VIBRATION MEASUREMENT

An object can vibrate in two ways: free vibration and forced vibration. Free
vibration occurs when an object or structure is displaced or impacted and then allowed
to oscillate naturally.

Vibration measurement is basically for monitoring a machine for vibration

problems, the use of displacement probes, velocity pickups, and accelerometers must
be used to fully describe the mechanical behavior of a machine.

There are three main parameters are measured to evaluate the vibration
characteristics of any dynamic system as displacement, velocity and acceleration.
The peak-to-peak distance is measured from the upper limit to the lower limit, measured
in mm to micron level. The velocity of a vibrating object is continually changing. At the
upper and lower limits, the object stops and reverses its direction of travel, thus its
velocity at these two points is zero.

Displacement measurements can be important, especially in low frequency

vibrations on machines that have brittle components. That is, the stress that is applied is
sufficient to snap the component. Many machines have cast iron frames or cases that
are relatively brittle and are subject to failure from a single large stress

The International Standards Organization (ISO), who establishes internationally

acceptable units for measurement of machinery vibration, suggested the velocity – root
mean square (rms) as the standard unit of measurement. This was decided in an
attempt to derive criteria that would determine an effective value for the varying function
of velocity.

Velocity – rms tends to provide the energy content in the vibration signal,
whereas the velocity peak correlated better with the intensity of vibration. Higher
velocity–rms is generally more damaging than a similar magnitude of velocity peak.

Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity. Referring to the spring-

mass body, acceleration of the mass is at a maximum at the extreme limit of travel
where velocity of the mass is zero. As the velocity approaches a maximum value, the
acceleration drops to zero and again continues to rise to its maximum value at the other
extreme limit of travel.

Significance of Dynamic parameters

The displacement, velocity and acceleration characteristics of vibration are

measured to determine the severity of the vibration and these are often referred to as
the ‘amplitude’ of the vibration. In terms of the operation of the machine, the vibration
amplitude is the first indicator to indicate how good or bad the condition of the machine
maybe. Generally, greater vibration amplitudes correspond to higher levels of
machinery defects. The relationship between acceleration, velocity and displacement
with respect to vibration amplitude and machinery health redefines the measurement
and data analysis techniques that should be used. Motion below 10 Hz (600 cpm)
produces very little vibration in terms of acceleration, moderate vibration in terms of
velocity and relatively large vibrations in terms of displacement. Hence, displacement is
used in this range. In the high frequency range, acceleration values yield more
significant values than velocity or displacement. Hence, for frequencies over 1000 Hz
(60 kcpm) or 1500 Hz (90 kcpm), the preferred measurement unit for vibration is
acceleration. It is generally accepted that between 10 Hz (600 cpm) and 1000 Hz (60
kcpm) velocity gives a good indication of the severity of vibration, and
above1000Hz(60kcpm), acceleration is the only good indicator. Since, the majority of
general rotating machinery (and their defects) operates in the 10–1000 Hz range,
velocity is commonly used for vibration measurement and analysis. In recent time, there
is a concerted effort to utilize vibration monitoring in an extended role, mainly

In what is now commonly called predictive maintenance, which is an extension

and/or replacement of traditional preventive maintenance [Scheffer&Girdher].

Sound or vibration signal Transducer Electrical signal Signal

conditioning

F a s t F ourie r
Frequency Time
Transform
Lowpassfiltering

Measurementdata Grap h
p ro c e ssin g
A m p litu d e
E x am
p le: A
v erag
in g
F re
R M S a m plitu que nc
y
de
A-,B-,C-w
e ig hting
 Flow chart of a digital, single-channel measurement system

The types of transducers that are most commonly used in vibro-acoustics are
microphones to measure sound pressure, accelerometers to measure accelerations of
solid structures, and force transducers to measure forces on solid structures. The
principles behind force transducers are not described here, but are very similar to those
for accelerometers.
A number of characteristics are common to all types of transducers:

Sensitivity: Indicates the ratio of electrical output to mechanical input. Example: A

microphone’s sensitivity is given in mV/Pa.

Frequency band: Indicates the upper and lower frequency limits, between which the
transducer sensitivity varies within a given (small) tolerance range.

Dynamic range: Indicates the upper and lower amplitude limits between which the
transducer sensitivity varies within a given (small) tolerance range. The dynamic range
is commonly given in dB with respect to a reference value. The lower dynamic boundary
is often determined by the transducer’s electrical noise and the upper boundary by
when the transducer is loaded beyond its mechanical linear region.

Measured vibration using sensors:

The nature of sound and vibrations to be measured can vary widely. Sound can
be “noisy” (roar or hiss-like), like that from a heavily trafficked highway, while vibrations
of a machine are often dominated by the rotational frequency and its multiples. A
machine under constant loading gives off a stationary noise, while the noise at an
airport tends to be intermittent. Moreover, the purpose of measurements varies. The
commonly monitored vibration signals are displacement, velocity, and acceleration. The
basic operational principles of each of these are presented in this section. The
measurement systems that are marketed today are primarily digital, i.e., sound pressure
and vibrations are converted into digital values for later treatment in more or less
advanced signal processors. While digital technology offers ever more sophisticated
possibilities, measurement systems are never the less often adapted to be able to
compare measurement results with those obtained in the past using analog technology.
Digital measurement systems have a more complicated structure than analogs.
How can you measure vibration?

A complete assessment of exposure to vibration requires the measurement of

vibration acceleration in meters per second squared (m/s2). Vibration exposure
direction is also important and is measured in defined directions. Vibration frequencies
and duration of exposure are also determined. How hard a person grips a tool affects
the amount of vibrational energy entering the hands; therefore, hand-grip force is
another important factor in the exposure assessment.
  The amount of exposure is determined by measuring acceleration in the units of
m/s2. Acceleration is often used as a measure of vibration exposure for the
following reasons:
 Several types of instruments are available for measuring acceleration, the rate of
change of velocity in speed or direction per unit time (e.g., per second).
 Measuring acceleration can also give information about velocity and amplitude of
vibration.
 The degree of harm is related to the magnitude of acceleration.
 Health research data tells us that the degree of harm is related to the magnitude
of acceleration.
Instrumentation

A typical vibration measurement system includes a device to sense the vibration

(accelerometer), and an instrument to measure the level of vibration. This equipment
also has settings for measuring frequency, a frequency-weighting network, and a
display such as a meter, printer or recorder.

 Displacement probes measure the movement of the shaft at the location of the
probe. They cannot be used very successfully to measure a shaft bending away
from the probe location. Displacement probes can indicate problems such as
unbalance, misalignment, and some sub-synchronous vibration instabilities such
as oil whirl and hysteretic whirl.

Displacement Transducer
The displacement transducer, in its most elementary form, consists of a
fixed part and a mobile part. The mobile parts is attached to the mobile contact of
the breaker under test, and moves with the contacts, while the fixed past acts as
a reference as shown in the figure. The internals of many types of rotating
machinery have a number of quite small annular radial clearance gaps between
the rotor and the stator, e.g., journal bearings, annular seals, balance drums, and
blade-tip clearances. Therefore, one obvious potential consequence of excessive
rotor vibration is rotor-stator rubbing contact or, worse, impacting. Both
accelerometers and velocity transducers measure vibration of nonrotating parts
of a machine and thus cannot provide any direct information on rotor motion
relative to the stator. Two types of non-contacting transducers that emerged in
the 1950's are the capacitance type and the inductance type. The capacitance
ype displacement transducer works on the principle of measuring the electrical
capacitance of the gap between transducer tip and the target whose position is
measured. The capacitance method is well suited for highly precise laboratory
measurements, but its high sensitivity to the material (e.g. oil) variations or
contaminants within the clearance gap would make it a calibration "nightmare" for
industrial applications. In contrast, inductance type displacement transducer
systems have proved to be optimum rotor-to-stator position measurement
method and are now installed on nearly all major rotating machines in power
plants, petrochemical and process plants, naval vessel propulsion drive systmes,
and many others.
 Displacement Transducer

 Velocity pickups are used for their flat response of amplitude as a function of
frequency as a go/no-go device. This means that the setting to alert the operator
can be the same regardless of the speed of the unit. The role of velocity probes
as diagnostic tools is somewhat limited. The velocity pickups are very directional
– they read different values for the same force if the probe is placed in a different
direction.

Velocity Transducer
The velocity pickup is a very popular transducer or sensor for monitoring
the vibration of rotating machinery. This type of vibration transducer installs
easily on machines, and generally costs less than other sensors. For these two
reasons, this type of transducer is ideal for general purpose machine
applications. Velocity pickups have been used as vibration transducers on
rotating machines for a very long time, and they are still utilized for a variety of
applications today. Velocity pickups are available in many different physical
configurations and output sensitivities. When a coil of wire is oved through a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced across the end wires of the coil. The induced
voltage is caused by the transferring of energy from the flux field of the magnet to
the wire coil. As the coil is forced through the magnetic field by vibratory motion,
a voltage signal representing the vibration is produced. The velocity pickup is a
self-generating sensor requiring no external devices to produce a vibration signal
as shown in the figure. This type of sensor is made up of three components: a
permanent magnet, a coil of wire, and spring supports for the coil of wire. The
pickup is filled with an oil to dampen the spring action.

Due to gravity forces, velocity transducers are manufactured differently for

horizontal or vertical axis mounting. With this mind, the velocity sensor will have
a sensitive axis that must be considered when applying these sensors to rotating
machinery. Velocity sensors are also susceptible to cross axis vibration, which if
great enough may damage a velocity sensor. The higher the output sensitivity is
useful in situations where induced electrical noise is a problem. The larger signal
for a given vibration level will be less influenced by the noise level. Velocity
pickups will have differing frequency responses depending on the manufacturer.
However, most pickups have a frequency response range in order of 10 to 1000
Hz. This is an important consideration when selecting a velocity pickup for a
rotating machine application. The pickup's frequency response must be within
the expected vibration frequencies of the machine. A velocity transducer has
internal moving parts, its use is less popular in hostile environments where
relatively higher ruggedness is demanded, as more inherent with an
accelerometer.
 Velocity Transducer

 Accelerometer – these are small devices that are installed directly on the
surface of (or within) the vibrating object. They contain a small mass which is
suspended by flexible parts that operate like springs. When the accelerometer is
moved, the small mass will deflect proportionally to the rate of acceleration. A
variety of sensing techniques can be used to measure the amount of deflection of
the mass. Because the mass and spring forces are known, the amount of
deflection is readily converted to an acceleration value. Accelerometers can
provide acceleration information in one or more axes.

An accelerometer is composed of an internal mass compressed in contact

with a relatively stiff force-measuring load cell (usually a piezoelectric crystal) by
a relatively soft preload spring. For an accelerometer, the system damping is
negligible effect and thus for explanation purposes the damping is assumed here
to be zero.

Uni-axial accelerometer
 FBD for force balance

The equation of motion then becomes,

m cv k myobject

The Accelerometer load cell is usually a piezoelectric crystal and thus

registers only compressive loads, necessitating a preload spring to keep it in
compression. However, the piezoelectric crystal is inherently quite stiff in
comparison to the preload spring. Therefore, the load cell essentially registers
"all" the dynamic force required to accelerate the internal mass.
Factors that influence vibration measurements include the following:

1. Cross-axis sensitivity. The sensitivity of an instrument is greatly influenced by the

vibration occurring perpendicular to the sensitive axis of the instrument. As a result,
there may be an error in measurement, since it depends on the sensitivity of the
instrument. Internationally it is recommended to keep error at <10%.

2. Capacitance effect: In the piezoelectric sensor the charge produced due to force is
measured; therefore, it is very sensitive to the stray capacitances coming from the cable
and preamplifier. Also a variation in relative humidity may affect the measurement. For
these reasons, the use of charge amplifiers and special cables may be recommended
by the manufacturer.

3. Sensor loading: The sensitivity of the vibration sensor falls with less mass; whereas
the addition of mass would create loading of mass of the vibration system and problems
of frequency response would be predominant. Therefore, the sensor should be chosen
carefully.

4. Coupling: The sensor and the surface at which the sensor is coupled should be very
stiff to avoid any spurious vibration at low frequency.
5. External influence: Temperature, external magnetic field, damping, etc., affect
vibration readings. A system with lower damping takes more time to come to equilibrium
after a disturbance.

WHICH MACHINES NEED MONITORING?

When deciding which machines to monitor, critical machines should be given priority
over other machines. This is much the same as monitoring the health of people. It is
inappropriate to closely monitor the health of perfectly healthy people, and then to
forsake the monitoring of others who genuinely need it. The same applies when
monitoring the condition of machines.

In general, the following critical types of machines should be monitored on a regular

basis in order to avoid unexpected and costly problems:
(a) Machines that require expensive, lengthy, or difficult repairs if broken down
(b) Machines that are critical to production or general plant operations
(c) Machines that are known to frequently suffer damage
(d) Machines that are being evaluated for their reliability
(e) Machines that affect human or environmental safety

ACCELEROMETER

An accelerometer is a sensor that measures the dynamic acceleration of a physical

device as a voltage. Accelerometers are full-contact transducers typically mounted
directly on high-frequency elements, such as rolling-element bearings, gearboxes, or
spinning blades. These versatile sensors can also be used in shock measurements
(explosions and failure tests) and slower, low-frequency vibration measurements. The
benefits of an accelerometer include linearity over a wide frequency range and a large
dynamic range.

HOW DO ACCELEROMETERS WORK?

Most accelerometers rely on the use of the piezoelectric effect, which occurs when a
voltage is generated across certain types of crystals as they are stressed. The
acceleration of the test structure is transmitted to a seismic mass inside the
accelerometer that generates a proportional force on the piezoelectric crystal. This
external stress on the crystal then generates a high-impedance, electrical charge
proportional to the applied force and, thus, proportional to the acceleration.
 Figure 3. IEPE accelerometers output voltage signals proportional to the force of the
vibration on the piezoelectric crystal.

Piezoelectric or charge mode accelerometers require an external amplifier or inline

charge converter to amplify the generated charge, lower the output impedance for
compatibility with measurement devices, and minimize susceptibility to external noise
sources and crosstalk. Other accelerometers have a charge-sensitive amplifier built
inside them. This amplifier accepts a constant current source and varies its impedance
with respect to a varying charge on the piezoelectric crystal. These sensors are referred
to as Integrated Electronic Piezoelectric (IEPE) sensors. Measurement hardware made
for these types of accelerometers provide built in current excitation for the amplifier. You
can then measure this change in impedance as a change in voltage across the inputs of
the accelerometer.

HOW DO I CHOOSE THE RIGHT ACCELEROMETER?

Because accelerometers are so versatile, you have a variety of designs, sizes, and
ranges to choose from. Understanding the characteristics of the signal you expect to
measure and any environmental constraints can help you sort through all of the different
electrical and physical specifications for accelerometers.

Vibration Amplitude

The maximum amplitude or range of the vibration you are measuring determines the
sensor range that you can use. If you attempt to measure vibration outside a sensor’s
range, it distorts or clips the response. Typically, accelerometers used to monitor high
vibration levels have a lower sensitivity and lower mass.
Sensitivity

Sensitivity is one of the most important parameters for accelerometers. It describes the
conversion between vibration and voltage at a reference frequency, such as 160 Hz.
Sensitivity is specified in mV per G. If typical accelerometer sensitivity is 100 mV/G and
you measure a 10 G signal, you expect a 1000 mV or 1 V output. The exact sensitivity
is determined from calibration and usually listed in the calibration certificate shipped
with the sensor. Sensitivity is also frequency dependent. A full calibration across the
usable frequency range is required to determine how sensitivity varies with frequency.
The figure shows the typical frequency response characteristics of an accelerometer. In
general, use a low sensitivity accelerometer to measure high amplitude signals and a
high sensitivity accelerometer to measure low amplitude signals.

Accelerometers have a wide usable frequency range where sensitivity is relatively flat.

Number of Axes

You can choose from two axial types of accelerometers. The most common
accelerometer measures acceleration along only a single axis. This type is often used to
measure mechanical vibration levels. The second type is a triaxial accelerometer. This
accelerometer can create a 3D vector of acceleration in the form of orthogonal
components. Use this type when you need to determine the type of vibration, such as
lateral, transverse, or rotational.

Weight

Accelerometers should weigh significantly less than the structure you are monitoring.
Adding mass to the structure can alter its vibrational characteristics and potentially lead
to inaccurate data and analysis. The weight of the accelerometer should generally be no
greater than 10 percent of the weight of the test structure.
Mounting Options

Another consideration for your vibration measurement system is how to mount the
accelerometer to the target surface. You can choose from four typical mounting
methods:

 Handheld or probe tips

 Magnetic
 Adhesive
 Stud mount

Stud mounting is by far the best mounting technique, but it requires you to drill into the
target material and is generally reserved for permanent sensor installation. The other
methods are meant for temporary attachment. The various attachment methods all
affect the measurable frequency of the accelerometer. Generally speaking, the looser
the connection, the lower the measurable frequency limits. The addition of any mass to
the accelerometer, such as an adhesive or magnetic mounting base, lowers the
resonant frequency, which may affect the accuracy and limits of the accelerometer’s
usable frequency range. Consult accelerometer specifications to determine how
different mounting methods affect the frequency measurement limits.

Method Frequency Limit

Handheld 500 Hz

Magnetic 2,000 Hz

Adhesive 2,500 to 5,000 Hz

Stud > 6,000 Hz

Frequency Limits for Mounting a 100 mV/G Accelerometer.

HOW IS THE ACCELEROMETER MOUNTED?

Most machines involve rotary mechanisms. Motors, pumps, compressors, fans, belt
conveyors, gearboxes, all involve rotary mechanisms and are frequently used in
machines.
Most rotary mechanisms in turn have bearings that support the weight of rotating parts
and bear the forces associated with rotary motion and vibration. In general, large
amounts of force are borne by bearings. It is not surprising that bearings are often the
place where damage occurs and where symptoms first develop.

Vibration measurements are thus usually taken at the bearings of machines, with
accelerometers mounted at or near the bearings.

Since conclusions regarding machine condition - and hence whether or not money and
human safety are risked - depend on the accuracy of measurements, we must be very
careful how measurements are taken. It is important to always remember that the way
in which we mount the accelerometer very much determines the accuracy of
measurements.

How should accelerometers be mounted to ensure measurements are accurate and

how can we do so safely? Here are some guidelines:

(a) Mount as Close as Possible to the Bearing

Imagine a doctor who listened to your heart through thick clothing and placed the
stethoscope closer to your kidney than to your heart. You would likely doubt his
diagnosis as he would be basing it on sounds distorted by undue obstruction and noise
from other organs.

When measuring vibration we must always attach the accelerometer as close as

possible to the bearing. More specifically, we must attach it as close as possible to the
centerline of the bearing to avoid picking up distorted signals.
(b) Make Sure the Accelerometer is Firmly Attached

For the accelerometer to detect true vibration behavior, it needs to undergo exactly the
same vibratory movement as the vibrating component. An accelerometer must therefore
be attached firmly to the vibrating component so that it does not rock or move
independently of the component. A loosely mounted accelerometer produces signals
distorted by its own independent movements and therefore gives the wrong message.

Various mounting methods exist, but mounting by means of a magnet is the most
popular as it offers a balance between measurement reliability and convenience to the
user. The magnetic mounting supplied in the Commtest vb kit can be attached very
firmly5 , while allowing the user to measure multiple machines using the same
accelerometer, with minimum time spent on attaching and detaching the accelerometer.

To ensure that the accelerometer is firmly attached, it must be stuck to a magnetic

mounting surface this is even. The magnetic mount must sit securely on the surface
with the accelerometer positioned in the prescribed orientation.

For the surface to be even, it must be free of debris, rust, and flaking paint.
The mounting surface must be truly magnetic (iron, nickel, or cobalt alloys). The
magnetic mounting must not, for example, be attached to an aluminum surface by virtue
of iron beneath the aluminum surface.

To avoid loss of magnetism, the magnetic mounting must not be dropped or heated.
Care must also be taken not to strip the screw thread on the accelerometer and
magnetic mounting.

(c) Make Sure the Accelerometer is Oriented Correctly

Different situations require the accelerometer to be oriented differently. For example, to

detect parallel misalignment the accelerometer is usually mounted in the radial direction
of the bearings, but to detect angular misalignment the accelerometer needs to be
mounted in the axial direction.

The signal produced by the accelerometer is dependent on the orientation in which the
accelerometer is mounted, since the amplitude (amount) of vibration varies in different
directions.
(d) Mount the Same Accelerometer in the Same Location

For a particular measurement point it is important to always mount the accelerometer at

the same location to minimize measurement inconsistencies that may lead to wrong
conclusions. Where possible, always use the same accelerometer for a particular
measurement point.

(e) Mount the Accelerometer on Something Substantial

The accelerometer must never be mounted on a very flexible part of the machine as the
spectrum will be distorted by the flapping of the flexible part.

The accelerometer must never be used on structures that are very light as the weight of
the accelerometer and magnetic mounting will distort the vibration behavior of the
structure. In general, the combined weight of the accelerometer and magnetic mounting
should be less than 10% of the weight of the vibrating structure.
(f) Take Care of the Accelerometer

If the accelerometer is treated roughly it may produce unreliable signals. Because of the
strength of the magnetic mount, you must take care when attaching the accelerometer
to a mounting surface. You can achieve this by approaching the mounting surface with
the magnetic mounting tilted at an angle. When detaching the magnetic mounting, you
must not use the accelerometer as a lever for breaking contact. Instead, the magnetic
mounting should be gripped tightly and then tilted sideways to break the contact.

The accelerometer cable should never be twisted acutely, but must be anchored in a
manner that prevents it from being damaged. Twisted or freely swinging cables can
distort the measured spectrum.

(g) Take Care of Personal Safety

You must manage hazards at all times. When taking vibration measurements, three
kinds of hazards stand out in likelihood or severity: injury by moving parts, electrical
shock, and magnet- induced damage.

Firstly, when mounting the accelerometer, you must take care to prevent the cable from
becoming entangled with moving machinery. While the quick-release connector
minimizes this danger it should not be relied on as a substitute for correct installation.

Other things that could tangle with moving machinery include loose clothing, long hair,
data transfer cables and straps.
Secondly, you must never attach the accelerometer to any high voltage surface as this
may cause electrical shock.

Thirdly, you must never bring the magnetic mounting near any magnet-sensitive objects
such as pacemakers, credit cards, floppy disks, video tapes, cassette tapes and
watches since these items can be damaged by magnetic fields.