È un sistema che, entro limiti molto rigorosi,
amministra in modo uniforme il territorio e la società, impone loro statuti e, agendo
regolarmente su tutte le leve del comando, determina in tutto il paese uniformi modalità
di azione». Tuttavia, prosegue la Carta, «questa struttura […] può esser scossa in
qualsiasi momento […]. Talvolta basta una scoperta scientifica per provocare una
rottura d’equilibrio e creare contrasti tra il sistema amministrativo di ieri e la ineluttabile
realtà di oggi […]. Non c’è struttura amministrativa che possa aver pretese di
immutabilità».

Il sesto punto passa a rilevare le cause del carattere e della storia

delle città che «sta scritta nei suoi tracciati e nelle sue architetture».
p. 448 «I moventi che fecero nascere le città furono di natura diversa. Talvolta fu il
valore difensivo […]. Talvolta l’incrocio di due strade». Altre volte la colonizzazione di
un luogo. In relazione alle diverse cause della sua nascita, la città assume – secondo la
Carta – determinate configurazioni. Ma «In qualche luogo, la scelta dei provvedimenti
era dettata da norme profondamente umane; altrove costrizioni arbitrarie facevano
nascere palesi ingiustizie. Sopravvenne l’era del macchinismo [ossia la nostra] e ad una
misura millenaria che si sarebbe potuto credere immutabile, la velocità del passo
umano, si aggiunse una misura in piena evoluzione: la velocità dei veicoli motorizzati».

Nel settimo punto (pp. 448-449) la Carta afferma così che:

«Le ragioni che presiedono allo sviluppo delle città dipendono dunque da continui
mutamenti […]. Col tempo, alcuni valori entrano indubbiamente a far parte del
patrimonio di un gruppo, sia esso città, paese o umanità; eppure il decadimento colpisce
un giorno l’insieme di costruzioni e strade. La morte coglie le opere come gli esseri. Chi
farà la scelta fra ciò che deve sussistere e ciò che deve sparire? Il sentimento della città
si è formato attraverso anni. Semplici edifici hanno acquistato un valore eterno nelle
misura in cui esprimevano l’anima collettiva, essi sono le fondamenta di una tradizione
che, senza voler limitare l’ampiezza dei futuri progressi, condiziona la formazione
dell’individuo come il clima, la regione, la razza, gli usi. La città, essendo una “piccola
patria”, ha in sé un valore morale importante e che le è indissolubilmente connesso».

Ma, ed ecco l’ottavo e ultimo punto della prima parte,

«L’avvento dell’era della macchina ha provocato gravi perturbamenti nel
comportamento degli uomini, nelle loro distribuzione sulla terra, nelle loro iniziative.
La sfrenata tendenza al concentramento delle città è favorita dalle velocità meccaniche,
evoluzione violenta e generale che non ha precedenti. Il caos è entrato nelle città».

Il patrimonio e la sua tutela visti dalla Carte

La terza parte della Carta è quella delle conclusioni, ma è preceduta da una capitolo
dedicato proprio al patrimonio storico delle città. Il Movimento moderno non può certo
eludere, né intende eludere il problema del rapporto con la città ereditata.

3
Al punto 65 (p. 473) la Carta afferma che:
«I valori architettonici devono esser salvaguardati sia che si tratti di edifici isolati o di
interi nuclei urbani.
La vita di una città è un avvenimento continuo che si svolge nei secoli con opere
materiali, tracciati o costruzioni, che le conferiscono una propria personalità e da cui
emana un po’ alla volta la sua anima. Si tratta di preziose testimonianze del passato che
saranno rispettate innanzitutto per il loro valore storico e sentimentale, e poi perché in
alcune si manifesta un valore plastico che esprime nel modo più intenso il genio
dell’uomo. Esse fanno parte del patrimonio umano e coloro che ne sono i proprietari, o
hanno il compito di difenderle, hanno la responsabilità e l’obbligo di far tutto il
possibile per trasmettere intatta ai secoli futuri questa nobile eredità».

Al punto successivo (p. 474) la Carta precisa che:

«Essi dovranno esser tutelati quando siano l’espressione di una cultura precedente o
rispondano ad un interesse generale…
La morte, che non risparmia alcun essere vivente, colpisce anche le opere dell’uomo.
Tra le testimonianze del passato, bisogna saper riconoscere e discriminare quelle che
sono ancora ben vitali. Non tutto quel che è passato ha per ciò stesso diritto all’eternità;
ed è opportuno scegliere quel che deve essere rispettato. Se gli interessi della città sono
compromessi dal permanere di alcune presenze insigni, maestose, di un’era trascorsa,
bisognerà cercare una soluzione che sia in grado di conciliare i due opposti punti di
vista; qualora ci si trovi di fronte a costruzioni ripetute in numerosi esemplari, alcuni
saranno conservati come documentazione e altri saranno demoliti; e in altri casi si potrà
isolare la parte che costituisce un ricordo o ha un reale valore, mentre il resto sarà
utilmente modificato. Infine, in taluni casi eccezionali, si potrà considerare l’opportunità
di un trasferimento totale di elementi che sono d’impaccio per la loro ubicazione, ma
che meritano, per il loro alto significato estetico e storico, di esser conservati».

E nel punto successivo, il sessantottesimo, la Carta afferma:

«Quando possibile si rimedi al danno apportato dalla loro presenza con provvedimenti
radicali: per esempio deviando le linee vitali del traffico, o anche spostando centri
ritenuti sino ad oggi irremovibili.
La crescita eccezionale di una città può creare una situazione pericolosa che porta ad un
vicolo cieco da cui si uscirà solo a costo di qualche sacrificio. L’ostacolo non potrà
esser rimosso che con la (p. 475) demolizione, ma quando ciò comporti la distruzione di
autentici valori architettonici, storici o spirituali, è indubbiamente preferibile cercare
altra soluzioni…».

Quindi al punto successivo si afferma che:

«La distruzione dei tuguri attorno ai monumenti storici fornirà l’occasione per creare
delle arre verdi».
Si noti che è proprio ciò che Giovannoni, e poi quasi tutta la cultura della città, esclude.
Ciò che, invece, il Movimento moderno espresso nella Carta d’Atene proibisce in modo
assoluto è di «Impiegare con pretesti estetici stili del passato nelle nuove costruzioni
innalzate nelle zone storiche [perché] porta a conseguenze nefaste. Non si dovrà

4
tollerare in alcun modo che questa consuetudine si continui o che si ricorra, sotto
qualsiasi forma, a iniziative del genere.
Tali sistemi – continua la Carta – sono in contrasto con il grande movimento della
storia: non s’è mai verificato un ritorno al passato, e mai l’uomo è tornato sui suoi passi.
I capolavori del passato ci mostrano come ogni generazione abbia avuto la sua maniera
di pensare, le sue concezioni, la sua estetica, richiamandosi, come stimolo alla propria
fantasia, all’insieme di risorse tecniche della propria epoca. Copiare servilmente il
passato è votarsi alla menzogna, significa elevare il “falso” a principio, poiché non si
potrebbero ripristinare le antiche condizioni di lavoro, e applicando la tecnica moderna
a un ideale superato non si potrà giungere ad altro che ad una finzione spoglia di ogni
vitalità. Mescolando il “falso” con l’“autentico”, ben lungi dal realizzare una
impressione unitaria e dare la sensazione della purezza di stile, non si giunge che ad una
ricostruzione artificiosa, atta proprio a screditare le stesse testimonianze autentiche che
più interessava difendere».

Commenti
Soffermiamoci su queste posizioni nei confronti del patrimonio, per vostro conto potrete
leggere la parte centrale della Carta dove viene delineata la città moderna, concepita
secondo i valori dell’abitare, del lavoro, del tempo libero e della circolazione.
Neanche il Movimento moderno si sottrae all’esigenza di tutela del patrimonio. Le
ragioni della conservazione sono qui viste nei valori estetici e storici posseduti, o
meglio si deve dire attribuiti a determinate opere architettoniche e urbane. Si tratta, in
altri termini di un valore prevalentemente documentario. E per meritare la tutela, le
opere devono essere particolarmente significative.
La tutela, quindi, deve essere selettiva. E la selezione deve avvenire anche in relazione
alle esigenze della città moderna. Ossia bisogna evitare che la permanenza delle opere
antiche arrechi danno alla funzionalità della città moderna e al suo corretto
funzionamento. Le esigenze della vita contemporanea non possono essere sacrificate.
Non è posta in primo piano o è totalmente assente l’idea che lo studio delle opere
antiche e la vicenda storica delle tecniche di costruzione possano avere un valore
euristico. Lo studio delle opere del passato, la conoscenza della storia dell’edificazione,
non è indirizzata al ritrovamento di regole e principi validi per il progetto urbanistico
d’oggi, per la costruzione della città moderna. Né queste opere e le città ereditate ancora
oggi esistenti possono avere un ruolo quale quello che tende ad assegnarli a esempio
Giovannoni.
Inoltre il Movimento moderno proibisce categoricamente ogni costruzione
contemporanea che in qualche modo usi le tecniche o imiti le configurazioni di quelle
del passato.
La conservazione del patrimonio – che possiamo, a questo punto per nostro conto,
chiamare “modernista” – ha, mi pare, il fine di selezionare alcuni documenti
dell’architettura e dell’urbanistica quali testimonianza del passato. Tutto ciò è certo per
il loro dichiarato valore simbolico, estetico e affettivo, ma soprattutto perché, in quanto
appartenenti al passato, al quale non è in alcun modo possibile tornare, sono opere che
permettono di misurare il progresso verso il quale siamo ineluttabilmente incamminati.

5
Si noti che, il senso della storia, continuamente ribadito in molti passi della Carta, con il
reiterato richiamo al movimento, alle cose che cambiano, che nascono e che sono
destinate a morire, ossia l’aver sempre presente l’ineluttabile divenire, è quello del
progresso che procede in un’unica direzione. Dove, in particolare, è escluso ogni
possibilità di ritorno al passato: «mai l’uomo è tornato sui suoi passi» dice la Carta al
punto 70 come s’è visto.
Ed è anche così che si giustifica la netta opposizione, quasi uno sdegno morale, verso
ogni forma di ricupero di modi di costruire appartenenti a culture e a tecniche ormai
passate. Costruire in quei modi, con gli stili di un tempo, sia pure per ragioni di
ambientamento, è comportarsi da falsari. E si tratta di falsificazioni soprattutto perché
opere attuali che sembrino antiche alterano la percezione e la documentazione del
progresso, del procedere della storia.
Quando la conservazione del patrimonio è intesa come tutela dei valori documentari, e
ciò è molto presente ancora oggi anche nelle attività delle soprintendenze, ogni
intervento contemporaneo, anche di restauro, deve distinguersi dall’originale.
Nelle trasformazioni della città, oltre a compiere una forte selezione di ciò che va
conservato, occorre che il nuovo si distacchi nettamente dal vecchio, perché sempre si
avverta il senso del divenire. Un’opera odierna che imiti quelle di altre epoche è un
anacronismo dannoso alla tutela stessa.
Queste posizioni possono sembrare notevolmente aderenti alla quella che il pensiero
contemporaneo ritiene l’unica evidenza incontrovertibile, ossia il divenire d’ogni cosa.
Ma avrete in qualche modo forse notato che tutti gli autori considerati, anche quelli che
i modernisti possono ritenere passatisti, si preoccupano di mantenere i loro discorsi il
più possibile coerenti al divenire. Negare, infatti, questa che è comunemente ritenuta
un’evidenza non smentibile, che non ha bisogno di essere dimostrata, perché a tutti si
mostra il nascere il perire delle cose, significa cadere in contraddizione o appartenere
ancora, in modo ingenuo e inconsapevole, al pensiero antico che ha creduto
nell’esistenza di qualche immutabile.
Ma se voi terrete presente questa tendenza di fondo del pensiero contemporaneo a
essere coerente al divenire, vi renderete spesso conto che in ogni discorso in cui vi
imbatterete c’è sempre una qualche incoerenza, perché il divenire, ossia propriamente il
pensiero del divenire così come inteso dall’Occidente, è di per sé contraddittorio.
In ogni caso il pensiero contemporaneo è costituito alla base da una continua azione di
distruzione sia degli immutabili della tradizione e sia di quelli che vanno manifestandosi
nei discorsi che cercano la coerenza al divenire.
Vediamo cosa dice proprio sul concetto di passato un grande filosofo contemporaneo,
Emanuele Severino, che ha posto al centro dei suoi studi la discussione del divenire così
come concepito dal pensiero dell’Occidente, oggi dominante nel mondo.
Nello sguardo dell’Occidente, ossia del pensiero che ha fede nel divenire, e che perciò
Severino chiama “nichilista” (vedremo in altra occasione meglio il perché di questo
aggettivo) «il passato – scrive Severino in Destino della necessità, Adelphi, Milano
1990, p. 202 – è ciò che è divenuto immutabile – un immutabile che si rivela anche più
resistente degli altri immutabili dell’Occidente – ma che, proprio per questo, è

6
inevitabile si presenti come ciò che, sul fondamento dell’evidenza del divenire, la
coerenza del nichilismo si propone di distruggere».
Il passato, va precisato, si mostra un immutabile allo sguardo appunto del nichilismo,
perché questi è innanzitutto “volontà di potenza” sulle cose, e le cose possono apparire
dominabili, ossia costruibili e distruttibili, proprio se divengono, se escono dal niente e
vi ritornano. In questo sguardo «il presente appare come ciò che, a differenza del
passato, si lascia dominare, cioè diventa il materiale del progetto di trasformazione del
mondo. Le cose “presenti” sono appunto quelle che si lasciano assumere come oggetto
dell’azione rivolta alla produzione di uno scopo. Il passato, invece, è inafferrabile, cioè
non dominabile. Il passato, in quanto tale, si rifiuta di diventare il materiale trasformato
dall’azione. Sta in una lontananza che l’azione non riesce a raggiungere».
Sicché, nella logica del divenire, del processo di coerenza a esso del pensiero
contemporaneo, «Come è inevitabile – scrive Severino – la distruzione di uno scopo
immutabile, al quale il divenire sia costretto a orientarsi […] così è inevitabile la
distruzione dell’immutabilità del passato […]. Non si tratta semplicemente della
liberazione dall’ordine esistente, che viene chiamata “liberazione dal passato” perché
tale ordine esiste da lungo tempo: si tratta – dice Severino – di una liberazione più
radicale, cioè della liberazione dall’esser stato ciò che è stato […]: della liberazione dal
fatto che un certo ordine è stato e che, essendo stato, è ormai necessità che sia così
stato».
E Severino fa alcuni esempi, per rapidi cenni, di pensieri contemporanei volti alla
distruzione di quell’immutabile, più resistenti di altri alla distruzione, che è il passato:
«La dottrina nietzscheana dell’eterno ritorno del passato in quanto oggetto della volontà,
il principio ermeneutico del carattere ipotetico di ogni ricostruzione storica del passato,
il concetto idealistico del passato come creazione dello spirito, il progetto di
ricostruzione di eventi passati elaborato all’interno della fisica contemporanea, e la
stessa teoria della relatività, sono – per Severino – modi provvisti di un crescente grado
di coerenza, con cui la civiltà della tecnica tenta la distruzione dell’immutabilità del
passato».
In altri termini (p. 203) «La volontà di potenza lavora […] all’eliminazione della
differenza tra il passato e il presente, cioè alla riduzione del passato allo stato della
dominabilità da parte dell’“azione razionale”».
Alla luce di queste rigorose riflessioni, si deve dire che il pensiero del Movimento
moderno, almeno quello che abbiamo visto espresso nella Carta d’Atene, è affetto da un
residuo immutabile costituito proprio dalla concezione del passato, che mi pare evidente
è inteso, anche se solo implicitamente, come ciò su cui non è più possibile esercitare la
volontà di intervento, non è più producibile, né quindi riproducibile: “l’uomo non può
tornare sui suoi passi”, e non può ricostruire il passato se non facendo un falso.
Mentre, e questo può sembrare un paradosso, coloro che guardano al passato per
attualizzarlo in qualche modo, per renderlo presente e razionalmente dominabile con le
più varie azioni tecniche, per prima con le varie interpretazioni della sua storia a fini
operativi, sono più – diciamo così – avanti (nella distruzione degli immutabili e dunque
nella coerenza al divenire) del Movimento moderno che vuol essere così proteso al
futuro e coerente al divenire da accusare gli altri di passatismo.

7
La stagione culturale succeduta a quella della Movimento moderno, chiamata appunto
“postmoderna”, ha preso le distanze, più o meno consapevolmente, proprio da quel
vedere il passato come immutabile e insieme il progresso come incamminato in
un’unica e sicura direzione. Il passato è incessantemente rivisitabile, variamente
interpretabile, ricuperabile e riproponibile. Mentre il cammino verso il futuro non ha
un’unica direzione, i suoi scenari sono anch’essi variamente interpretabili, fino alla
possibilità di mostrare rischi di catastrofi imputabili allo stesso progresso tecnologico.
Va da sé che gli uni e gli altri atteggiamenti soffrono inevitabilmente di proprie
incoerenze al divenire. Proprio perché in ogni caso, anche quando lo scopo fosse la pura
conservazione con decisione di non intervento, si tratta pur sempre di progetti, di
propositi finalizzati a uno scopo che perciò implicano l’immutabilità della meta e della
direzione del movimento verso di essa. Ma il divenire, la sua essenza, è proprio
l’imprevisto, e l’imprevisto fa fallire l’obiettivo. Il divenire si ribella anche
all’immutabilità dello scopo, come a ogni forma di immutabile.

8
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