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    High Rise Manual

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    Yachika Sharma

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    Typology/and Design, Construction and Technology Edited by Johann Eisele, Ellen Kloft Contents Typology and Design Design and Construction Technology and Building Operation 3 04 8s 06 °1 of °s Foreword Johann Eisele, Ellen Klo® 7 A Brief History of the High-+ 8 Johann Eisele Typology 10 Ellen Kio Project Development 4 High-rse Project from the Developer and Investor Perspective Joachim Tenkhoff Project Management 8 ‘A Management Too! for Temporary Organizations Frank Spand! Organization of Office Towers 40 ‘Tmo Brehme and Frank feltaner Site Operation 50 Site Operational Issues during High rise Construction Christoph Motzko Geotechnics 8 Geotechnical Aspects ofthe Planning and Building of High-rises Ulli Arslan and Peter Ripper Load-bearing Structures 6 Manfred Grohmann and Harald Kote Construction and Design 96 Johann Eisele Structural Dynamics 106 Johann-Dietrich Werner and Hans-Werner Nordhues Effects of Wind 16 Hans Joachim Gerhardt Appendix 3 ” Facade structures Sigurdur Gunnarsson Facade Technologies Martin Lutz and Eberhard Oesterle Insolation and Shading Helmut F.O.Mller and Hans Jargen Sehmita Building Systems Klaus Daniels Integrated Concepts Ideas, Realizations, Perspectives, Ideas forthe Future ‘Matthias Schuler Fire Protection ‘Wolfram Klingsch Flevator installations Hans M.Jappsen Facility Management Siegfried Schilling Subject Index Bibliography Project Index st of Authors Picture Credits Acknowledgements 26 162 182 194 204, 224 28 730 233 235 Foreword Shanghal, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur Sao Paulo, Chicago and New York: the major metro politan centers around the world are unimag rable without high-rises. isnt just that we have become accustomes to the skyline. The stacked area development in these megacities isinconceivable and would be impossible to organize in layers with only a few floor levels, ‘Warsaw and Moscow are two European examples of cites where the high-rise enjoys ‘a positive image: residential density per ‘square kilometer and urban censity in terms cof opportunities for working and leisure time go hand in hand and are appreciated. In Western Europe, conversely, there is consié ‘erable resistance to the high-rise genre: the traditional, organically evolved European city is governed by urban planning directives that preclude an impartial treatment of this build {ng form, and the types unpopular for the residential function. In recent years, however high-rises have become more accepted. The city of Frankfurt ‘am Main plays a leading role in bringing about this change in Europe: there are good reasons why # has been dubbed Mainhattan’ in analogy to Manhattan Increasing acceptance in Europe and espe- ally the Asian boom in high-rise develop ‘ment provide the principal argument for publishing ths high-rise manual. The complex task of planning high-rises can only be fully understood if not only tne basic foundations but also the many interfaces between the Individual disciplines ae identified and con sidered, More than 20 authors offer an over view ofthe planning processes requited for high-rise development and construction, In response tothe central theme of what is Involved inthe creation ofa high-rise, the con ‘ributing authors address all the relevent Issues surrounding this building task~from project development and controling to per mits and site supervision, fom foundations to load-bearing structures and facade techno- logis, and finaly from office organization to facility management. Each contribution explores the relevant build- ing task fom the perspective ofthe various disciplines the individual chapters present ‘the basic principles and shed light on interac tions with other disciplines. The featured examples illustrate that high-rise develop ment cannot be motivated solely by the ambi tion tocreate extremely tall buldings. The taller a structure, the more limited the ‘freedom in terms of form and design: the dominant themes ae structural and construc tuonal issues such as wind bracing, load trans {ev and fire protection, As fascinating as the ace forthe tallest high-rise in the world may be, the topic of the socially responsible, sus ‘ainable high-rise" which meshes with the Urban fabric, minimizes its impact on our environment and s designed to serve humar- kind is no less interesting.n this regard, we still havea long way to go. A Brief History of the High-rise Excavations and many reconstruction attempts give usa fainly accutal image of the Tower of abel While the tower had some predecessors itis the best-known and most fateful attempt to come closer to God using a structure built by human hands. Erected on a plan of roughly ‘92 by 2 meters and rising to the same height, newness to God was surely not achieved: after al high plateaus and mountains were regarc 28 sacred sites and the seat of gods in many cultures, and they soared tofar greater heights by natural means. ‘Acs ll cultures, the soaring element reaching forthe sky is always: semantic symbol of faith and nearness to Gad, Fundamentally, nothin. has changed inthis regard even today although itis worth noting tha the symbols of spiritual power have been transferred to worldly pawe USA: Chicago and New York ‘The first large office buildings were built towards the end ofthe 1gth ‘century in Chicago sprouting like mushraoms ftom the grouind,Increa ing the building heights was the logical consequence of the enormou: pressure on the building sector as a result of rapid population growth (1850: 3000 inhabitants; 1870: 300.000; 8g0;1 milion; end ofthe 191 ‘century: 1.7 milion), lack of space and speculation, 6uilding high on the smallest possible footprint was not a demonstration of power but a reflection of economic necessity High-rses that were intended to demonstrate the economic success ‘and hence the power of the clients they were bul for would come lat ‘especially n New York In Europe the high-rise did not come into play a a building type until after the First World War, although the initial euphoria was quickly followed by skepticism: the organically grown European city was less suited for the Ametican model. The spiritual symbol of power had become the yardstick for urban development and stood in the way. 25. they continue todo today, of impartial implementations of this buildin type. Frankfurt am Main was the only site where several high-rises wer erected in the late 1960s on the western edge af the ad city core Inspiring hostility atthe time, the pejorative catchword"Mainhattan” has become a postive attribute today and has sparked a current high rise boom. Like na other European city, the silhouette is dominated by ‘the juxtaposition of high-rises and the Frankfurt Cathedral, an unmis- ‘takable expression ofthe city’s corporate image, which demonstrates progress prosperity ang economic power, High ~higher highest ‘As early 251896 Louis H.Sullvan answered his own question on the principal characteristic ofa major office bullding: “it must be tall every Inch oft must be tall. The force and power of height must reside in it = ‘the glamour and pride of enthusiasms.” [Ada Louise Huxtable: Zeit far Wotkenkratzer] Yet the highrise is insufficiently characterized by eight alone, it must bbe higher than all others atleast fora time. The Mascnc Temple (\892/ 2 floors! nearly 100 m high was the fist “tallest buldng in the wor’, ‘the Empire State Building held the honor for mote than 40 years (1931-1972 381m), only tobe surpassed by the World Tade Center (1=72/ 415m) and now the Petronas Towers (h998/ 452 m)-although theater have" stolen the tite soto speak by installing the antenna asthe of cial building peak. the ony reason why they are measured as being taller than the Sears Tower (174/442 m), But te intervals are growing ever shorter The record has shifted from the United States to Asia, and Europe willardly be abe to playa role inthis ace. Lea 18 from the USA and Asia: Multifunctional High-ises Skyscrapers have firmly established themselves in the United States and In Asia, where they are the natural focus of any metropolitan image. In the European city, the high-rise ofthe future could improve the Immediate environment for peagle working, living and relaxing inthe city by providing overlapping uses. This would mean both quantitative and qualitative (added) density inthe urban envitonment."west Ends’ filled with office workers in the daytime and deserted at night, could be brought to life around the clock Ths kind of added density, however, requites high-rises that differ trom the familiar models, Uses such a theater, church school cinema or athletics falities can be envisioned for high-rises: the Downtown Athletic Club in New York (architects Starrett & van Vieck, Duncan Hunter Ass) set an early example in 1931 Inresponse to these unconventional uses and the increased space requitements per floor, the high-rise type will undergo 2 noticeable lateral expansion, which wil, in tutn lead to high-rises of lower and ‘medium height:"minimax" and “midimax houses’. The structural and technical requirements will become less stringent and efforts can ence again focus increasingly on form and design. Even without taking these ideas of added density and the possible improvements to mixed use of urban areas into account, future high- ‘ses must be planned and realized with mixed use in mind. tn Europe this challenge is regarded as arywhete from undeable to iffeut. Public uses for the bottom floors have become the norm, but even public A Bret History ofthe High ie observation platforms and/or restaurants st the penthouse level often fail as a result of investor interesis.But mixed use goes beyond such definitions. These problerns do not seem to aise in Asia and North ‘America, cr at least they seer solvable: the high-rise is understood asa «ety within the city and thus makes an important contribution towards solving the structural and technical problems, as well as with regard to secial problems and social responsibilty. Learning from Europe?; Energy-optimized High-rises ‘Many concepts and a few built examples demonstrate how the high-rise type can be used as an urban building block in large cities, Developments in Europe show that energy-conserving measures can produce high-vise types that offer new design opportunites, en Yeang (Cuala Lumpur takes his ideas a step further and formulates 2 fully integrated approach in his book The Green Skyscraper": he defines important urban and regional criteria (orientation towards the sun and principal wind direction, shading for neighboring buildings, ‘adaptation to daytime and changing temperatures, ete} as the charac teristics of future high-rise generations. Inaddition to these energy-related and ecological ideas, the evolution of differentiated high-rise types in response to mixed use could also ‘make an important contribution towards increased acceptance in some ‘countries, and hence @ more differentiated design ofthe external frm 36, reflection of internal content. Load-bearing structure and facades ‘would no longer have to answer to the primaty imperative of extreme conditions. Instead, there would be room for play Sullivan's motto “form follows function" and the idea that underpins it, namely to designa building from the inside out. would be given another chance, Typology 1%. When Does a Building Become a High-rise? 2 ‘The Beginnings in the USA CChicago~ the Block ‘New York~ the Block and the Tower "New York, The 1916 Zoning Laws the Wedding Cake New York the American Skyscraper The international Style -Simple Forms "New York, The Zoning Laws of 1961~ AHigh-rise with an Entrance Plaza Postmadernism 3 High-ise Construction in Europe Developments before 1945 Germany France Russia Developments after 1a45 Paris London Frankfurt am Main Moscow 4 Enter Asia 4. When Does 2 Building Become a High-rise? In everyday usage, the term high-rise com monly designates any tall building The height st which a building is considered tal is of couse, relative and has undergone ‘many changes at different times and places throughout all epochs of building history. building is characterized asa high-rise when itis considerably higher than the surrounding structures and explodes their scale. For ‘example, if buildings in an urban setting have anaverage height of twa to three stories. §story building that soars above them may be considered a high-rise. However, matters become more complicated ifa building’ neighbors are fie to six stories high: now a buliding exceeding their height by 2 mere two to three stories willarely be perceived as 2 dominant structure. The town planners defi- nition of a high-rise asa building that rises above the styline offers a relative but not absolute measure. Obviously it will scarcely serve asa basis foran unequivocal definition of ahigh-rise In Germany, consensus has been reached for the purposes of building supervision to define ‘high-rise in accordance with certain safety criteria. The dltates of fire protection and, above all, the effective use of fie escapes, have produced the following definition: "high-rises ate buildings in which the floor of atleast one occupied ccom 's more than 22 m above the natural or a prescribed ground level” ‘other countries also have building laws that define buildings exceeding specified heights livhich can vary between 13 m and Som) as high-rises. This limit may even vary within a single country. Its therefore dificult ta gener alize about how high-rises are defined in international legis'tion In their comparative surveys of high-rise buildings,international databases such as skyscrapers com have chosen a building height of 35 m or 1a stories ‘asa benchmark From the standpoint of build ing typology the category of height alone ~ whether for fire safety or for database consid erations isnot satisfactory for determining whether or not a building should be classified as a high-rise, The construction of tall buld- Ings also includes questions of form and sign These, in turn, are primarily related to ‘the load-bearing structure, which must not only be designed towlthstand the horizontal loads generated by the wind and earthquakes, but also take into account neverending devel- ‘opments in building technology as well as, the environmental and social compatibilty of, large structures. The forms assured by high-rise buildings have changed repeatedly over the course of time Inventions and developments affecting structures and technologies, manifold influences exerted by prevailing egisation regulating the impact of high-rses on their immediate surcoundings and urban sur- roundings, and ast but not least, a wealth of architectural theories and styles have all left thelr mark on high-rise design. The folowing. contains a survey presenting typical exam~ ples, ofthe chronological development of ‘this type of bullding and discusses the ques- ‘yon: What ae the characteristic features of the development ofthe high-rise as a specific type of building ata particular time and place? ‘yeeleey ‘We cannot consider the development of high "ge buildings in Europe and subsequently in Asia without fst examining high-rise typologies inthe USA. Tall buldings obviously existed lng before the United States was founded: in Ancient Rome, for example, the timber framed houses constructed to accom ‘modate the lower classes in mass housing were around 35 m high. However the progres sive development of the hihise proper beginsin oth-century Chicago. and its contin al typological evolution can be followed ‘thete and in NewYork wellinto the 19705 Although other US ces flowed this ine of development, they have had nothing lke the influence of Chicago ot New York on high-se construction. ‘The Beginnings in the USA Chicago ~ the Block The high-rise asa specific type of structure originated in the booming city of Chicago ‘towards the end of ith century its develop. ment was decisively influenced by the great inventions of the age. The technological pre- conditions were ceated withthe develop ment af safe elevators and the skeleton steel structure made of rolled ron sections ~two ‘of the most important parameters ~ and with the dovelopment of service systems, such as. communications systems. Theircombined irmpact led to the development of large office blocks and expensive flor areas stacked on top of one ancther 2 1 Morne hence Bing, Chicago, Wire eBaron eno 884 2 Relanse Bung, isp Burom Despite the use of skeleton structures of cast and wrought iron, the fist big office blocs in Chicago donot seem to strive for the heavens; the horizontal structure of their brick and natural-stone facades lend them a certain heaviness reminiscent ofthe talian Renais: sance palazzo (Fe. However, the development of ight and power ful steel skeleton structures soon emanel: pated architecture from its classical appearance (Fg, 2). vertical structural ele ments were accentuated to emphasis their lightweight character and to create the Impression of soaring facades. Furthermore, ‘avades were increasingly reduced to light- ‘weight shields mounted on a load-bearing structure separating the load: beating and boundary functions. Incidentally, the frst building to receive the epithet “the world’s tallest building” was the Masonic Temple (Fig.3).tt hada public viewing platform almost 100 m above the ground. Thematizing ‘the capital and explevting the building's view as a popular attraction were quite novel approaches at the time, What are the charac- teristics of these new soaring ofice buildings? ouls H. Sullivan (9856-1924) must be men: tioned inthis context. Sullivan may be considered the first theoretician of high-rise aesthetics, Between 1880 and 89s, when ‘the fist tall office blocks were all the rage in Chicago, Sullivan, and John Wellborn Root (6850-1891), formulated the principles ofan architecture in which “form follows function’ ‘The new style, which became known around the world asthe "Chicago Schoo”, helped pave the way forthe Modern Movernent. The struc 4 Singec Tones nest age, 1908 Chaps. Cornhnn and ec itga ture became a form giving element and was clearty identifiable from outside touis Sullivan was the fist to define the rules for designing high-rises To render the scale of the tall buildings legible, he subdivided the building Into base, shaft and capital This tripartite divisions barely perceptible inthe high block structures bult in Chicago Later however it 1was sometimes transferred dogmatically onto the outer form and can be considered typo- logical of high-rise buildings in al epochs of ther construction. aw passed in 1803, 4ra5- tically limiting permissible height to 40m, temporarily halted any further development of the high-rise in Chicago.As a consequence, chicago was compelie to surrender ts leading role in hightise construction and development to New Yor New York = the Block and the Tower In New York the evolution ofthe high-rise was determined by two factors: the develop- iment of the idea ofthe tower and the influ. ence of eclecticism, Speculators’ demands for maximum exploitation of the land sent buildings constructed on small plats soaring ‘torew heights. We now see the transition from the tall office block to the office tower ‘An atternpt was made to create the high-rise building as = homogeneous whole in histor: cist style. Gothic, Romanesque and Beaux Arts ‘were employed as metaphors to link the new with the old In 1908, est Flagg designed a new tower forthe existing q-story Singer building (fig, shin its form, the top ofthe Singer Tower 5 Mookverth Euiting, New Yor, cass ibe, roy imitates the comer towers of the Louvre in Paris. ts tower ike extension madeit the ‘most famous building in America and the tallest office tower in the world. Thousands ‘traveled to New York to visit the viewing plat ‘orm. Its design cites historcst forrsin an {endeavor to soften the futurist image ofthe high-rise.The soaring vertical elements of Gothic proved particularly sultable for creat: Inga stylized mask toclad the high-rise. Soor ‘the high-rise buildings of this epoch such as the Woolworth Building, were to become the ‘cathedrals of commerce (Figs). Attention wa siven in particular to accentuating the forms oftheir pinnacles, turning them into symboli advertisements for the buildings, their clients and architects and, indeed, the entire city The ‘te1m skyscraper” was coined. The public ‘acceptance ofthe skyscraper’ architectural language grew, reaching it zenith in the Golden Twenties, New York, The 1936 Zoning Laws ~ ‘the Wedding Cake twas only when building clients and archi- tects began pushing the exploitation of plats toextieme lengths that the enthusiast response skyscrapers hac met with in New York declined. Consequently, there was a shift ‘away from the slender tower form in favor of the more compact, tall block structure. The great bone of contention was the Equitable Building (Fg, 6), Following public protests, limits were imposed on such developments which threatened te destroy the cityscape an |eopardized neighbor laws. Asa result, new legislation was passed: the 1gr6 Zoning Laws. 6 Equtable Blog, 7 Rasa vse Bung Neve ork woorecs, os Gntinund wate 1926 ‘These laws preseribed the construction of the s0-caled"setback building’, which meant that the more a building was set back towards the ‘op, the higher it was allowed to rise. This leg- \slaton instructed architects which form thett buildings were to assume. The Barclay Vesey Building (Fig.7) isan example of how the Zoning Laws were implemented. Buildings thus constructed may be classified as high vise structures with three distinct zones and greatly extended pinnacles. This style created by setting back buldings in distinct levels is ‘often referred to asthe "wedding-cake style” New York ~the American Skyscraper “The race to achieve ever greater heights con tinued despite the Zoning Laws For if the floor area were reduced toa quarter ofthe ground fioor area by introducing setbacks, a building «ould be made to rise indefinitely. In the early 19305, probably the twa most famous sky scrapers in the world were constructed: the Chrysler Building designed in theatrical Art Deco style by architect Wiliam van Alen (flg. 8), and the Empire state Building de- signed by Schreve, amb and Harmon (ig 9). The Empire State Building, the archetype of the American siyscraper finally reached the limits of the proven steel-skeleton structure [At 3810, the Empire State Building remained the world's tallest building for more than forty _yeatssfrom 1g31to 1972. The economic criss combined with the radical change in the spirit and style embodied in Macernism brought to anend the eraof the Golden Twenties and that ofthe skyscraper too, 8 chyplerBuing, 9 Empire state Nese¥ank930 Bulging, Neve York ‘The International style ~ Simple Forms In ngz2, radical new goals were formulated in what was probably the most famous interna tional high-rise competition: the competition forthe Chicago Tibune Tower in Chicago. A new generation of European architects, such 5 Groplus and the three Dutchmen Bijoet, Duiker and Zandvoort (representatives of German Bauhaus architecture and the De St! ‘movement in Holland respectively) entered ‘the competition, submitting designs with new radical goals. Even though their designs hac little chance of winning, they nevertheless revealed a definite commitment to tech- nology, functionality and clear lines. Mod: emist architects had entered the arena In 937, Walter Groplus was offered a chair at Harvard: that same year Laslo Moholy-Nagy founded the new Bauhaus in Chicago: and in 1938, Mies van der Rohe became director of the linois institute of Technology Inthe dis: turbing years between the War and the eco- nomic erisis two buildings were erected under the sign of Modernism: the PSFS Building in Philadelphia in 1932, designed by Howe and Lescaze (Fig. 0) and the RCA Building of the Rockefeller Center designed by Hood & Foul houx, Hofmeister, Corbett, Harrison & Mac Murrey, which was erected in New York in 1940 (Fig The PSFS Building was one ofthe fist unmis: takable atternpts to apply the principles of ‘the international Style of the Modern Move ment tothe American skyscraper. However ‘twas only nga7~ shortly after the Second ‘World War that Ludwig Mies van der Rohe initisted an entirely new generation of Putecpia 1952 ‘vpelegy New ork high-rise buildings, of which Lake Shore Drive ‘partments in Chicago (1g. 12), with their typical curtain-wall facades, were an early ‘example, Between 1948 and +96, Mies van der Rohe designed fourteen high-rises in Chicago, which gave him an opportunity to. develop and perfect an archetype. His high: ‘ise buildings look very similar toone another, for Mies van der Rohe was fundamentally ‘opposed to the notion tat each one had to have a distinct character Mis buildings are based on a simple cubic form and display great attention to detail The Seagram Build ing of 1958 (Fig. 13). planned in co-operation ‘with Philip ihnson, became the prototype of the modem office tower. Subsequently. office towers were built in Mies van der Rohe style allover the world, However the replicas did ‘ot attain the quality ofthe originals. The ‘word skyscraper had more o ess fallen into disuse; from a certain height upwards the buildings were simply referred to.as tll build ings high-rises or GH (Immeubles de Grande Hauteur). Now York, The Zoning Laws of 1961 ~ ‘AHigh-rise with an Entrance Plaza ‘The Seagram Building was also innovatory with respect to urban planning. twas set back rom the property line tocreste a large plaza infront. This mode of constiuction influ: ‘enced New York's new building legislation the _and Zoning Laws of 1, which raw permit ted greater concentration in return for public space on the site, Where the top had once been the most significant element of sky: scrapers, this new type of high-rise building “ Apartments chiego..90 focused attention on the base asthe public zone. The greater floor space index that was now allawed fora building with a plaza ‘riggered a building boom. A problem arose, however, when several of these buildings ae placed alongside one another they create a tather unsatisfactory urban setting, The “plazas” pass into one another without interruption, dissolving the property line completely Postmodernism In the 1970s and 1g80s, people began search: Ing for alternatives to the stereotypical build Ings of the Modern Wiovernent. Clearly defined forms were distorted to create huge sculptural forms, instead of being treated as purely functional components technical ele ments were exaggerated ta create decorative details or else concealed behind historicist ‘cades.Forinstance, the Pennzoil Plaza Build ing in Houston abandons the right angle to make a striking bulding out of an otherwise anonymous box (Fig. 4). The ATBIT Building (Fig.rs} conspicuously draws on historcism, Itis designed as a skyscraper ina classical sheath with 2 crown that New York Times critic Paul Goldberger referred to.asa vastly exaggerated version ofa Chippendale pedi iment. The striking tripartite division of the bullding plays an important role in Post modernist high-rise architecture. It represents anatternpt to usea striking base zane in connection witha tall building end a corwer: tonal street development. This new aware- ness ofthe significance ofthe street space and scale led to another change in New York's 1s Sesgram euling, ee Yor, Mies van dertehe, 958 1 Panne Pana Bln, Hewsen eae, Pipe snddohn Burger s76 1684 legislation in 198. The new law stipulated that the base ofthe building was not tobe set bback by more than three meters on certain streets in order to preserve the property line At the same time, appropriate measures had to be taken with new bulidings to extend public access routes. This law aimed to ensure ‘that public street space also extended into ‘the bullding in the Humana Building, for instance, ths s achieved by means ofa large front hall lined with tll pylons (Fig. 16) ‘The tall bulldings designed by Michael Graves, ate characterized by their independent base, ‘which is pushed up against the street edge. The high-rise above is setback from the base, which, in tur, integrates the public zone ~ a feature typical ofthis type of building. The high-rise as a structure defined by public uses, ‘communications areas with atriums, conser vatories for relaxing, shopping zones and other attractions has become the theme of a whole new generation of buildings. The tower and the base receve distinct uses as twosep- arate zones In addition to this high rise family there ae other types in which the top of the building is Biven conspicuous thematic treatment. The style and prestigious appearance play avery important role he. Since the 9706, has become impossible to consider the typology ofhigh sises asa chronological eveution 25 styles have developed parallel to one another ‘Nor iit possible to focus on the USA alone, because Europe (since the 19505 and 19603) and Asia (since the @80s and 19908) have played an increasingly significant part in the development of the high-rise 1s ATE Buicng, New Yor, eben /ourgce Aste, 16 Humane Bing Lovo, Michael Graves 986 3. High-rise Construction in Europe Developments before 1945 ‘tthe end of the 19th century, Europe played _an important role in developing new building ‘materials such as ste! glass and reinforced concrete and in applying innavatory con struction techniques. The industrial revolu- tion, which introduced new praduction methods, created a need! for large workshops, factories and warehouses 2s well as mult: story buildings for the rapidly growing towns and cities. addition to factories, there wos an equally great need fora completely new ‘transport, trade and traffic infrasteucture, Industry made a vital technical contribution towards creating this infrastructure as it switched over from producing cast iron to making rolled steel with standardized sec- tons. Powerful lightweight structures perm ted the erection of structures that spanned great distances and could be used in the new halls and bridges. The use of iton in combina. ton with glass created the aesthetics of a new type of building: the railway, market and exhibition hall In 851 Joseph Paxtor’s Crystal Palace, an all-skeleton building, was erected ‘for the World Exhibition. It was the prototype cof the structural mode of construction. ‘Anather milestone in the development of ron skeleton structures was the 300 m Tower designed by Gustave Eiffel forthe 1889 World Exhibition in Pars. The replacement of Lnwvieldy cast iron by rolled iron and sheet Sections and the use of riveted joints made the structure lighter and easier to calculate ‘Thus were cteated the technical and struc tual preconditions for high-rise construction, ‘poles | 17 Weitbewer Basin Fedele, ies van dere. 922 In Europe, high-rise buildings were not ini- tlaly evected due to any real need, but rather asa sign of technological progress and the power ofthe societies in which they arose. Alt the time it was built the Effel Tower, with its steel skeleton aesthetics almost attained ‘the status ofa sacred building, Inthe USA, on the other hand, the construc ton of high-rise buildings responded to a very real demand fr office buildings in city centers. One need only recall the reconstruc- ‘tion of Chicago after its destruction by fire American architects initially tended to be hes itant regarding the aesthetics ofthe new ‘types of buildings. The "Chicago Schoo! with its avowed principle of combining architec: ture and technology with a functionalism ‘that was visible in the outward appearance of the buildings, was unable to assert itsel* against historicism, Inthe early 20th century high-tse planning vas discussed at a purely theoretical level in Europe. Not bound by the constraints of practi: ‘al implementation, urban-planning and arch tectural theories on the new type of building were able to develop more freely ‘The mde! ofa concentrated ensemble of high-rises inthe city center, as implemented Inthe new American cites that were evolving on grid plans, was out ofthe question for Europe. The structure ofthe historically evolved city with a medieval city center and dominant historical structures called fora variety of approaches to high-rise planning, And these were formulated in diverse ways in different European countries, 18 Die tadirone Bao 2 079 19 Verialestet, dg erseimer 34 Germany In. Germany, the positioning of isolated high rise bulldings at major intersections was pro posed as a madel compatiole withthe ct. High-rses located ata suitable distance from the historical center were supposed to provide points of orientation inan expanding city Even though this subsequentiy proved to be a useful model, the capital needed to imple ‘ment this idea was still lacking inthe early days Fig.7) Another striking idea in Germany was that of harmonizing the high-rises and the city 3s described ty Bruno Taut in his book De sted sone this model conceived the high-rise as 2 bulaingin the ety center that tonered above everyting ese. The idea was particularly popular among te champion of the various Currents of socialism. At the time of the November Revolution De stadthrane was seen asan imagea socialist society inwhich the central building served as a superelevated vic center Fig. 18) The Image ofthe Stadtkrone, which has been taken up by project studies time and again, has remained a purely theoretical construct The same is true of the rather different approaches adopted by the architect Ludwig Hilbersheimer, who published his designs for 8 Grofstadtarchitettur (metropolitan architec- ture) inagzq.A novel modern cityscape arose ‘that was based on the netion of hor ontal ‘uaffic layers and high-rise bulldings. The com mercial zones occupy the lower levels, while 22 PlanVoiin fo Pv, ees 935 thehigher levels ae reserved foresidental purposes. Ral transport located below round, carrion along the level occu pled bythe commercial zones, wil the pedestrian areas, which consis of paths and bridges are assigned to the esidertial evel (so) France Approaches developed in France also exploit ed the new high-rises to create completely new city structures using broken rows of buildings. By greatly concentrating residential and working space, this new type of building — ‘the high-rise —had the potential both to satisfy the cys growing demand for space and toredress its cramped plan which let in too litle ight and alr. Auguste Percet and Le Corbusier were the leading advocates of concept. Their high-rises, which were designed as elements of urban-development projects, reach the considerable height of 200 mand are placed at suficient distance from one anather to create space fo atge traffic axes and green strips in between the tawers (Fig. 20). The designe of European architects, whose architectural language is radially modern at times stands in marked contrast tothe con- ceptions espoused by their US colleagues. This \was quite evident at the competition forthe Chicago Tribune Tower (se p.3] mentioned above. The design submitted by US architect Raymond Hood af Howells and Hood, which ‘was premiered in Chicago and subsequently built, plainly drew on historicism, whereas 2 Watheweb Chicago Tbe Toe water Giepus a Aa May. 022 those entered by Walter Groplus, uno Taut and the Dutch De Stijl architects were dis tinctly Modernist. It was only after the Second World Warthat these curcents were able to assert themselves in the United States ig.) The ideas inspiring high-sebuldingin Eastern Europe, aboveallin Russa, were quite ‘diosyneratic The development of igh-tise bouldings began with the dea of creating the symbolic presentation of new society tis inthis connection thatthe TtinTower~ spiraling 300 m ton and glass sructure~ must be considered. twas conceived in 919 both sa building and an architectural mons ment t the Third International an organiza tion that united all the communist pais of the word Stel spials beara numberof lage, variously sized glass cubes containing éverse rooms suchas meeting roms in the base, offices forthe executive organs inte mide and pressrooms atthe top. Although it was never bul, the tower become both an intr nationally famous icon ofthe ideology ofthe largest communist organization and a symbol of Constructivism, an architectural current Inspled by a strong ellen modern technol ogy (ig. 22) Following Lenin’s death in 1924, there was a growing desire to construct aPalace ofthe Soviets as Russia's supreme building: a mont: ‘ment to Lenin, to the memory ofthe October Revolution and to the founding of the USSR in 1922. Alongside the idea of creating a palace 22 Manansent the The ents teow, Madi Tati g20 26.2 unique building there was also a desire ‘and need for buildings forthe central aémin- istration This became the objective of count less competitions and architectural experiments in those cauldrons of ideas, the Universities. During the 1920s, studies and designs fr office towers up to 225 m high ‘were completed in an astonishingly modern, technological language Little is known of the ‘theoretical studies then carried out on the proportions and staggeted organization of high buildings, such as those designed by -Malewitch (a marked contrast to those of Hugh Ferris in the United States).Thisis mainly due to the dificutties involved in Implementing Russian architecture at the time. Other structures that were never bu whose fame caried actos ll borders are the. radical designs for aSky-Hook by ‘artist-archi- tect” El Lissitky in 1924. He wanted to leave street areas free and accommodate the mass ofthe building in a block floating horizontally ‘45m above ground. all together, eight Sky. Hooks were to be erected to mark the impor: tant intersections ofthe Boulevard Ring Road and the radial roads within the city. Ths great emphasis on public space was seen as a counter model to the dense concentration typical of US cities (Fa. 23) Inthe ensuing years discussions on the design fora Soviet Palace were held in ever wider circles. During the 19305, comprehen sive plans to redesign the city of Mascow were submitted. the masterplan (architect: 25 SkpHookceslgn fora highs, enzo sky, 18aq ‘ofan Helich ane steht i937 Jofan) for Moscow reflected the desire tc ‘matically present and embody Soviet po ‘the form of monumental buildings squa and streets. The supreme building was n- beamereoffice tower but a monument building was to be crowned by a gigantic statue of Lenin, which was intended tob biggest sculpture in the world, even bigg than the Statue of Liberty in the early 9; competition was held. The location wast site ofthe Cathedral of Christ the Savior center ofthe city Demolition of the buile began immediately in 1933, the Mascow tect Boris Michallowiteh Jofan was appo! chief architect ofthe palace by the head the urban planning department. eninge architects Helfrich and Stschuko co-oper: with Jofan on revising the design fr the Soviet Palace, which by 1937 was planned rise to 419 m. The Lenin statue was projec to be 100m. Construction ofthis mamm: project actually began in 937. After the f dations were completed, work began ont steel skeleton, However, construction can {an abrupt halt as the Soviet Union was d Into the Second World War (ig. 24 Developments after 1945 Lacking the necessary econamie power, Europe had yet to demonstrate whether Implementation of ideas that had, in som «poneelet go pons Valuation Planner PlanneiB Planer 20% sort tapt, opt a opto Cao we wen eR ee ae Ten aap goat Taka wasp Risk Management ‘Murphy's law —“Arything that can go wrong val go wrong sooner or later"~ particulary ‘rue for bulding projects. The importance of early rsk assessment cannot be emphasized enough, especially fone takes into account the enormous sums that must be raised for high-rise projects. While timely and structured Project organization by experienced project controllers isan essential part of risk manage: ment. it isnot suficent on its own ‘The itcal success factors" and the “principal risk factors" can be identified relatively early ‘on based on the goals ofthe current project and experience drawn from previous, compa: rable projects. Not all individual steps of the planning or execution are of equal impor- tance; it isthe task ofthe project controler to Identify the most important incividual steps, 10 assess and verify them constantly with the hheip ofa milestone plan, to spot any delays early on and to counteract them. However the risk assessment must also take possible exter nal sks into account, eg. the insohency of firm, damage to neighboring bulldings. ete ‘Once again itis the task ofthe project con- troller to draft reaction plans forthe principal ris factors, to prepare checkists and handling {uidelines and to establish a system of rapid reaction by means of ac-hoc conferences. Organization Manual ‘The organizational measures described in the preceding paragraph must be documented and continually updated by the project con troll: This organization ofthe projects recorded in an organization manual, which should be made available to all project participants, Itis important to make a clear distinction between the project manual mentioned in the section Goal definition’ and the organ- ‘vation manual ‘The project manual is more ofa static docu ‘ment, which documents the decisions mace with regard to the project. New cholces and decisions are added to the document ifthe project goals have been refined or changed. The erganization manual,on the other hand, Is updated whenever responsibilities, pro: cedures, cules and agreements change, and does not document the entire history ofthe project, but only gives the current status of the agreements entered into Organizing the Sequential structure No project controllers able to describe and pre-pian the entire process of panning and bullding in all details at the outset of 2 project: Like al other participants in the plan- ning, his or her work sone of gradually approaching the new task at frst on the basis of preliminary observations and experiential values. These observations are constantly refined and more extensively formulated in consultation with the other participants. This ‘means that the project controller's initial ole ‘sone of asking questions. Ths gathering of Information on the project in the beginning stage ~and especially the identification and definition of organizational procedures ~is ‘one reason for the commen disillusion that ‘can setin between client and project control during the frst three manths of a project. However,experience has demonstrated that any aggressively simulated sence of security and blind activism instead of sold preparation ate hacmful to projects rather than beneficial, Planning the Planning, ‘Acloser look atthe key management pro- cesses ofa building project reveals that the planning periods are frequently the principal ‘cause for delaywith the esult that the ‘organization of the planning itsefisan Important issue forthe project controller. tts essential, therefore to collaborate closely with all participants in the planning inorderto each a realistic assessment of the anticipated planning periods as early as possible. This, assessment should, moreover, be clearly divided into pre-design and design stage, permit planning and execution planning. The {question of haw long any particular planning process may take i difficult to answer in advance, However, planning firms are aso enterprises that must operate efficientlyand this means that a “reverse calculation” of fees In consideration of riskand profit margins, and acalculatin of the hourly pay forthe planners involved, allows a rough time est ‘mate, Eyperlence from previous projects can then be brought into play to determine the principal planning bundles to define further processing through other planners and to depict all this information in a network plan. ‘With the introduction of useful schedule planning progremsin the early 19905, attempts were undertaken in many projects 10 plot each individual deliverable plan asa separate process in a network plan, The idea was to achieve pracess control and a qualified record ofthe work flow” of the individual plans. Mary of these attempts faled, however, because the growing complexity ofthis type cof schedule planning proved too elaborate for both the planners, who were forced to con- stantly deliver statements on projected plans, ‘and the project controllers, who had to process these continually changing state ‘ments, Bundling the planning themes an setting milestones has emerged as a feasible ‘option for planning control, whereby the day: ‘to-day contro of the resources employed and ‘the planners’ progress is absolutely essential, (On the other hand, experience has also shown that the progress report “we have completed 90 percent” has only limited meaning, because the remalning70 percent tend to require at least another 50 percent of the worktime. Data and Communications Management ‘The increased use of CAD and other electronic tools have fundamentally changed planning processes in recent years. Planning has be- come fastet, standard postal routes can be bypassed, there are fewer transmission errors, and planning details can be reuseé. Yet lke all technological advances, the use of electronic tools in the planning process also poses considerable risks in addition to the aforementioned advantages. The possibility of creating and sending files much more quictly can lead to an information overload for the individual participants in the project. This ‘overabundant flow of information can only be ‘countered with clear structuring and rigorous control over information routes. Intetnet: based project communication ystems (eg ‘wrwconject com), which permit centralized data and communications management have been in use for several years. in addition to ‘communicating status reports on the plan ring, these systems also offer control of infor mation flow and access rights, quality contr of planning targets, and finally complete structure project and planning documenta: ton. This enables increased quality of infor ‘mation management and transparency for Individual services and performance, which can also protect a project against appeals. Is the project controller called upon to include these new options in basic performance profile? From today’s perspective, the answer Js mote likely to be negative. While the use of an information system provided by the client should have ne impact on the project con troller’ fee, structuring uch a system, ‘ongoing control ofthe planners and inal, handing the files over to the client can be regarded as preliminary project documenta tion, which should be remunerated as an additional service. the project controler assumes additional responsibilities in areas such as CAD coordination or organizing the planning for subsequent operators and facility ‘managers, such services must in each case be treated as additional and remunerable efforts. ‘Managing Authorities and Neighbors ‘As mentioned, high-rise projects are also fable forthe intensive scrutiny they are subjected to from the public the authorities and neighbors. The project controler there ‘fore pays particular attention to including ‘these groups to large extent as early as pos sible. Planning the sit logistics is especially Important in terms of authorities manage ment, because all highrise projects will [Impose some restrictions on the public. The planning of removing excavation material as well as the delivery and storage of building ‘materials is therefore one ofthe tasks that ‘the project controller must address earlyon Experience with high projects especiallyin Inner city locations,has showin that they also ‘pose considerable risks through changes to the basic load ofthe building area. Hence ‘timely consultation with the neighborhood, ‘open debate on potential risks and timely documentation of possible cracks, subsidence, ‘etc. are very important. Once again these tasks must be coordinated by the project contol. Quality Management and Planning Efficiency ‘The more advanced the planning, the more specialist knowledge is required to assess the planning quality One of the standard services. that a project contoller provides is regular checking ofthe planning with regard to keep: ing to defined targets For this reason, the project controller must accompany all stages of the planning process asa knowledgeable and critical nquirer~ without interfering in the planning, ‘The quality ofthe planning is assessed in several steps. To begin with its important that all participants adhere to the agreements and rules of the planning pracess. The use of agreed upon file names, the layer structure of the CAD drawing and adherence tothe pro- esses established for change management are only some ofthe aspects involved. The project controller will also pay clase attention tothe efficiency of the chosen solutions and tegularly assess the progress of the increas: ingly detailed and advanced planning. Spat chects of individual planning stages and in dept verification of citical areas must lead ‘to qualified eparts, especially subsequent to ‘the submission of intermeciate results for design planning, permit planning or tenders Planning coordination isstillargely the responsibilty ofthe architects, whereas the project controler participates in planning conferences only on an intermittent basis. The jourfixe” meeting,a scheduled weekly meeting fr large projects i the project con trollers forum. These meetings are not in tended for discussions on planning details oF quality improvement; rather, they focus on the interfaces, the necessary decisions and the tasks, which have been completed or are set for completion, ‘Optimizing the Execution In high-rise projects, which are erected by general contractors, the project controller's involvement in the execution phase is consid erably reduced, The coordination responsibili= ‘les concerning the sub-contractors af the GC ate not his concern. The contoller will only assume role in cases where the overall can ‘tact is split among several GCs or when spe cfc individual services ate singled aut from the GC contract. Hence the tasks ofthe project controller (after the contract has been formulated in collabo- ration with the GC) during the execution phase are cost management, setting and checking milestones and tracking the change ‘management. Supplementary management, ‘on the ther hand, is increasingly becoming ‘one ofthe controller's principal tasks during, the execution phase, Since obstacle reports from the contractors and demands for supplementary charges in particular must always be responded ton ue time, meticulous supervision of these instances is of prime importance. The project controller must always be informed, in a broad sense of allevents and contingencies on the bullding site, and a regular presence on site is therefore necessary Project Management Since the project controler serves as an expert consultant for the client during the stage of handing over the project and project comple- ‘ion it would be irresponsible to censure shortcomings previously noted in the execu: tion at this late stage. On the other hana, its vital to ensure that the tasks of building man- agement/project controling remain distinct ‘throughout the construction phase, to avoid lack of clarity with regard to lability for the ‘errors. recent years, secondary profile has ‘therefore emerged: quality controlling throughout the construction periad. As. rep. resentative of the cient, the project controller acts as an observer on the site, keeping a record of deviations, rors or shortcomings ‘The contioller reports these cbservations to the cient, wno,as the line executive of the building management, can influence the exe- cuting firms or contractors In this manner ‘the project controller can document short: comings without having to assume respons bility for rectifying them. Cost Management In Germany, cost management aften begins only some time after the start ofthe planning phase. In English-speaking countries its common to engage cost planner (or quan- tity surveyor) prior to contracting the other planners ‘The quantity surveyor determines the frame: ‘work of costs fora bullding on the basis of ‘comparable objects and establishes a budget together with the client.This framework and the contractual obligations ofthe subse- {quently contracted planners to achere to it provide far greater cost stability for the client (G5 percent in the cost estimate stage alone) ‘than is comman in Germany. The effort re- Quired to achieve such a degree of cost stabil ty far greater and must be expended much earlier than is standard in the German plan- ring methodology Thus it isnot uncommon in English-speaking countries to separate cost management from the other planner services and to engage a dedicated cost manager The cost manager continues tofllow the entire planning process and to log a current cost-plan. ltematives, changes or additions Initiated by the planners are evaluated as to cost and included in the budget should a deci sion be made in favor of these alternatives. "span apa As the changes occur the cost manager main ‘tains an overall perspective, thereby ensuring that additional costs in one area are covered by savings in another Each of these steps is. minutely documented to ilustrate, there are evisions ata later stage, why individual ecisions were made in favor ofa particular solution. In the meantime this new division of tasks in cost management has also become more common in Germany. At times, the tasks are embedded in the project controlling at thes, they are separated out as an individual responsibilty International architecture firms have long understood the advantages of pro. fessional, ndependent cost management, and ‘egularly advise ther clients to engage a quantity surveyor The professional expertise of quantity surveyors thele matket overview of building methads, materials nd costs and their mediating role between planning team and building executive ae therefore often regarded asa positive complement by the architects and not asa limitation oftheir own scope. Although responsibilty forcast man agement traditionally resides with the archi tect in Germany, t's one ofthe core tasks of ‘external poject controllers to coordinate costs,in keeping with the four phases of cost analys's according to the HOA\ (Honorarord- ‘nung fur Architekten und ingenieure, or Off lal Scale of Foes for Services by Architects and Engineers), However because project con. ‘rollers do not estimate or determine the costs themselves as quantity surveyors would, they depend on planners’ estimates. veryfving their plausibilty through spot checks. The project controller also creates and logs a comprehensive overview ofall costs, thus establishing a clear default cost stucture and ae stead erent ge sun cemopent 25 Vime-

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