cy are See setting. Fantasy is constrained by member" perceptions of what Variables cannot be transcended by payers and their characters Under any circumstances (e.g, ineligenee and maturity). These perceptions onanize the display of power in these fantasy worlds. Fantasy roleplay gaming provides a socially structured Word in both the relationships among payers and inthe relation Ships among characters. Even in players’ widest Aighs of imagination we find the obdurate social really of the "eal world." Six Frames and Games T have conceived of fantasy gaming as a social work = universe of discourse. In this chapter Iwill examine the implica ‘ions ofthis view for understanding the players" interpretations of their experiences. Cental to this approach is the assertion that human beings reside in fieite worlds of meaning, ond that individuals are skilled in jugaling these words. 1 wil use fantas taming data to explore some implications of Erving Goffman's Aiscussion of frame analysis ‘Sociologists and philosphers have long recogni the exis- lepce of fnlte worlds of meaning that have the potenti for lowing human beings to become encapsulated in them. Wilism James (1950; ori, 1890:287-85) addressed the existence of “var us orders of reality” grounded inthe paramount reality of the ‘wor of ‘Practical Realities’ Silly, Alf Schutz ese that people make sense oftheir perceptions through multiple realities All ofthese wotlde—the world of dresms, of imageies and Dhantasms, especially the world of ar, the World of re {ious experience, the world of scienlifc contemplation, the lay world of the cil, andthe world ofthe insane—ate f- ‘ie provinces of meaning. (Schutz 1971:232), ‘According to Schutz these words have a particular cognitive style are internally consistent, and have a "specie accent of realy’ (Schutz 1971-232). Gollan describes socal worlds as constituting frames of experience. He defines a frame as a situational definition constructed fn accord with organizing pinte Franes at Goes ciples that govern both the events themselves and participans? ‘experiences ofthese events (1974: 10-11) Extending the work ef Schutz and James, Goffman examines the linkages among frames ofinvolvements how individuals pass fom one fame to another, and how they become entangled and involved in frames, which are grounded in the social order. Frame Analysis i original in is invocation of the social organization of interaction to uncover Pereapion of expec. james seem particularly appropriate tothe spplcaton frame analysis because they represent a bounded set of soc conventions, namely a social world, Goffman's 1961 essay "Fun in Games," with its concern forthe boundaries of play, tan be fen asthe logical precursor to Frame Analysis, which else rebel "upon gaming examples to depict the foundattns of experience This choice of topic is significant because it reminds us that frames of experience may be contclous, Unlike dreams or madness, these worlds havea logical structure, recognicable ws parallel fo the mandane world Games are quintessential examples for frame analysis be- ‘cause oftheir capacity for inducing engrossment. Tat is, volut- ‘arly cating oneself off from other reams of experience distin suishes this world of meanings from those primary frameworks (or the paramount reality) that individuals “naturally” inhabit Games—at least those that are judged at suovessfl—provide alternative social worlds in which individuals can become in- Yolved. The significance of gaming resides in the shared ature of the engrossment (ee Riezler 1941) and in the supportive recog tion that others are equally engrossed ‘As fur as gaming encounters and other focused gatherings fare concerned, the mest serious thing to consider i the fon in them. Something in which the individual can become ut selfconsciously engrossed is something tha can become ‘eal i him, Events that oceur in his immediate physical presence are ones in which he can become easily et grossed, Join’ engrossment in something with others rein: forces the reality carved out by the individuals attention, even while subjecting this entrancement tothe destructive distractions thatthe others are now in& potion to cause. {Goffman 19610; italics in original] Yet Goffman does not here recognize the oscillating character of such engrossment. Although perbaps contrary to common sens at rp 8 cast sip ino and out of engrossment. Frames succeed Tete er wih emanate apis conersson, poole ip SSE Side among fumes, Engrossnet, then, Reed ot imply ® ragga ovetation toward experience. This posts consist- Twit Cotman's discussion of talk a8 4 mraply siting Steam et dierent famed sips” (Gofian 1976540), wt weakness in Frame Anas is insistent iting of xan, The reader never lara enough sow any one Soil io understand the dynamic of te femes embeded in that ‘Covi andthe dynamics of Keying im at "universe of expe tuo Though a dsoston of fantasy gaming T ited ‘fae sever ives that Gofinan sugges ae characteristic GPE homan experience, Is not my ineaion (ose my Ethnabraphy of fntasy paming to expe Godima’sappreech olnforpela Rother, il steno ground thee data in wg rendering of ame says My amy he, i hewily itienced by Coffs wring, bt not an exegesis of tT wah to expand wo features of frame asl tat, T Delve, ine ot tecelved sient anon the extent fo wich fer tnt ames of enpeiene are stable, snd the rations among the Ffymed selves ofthe tndivsuai—in ther words the extent of ‘turenes alowed etwaenfames, fy Core Fas eas Like many socal worlds (acting, storyteling), fantasy games produge a "make-believe" world set apart ftom the everyday ‘orld, By playing fantasy games, participants impliily saree to “vce” the world outside the game. Yet ultimately all events ae grounded in the physical werd. As Goffman notes: sel od a spat ston ke beleve les bu {hove words een ely be sponte val word. (Ga Ye oleea Farhemoe, understating othe fig an of Sant jae eipelonct ie segue te "ete can ea trite snoting fn sy NO (State eons bas & set of tansfrmaton as that ete ey eats et hv ets weeds cae etc eacawen tracy enh icy Fran snd Ges how are typically bounded by the footight. For games, such as bridge, mesning-elevant actions have « particalarly ated patina: [Players] donot treat the fact thatthe other player with Aras a card from his hand and places ton the tble asthe event “puting down a pasteboard” of “effecting a transla ion of postion ofa card," but rather through the transla~ tion of the car's poston the player signalizes that “he has played the ace of spades athe fist card ofthe tick.” {Goines 196136, quoting Gane! upebinhl peer, ‘The rules of the game and the meaning ofthese rues imbve the fame with its meaning (Riezer 1841). Games, trough the trans formation of events embedded in natural interaction, constitute world-bulding activites (Gofiman 1961:27, ‘This assignment of meaning through transformation applies to fantasy gaming, but because ofthe attempt to simulate a world of interation, the properties of this transformation are somevhi ‘more complicated than those of other games, such as bridge, chess, or backgammon. In those games the simulated actions ‘hove an arbitrary relation fo naturally oscurting events, Putting down a card has symbolic meaning in the game world, bat it has ‘no regularly expected meaning inthe nongame word. In fastasy taming the relationship between the meaning ofan action within the game and natural interaction is closer. In board games, such as backgammon, dice determine the ‘outcome of sequential action, but in fantasy games, alike in backgammon, the dice generat actions that could oscar in the real world. A'roll of xin backgammon means that the player's Piece gets to advance six spaces on the board; that samme six in fantasy gaming means that a player's character succesfully bashes an opponent. While both ofthese ations are unreal, they are unreal in diferent ways. In backgammon the pieces do move six spaces—a physical movement of a material object—bat the spaces have no inherent meaning. No physical movemeat occurs in fantasy gaming, since the actions of characters ae internally represented; however, within the framework ofthe game the bash {s areal one, and the character who is bashed i realy inured ‘The world of fantasy gaming and the rules that structure that world do not have physical effects, but the consequences aro ® Cape i. men in hw eat a ans See Sa aeaestoe Paap titre cease stefan aagaeht naa tics saci cctrreroe Caen Seat wisheramr ast fe iancatmiatartameae ee Se Saaenmacuenneets wramiirarestameeran ier rey nas autocrat Civmsesseemre ere Cn sperm toree oa Se sl eS ei ttn Seg eictoert ptad ‘work must be seen as desirable alternatives in order for the game eee Fae es in Fay Gig is neither realistic nor useful to provide an exhaustive lst tthe types offrames available to individuals. As Goffman notes, frames are embedded within frames, andthe structure ofthese framing devices, ether Keyings or fabrications, may be comple Infantasy paming, thereare keyings (and sometimes fabrications) nestled within the original frame. Characters sometimes find it Frecessary to trick others by pretending that they (the characters) sre someone other than who they “really” are. This can be schieved by invoking. 2 magical spell (*Transmorph,” “Dis sulse") or by playing one's character as ithe were someone ese. Characters pretend tobe weaty strangers while they are actually the foes of those they altempt to deceive. In ane EPT seenato, ‘our party visited a dungeon in which several characters were ‘rapped in a magical mural that contained "fantasy" figures with ‘hom our "eal characters ha to deal node to esape, Oat Characters were doing this atthe same time that other characters ‘were in the room watching us trying to escape from the enchanted Imoral, The activity inthe murl was a Keying from our status a8 Characters, which in tam rested on the keyings of the gxming framework, further based upon a Keying ofthe primary frame: ‘work ofthe players,oJ roms ad Goes 1 is not important to presenta list ofthe schemas of belie that are possible in the enming world. What i important i tht transformations of realms of action de acer, and vary great in conteat and structure. T shall simplify matters by focusing on three levels of meaning, drawing on the vast tangle of ether Possible keyngs and fabrications only when necessary for exp ation, Fst, gaming, tke all activity, is rounded in the “primary framework” the commonsense understandings that people have of the real world. This is action without laminations. tis « ‘ramework that doesnot depead on other frameworks bat onthe timate reality of events Second, players must deal with the game context; they are players whose actions are governed by a complicated st of Fles and constraints. They manipulate their characters, having Kao. edge ofthe structure of the game, and having approximately the same knowledge that other players have, Players do not operate in light of their primary frameworks—in terms of what i phys ‘ally possble—but in light of the conventions of the game Finally, this gaming world is Keyed in that the players not nly manipulate characters; they are characters. The character entity is separate from the player identity, In this, fantasy ‘aming is dstine from other games I males no sense in chess Lo speak of “black" as being distint from Karpoy the player although one can speak of Karpov the payer a diferent fom Karpov the man). The pieces in chess ("back") have no more of less knowledge than their animator. However, Sir Ralph the ‘Rash, the doughty knight, lacks some information that his player has (for example, about characteristic of ether cheractrs, and spheres of game knowledge outside his Ken such as clcial Iiracles) and fas some information that his player lacks (about the stea where he was raised, which the referce must supply when necessary). To speak of «chess knight as having diferent Knowiedge ftom its animator might make for good fantasy but aot for meaningful chess. Each ofthese three levels has its own structure of meaaing Gaad its own shared understandings). Thos in chapter 4 T di cussed the friendship culture of players, which corresponds to their primary understandings, and their gaming culture, which corresponds tothe payer's information shout the game. might have pushed the point and argued that the characters inthe game hate Si characters in pay have thir own “cute” ut dat i el ve had ee ees of puting eat roms See moorings althoug ie ooy soc an lis ght fave been jes es Canes ery frame has meaings asad with ily but these mening ce not necestarly shared wih ites (person, ly Seen Sec) eperating nor ames, Bulg on Ger ai Seats ails “warner Coan ad Son nerien” {ise T wah to extend the comtrct of awareness lunderstanding of levels of measiag and experience. Contours of irs cinta Sr ah ae Sat cre ce tbs Ce ee er renga “ Glaser and Strauss (1964) distinguish four structural types of she cyet e ee narSad lanrtacettyatuteese ina onc te cal al ier oe, ey ene aya cee a nner ea ae nal te erent nae ie Sere Sa Gooey heeds cee eae ee SL tee a ee tag ee erie ements carve* Fes es enyng the existence ofthe oer frames a6 reals of expe face, Open awareness dens he cngroshng characte one Closed avareness contexts and soapcion warnes cote seem equal rare: spit personas or recovering opt pea ies re example of hve sats, bet thee pope ses pak ther inal saieanceby thera. Dreamag, hall or ypotc tances represent temporiry shoved svarecss coe text: More character of raming i he pretense sarees ontet the extenc of famesoutie of pinay ements ‘ends onthe ivi’ being wing to erume an re tess of his ther scves, The actor's characier pretense Know nothing ofthe actor's ef nd hnowedge but ts onl a pretence of ignorance for nondissociated indivi In the guest ayers ust play by the fle and refi from using fer seve tht a int Tew haar mst row only tht information which is avaatle within he game frame ‘and not what the player or the person knows. fae ‘The characters nppoved operat nde the constants of closed avareess context with regard tos animator along ths ofcourse is pretense. Baan player person and che ter share a bri this separaon ot owicaye on occasion itnored. Character do dr on tei animators knowlege ot contemporary realty when thet carer could no! have is ‘owed thy can draw on tei player knowledg of pane cents ouside of ther own omiadg. Alo pyers an proms 4 unnare of the spetliza knowlege that thei characte five, These problems arte when one opkeys fom ons pinay framework. Tati not considered a problem when pero! admit knowledge of the game stu or actions of chaace®, tnd disput aie becaoe payers Know wha tc cares ‘row. Only i situaons that in theory are cloned anarenest contexts at in elty se pretense awareness contexts fn ch Advantages are tobe gained in the application of svarens) “Siculies occur T shall exanine each of these problemas omponents of avateess context, and the Sica einpl ations for tame eal Character awareness of person realy, Characters vse nowiedgo of Inte twentth century America to sect and cyalate game options. Tecnica ts i consred po ale Playing, bu ii unttonal within the game content becuse ‘Byer the character an advantage not otherwise avalible. Tt ‘a ote: Si iasud is most relevant to the two games based on medieval Furdpe, © & Sand D & D. For a character to know sbout Hdyanced weapon design or the laws of physics gives him an vantage, unles all n that station (including nonplayer char. ter) share that knowledge. The slippage of awareness poses 2 problem forthe referee, who must distinguish the charter’ {Spina knowledge from his animator’ knowledge of @ more tetpnlosially advanced age (see Ward 1978-7), Referees some- tine allow this tainted Knowledge in tbe game in order t eappite game evens, but they may exclude information if ‘hafacters seem to know too much; + Sometimes they'll try to apply twentiet-century knowl ‘ge to = medicvl skustion, « .- They love to invent the saiplane. A Tot of people want tobe clever; they’ in 1 vent the cannon. And Til say, "Fie, what metallurgical 22 sproesses do you wish fo apply to refine the iron ore to This quality?” and they go, “Huh? Doesn't somebody know?" They don't really know themselves how to do juss. You know, you're acting out of character, so I'm ‘ot going to pve You the Benet of the doubt (Personal in terview! uc Payers incomplete knowledge allows referesto reste the agen of chareter, and to proves the pts awaretess solcu fom shiftng foo obviously to an open awareness con feat Relerees cam merely dasow know, Bo ths rales ‘Mnsioms when the character oes "infact" know what he ina Minow In these situations the referee sad player must deter imi theextemotthechancters koowodge. Tis complicated By tne fat tat releecs crite wore hte not stored ‘pleas ofthe European Middle-Ages. La fanany, is possible {or the charcters to how anyhing. Despite sexy fRauny both players and rere recognize tht medieval char tater should ot have too mich infomation gleaned [rom entomporay stolarthip and shina tine Chri arenes fle ey, Tal ee docs not Teeve the ging are when cer player characters are ‘venturing outige of te pred presence of that player's Shucater ts enpected tate ayer can sil the nfrmaion fe receives ftom his character, Here again payers operate ia & _prctense avatenee contexte chases mt peed ooey Fase nd Ges ‘know something the players know. I is in the interest of characters (ose this information, although i contaminate the roleplaying ‘When the information gained might directly influence the game (oflen when some characters are atempting to devise fabrication to trap others), the refere or othe pavers may insist. that players leave the geming area Rowand (the referee) els our party to leave the table while he is refereeing another spaceship which misjumped into 2 planet controlled by our enemies, fearing that we woule find out too much about their military system. [Feld note] ‘The integrity of the distribution of information precludes partici- pation by al players. In this instance, our group waited fr f five minates while Howard resolved the scenario, Referees typically do not isis tha players eave the geming ares, but they do ty to prevent players from using the informa tion. Enforcement is dificult because a character may actin legitimate fashion but do. so because of information he has acquried “ilegtimately.” Ifa player discovers that » particular dungeon room contains a very hunery dragon witha very smal lweasure, the player's character might choote another door. The ‘character might have done that anyhow, but this information makes the possibility acertainy. Similan, ia payer lens that ‘another's character plans to steal his treasure, he will take precautions to protect his wealth—precautions that he might not have taken otherwise. Players often use information thi wa, td referees can ot abut player who makes cyical seat is pretense avareness context However, refers have some power in controling the spread of information among frames when the souree of that informatio s obvious. Thus we Rind the following debate among players about a character's personal knowledge of another char Barry: V'm going to see my father inthe Great White Lodge [8 magical lodge that other characters have mentioned, and, which he knows about as a player—but not asa charac: ter—of which his father i the leader. George: You don't know anything abou the Grest White im at St George: Well you might have heard about it. Barry: in mythology, you know. ‘George: Tats about sll you've beard. You don't even know there isa leader there. Barry: Yes, 1. GAP. You certainly don't know it's your father. Barry: No, but always wanted to see hi George: Well, but everybody wants to se somebody impor- ant, That doesnt mean anything. [Field notes] ‘Although Barry 38a player knows ofthe Great White Lodge, this information must be shielded from his character; he is freed t0| ‘dopa pretense awareness context, eventhough some leeway is ‘lowed: This slippage in awareness i also seen in the following » eyample from EPT: te Roger has been informed by other players that a party his character was not in had met some Run ia the dungeon of his castle, but bis character, Lord Ahanbasrim, had not been told Roger keeps making reference to these cres- furs, and finally the referes tolls him (Lord Abanbusim): "You doa’t know these Rua are er, 0 stop pretend: {ng that you do.” (Field notes), _, Some referes extend their concern with the degree of players" awareness and suggest tha, as in "rel life" characters should ‘ot know the probabilities in the game werd (he rules of the tame with thelr percentages of success). This secretivencss— Keeping the player ignorsat 0 that his character will be igno- rant—adds (othe verisiiliude of the simulation according (0 some referees: have long felt It best fr the players nor 19 know al the rules of the game they are playing. Even if a referee] ute lizes a patcnar eet of [rele playa] rules, she or be should change the rule (characterises of "monsters" or Iagical items, ete) jut to Keep things interesting, [Sustare 1979:21; italics in orginal) [Most referees find this approach cumbersome; int players’ demands for complete awareness. As one player ‘commented in an adventure in which this rule was enforced, +» "Don't yoo just hate ot knowing what's going on?" Asa result, many referees permit slippage between character and player Enowiedge.™ Fae a ae ‘This means thatthe referee must create the world us the same proceeds, according to the needs of the characters. Since referees can’t plan the details oftheir world too far in advance, they may have nonplayer characters give the payer-character fess information than might reasonably be expected (ar partyin Traveler ros nto several Gipemesters merchant ships Altiough the commandos of hese sp {etn they as poreye by Howard thee) ase ove us ay information about mips ase The reason for this bums lear when we ate lowes ‘apo sce Although haste planes acto, he hs note en them ay hacer snd pre es fot ow ent boot he to answer aur qos. (Field notes) “ . The referees animator of nonplyer characteris not aware of af the information that he pli has y being "God." Tis Structure of avereac as npatons fo he operation of) “Avareness contest and frames. In exaiing elaonships amos the rls tht insane adopt wil eran. Thee sages that tore re iets nt awareness ht pessos have of ther keyed ies. My intrest sinh lato aon a india’ selves (and the ifoaton contol by selves) i ict res Tsun ha her ile cotuo sovledge, and paripants must cite, if ey ae 10 ‘iin frame, hth preensof awareness is amitaed fort isthe pretense of awarenes Sopa wih the ponte or éegrosment thet compre he bs of behavior win ame T have staged tht tre Sse fans crate nna) ‘aming ad that each hese hava worl of inoage sat {vith the word of coramensens knowledge pruned in ‘res prinary fran work, the wort of gune rues grounded in the ge stot andthe Knowles of he fantasy wert Ge a hypothetel primary Famewor) The individual hs he Flt nd responsibly to Ero shut theft, and tps ceo lear about hemit he wishes. The thd wots a theay kao nly though the character a a pastes Know hugh he Fefere and hough acon inthe pune This hnowedge the, tien iouccesuible. Tis stuton isnot ign te pani, ut ‘plies to all role playing—acing, spying In pus, or ding O ape it coiic impressions. While the person isthe person he is playing, fe only knows limited amount of information about that person fnd i unable to generate more knowledge. Further, if the role- Playing is effective, he is limited co knowing only what tht Fadividual Knows, This is what makes role-playing dificult: the player must block information abou the game and the contempo- Fay world thatthe character would not know, while simulta- ‘ously not leting his own ignorance of the fantasy world alfest the succesful ation ofthe character. Using awareness effetive- Iy is itimately connected tothe keying of social words Every social world bas its own sirueture of meaning. Its my contention that although the specie structure of fantasy role ‘pla samings unique, the processes being examined here charac: {eres other social Worlds ae well Consider spying. Here we find ‘splonape agents acting undercover, portraying the roles of other {real or fictitious) individuals Atleast tivo levels of awareness fperate here: the spy in his “real” identity and the spy in his Sfesumed identity (Gee Gotiman 1969}, The spy knows only ‘hose details about his “assumed” self hat he is told wad cannot recall othe "biographical facts." ‘Thus the spy is like the player portreying a fantasy character Likewise, the "assumed identity” Eannot Know those things that the spy would know (as the tedieval character cannot know about modern technology). The Spyrin disguise can be uncovered if he knows things that the pevsou he's portraying couldnt know—as Wel, F cOUrSe, as not knowing things he would surely have kaown. “Acting and storytelling provide simular instances of several personae being enacted by 2 single indvidal in different frames, The actor and storyteller must make sure that the character docs’ eaen what the animator knows, and in tur the animator can't peek into the character's world o Tear ost ite bit more (ether than through the use of imagination, grounded in the wre word), Yet the assumed” persona must be real tothe audience, Whenever we step ou of our primary frameworks into ‘ew selves” for extended periods (even in dreams, reveries, of the lke, the ive of “self-awareness must be addressed "The examples presented represent the ations of profesional keyers and fabricators, but what about everyday life? The dramaturgical analogy sigeess that We areal keyers and fibre tors. The person consists ofa bundle of dents that are more ot less compatible, but which when enacted must presume a lack of"6 Fares ns Gare veces that te estes are possible, The entity ena ‘is grounded im the assumption that that is the “real ° deny, Aboud often the orator wall aware tha sa Shosen or pups of mpreson mangement These Petentaton des not merely involve manta propre {5 herent ny, bao vss consents er Henities tt ae eter incompatible stn awareness ofthe inpretsion mania! no Conscios, the snl atop Peween she brevet Adieu the ens enacted in everyey tee ton ares int rom each ote tan toe found i he oe matic xan, sting Fes Frames have diferent evel of stability By that if abt, By tha mean hat some tames osilate rapihy—op-keving or down keying le Suenty—while ober ames ae comparatively stable The tear fist remain in the part of is character comtnoeuly while onstage; similarly, the py ndings anno switch ans wil ut sme anger Interstates (ean pons, af fiasy gaming. frame switching pel pose no Sal problem for paripants The tet ofa evicting cn be sen ncn a s2erosment Goffman 1974345). Games are cxigned to provide engrssale™ systems of experience in which prtients can become caught up. In fat, navital do get caught "st fantasy gaming: however, his engrossnent Is fskeing i Yalvement—it depends on evens that accu nthe game Wort Players do become involved when they face amor bt ence ths encounter s completed, they may retin to “mapa sixessions about polis, pends, o the lates siene ton novel, even though the gue cones 1 addition tothe recogton tht engtossment is esenih forthe stably of the Tenasy fame, one should coniger the atest ofthe voluntary satire ofthe fame and the “T= at ‘bedded init Volunary frames, fates in which persons S26 no consine fo ny, ae more tly fo be api ayes a ae mandatory Games —alhough this, of wuts, a aet of degree. Iti ot oly the ano of enrosoment hat the actor finds in his character's role at sabes the pay, bul the a ap i consequences of breaking frame. In voluntary activities, such as famtany gaming, there are few aversive consequences for breaking frame, Frame switching is considered lptimate as long as it does fot overly affect the continuation ofthe game: ‘When one player takes time out to answer the telephone, the play may be stopped in mid-ale, being transfxable for hy period of time, but not the social afr, the gaming en- ‘SDumter, fr this can be threatened and even destroyed if the absent player is held too Tong on the telephone or must feturn with tragic news. (Golan 1961:36) Because it is voluntary, fantasy gaming permits sie involve- iments to take prevedeniee—a point strcturally diferent from hhow engrossed one ea become in the game ‘A tir point relevant tothe nature offrame-bresking within the gaming encounter concerns "fun." "Fun" would seem 0 be sige gua non for gaming, but “fan” is Mickering experience, fd slong with # fckers engrossment and the stability ofthe fame. When other sidenvolvements are perceived to have [Beater rewards in ters of "enjoyment," the game wil be put {sideiemporaily of permanently. The search for fun also leeds to players “toying” wit their play (Gofinaa 1961:36-37). Sie- Iavalvements, frequent and enjoyable enough, may be incorpo- fated as regular parts of games (such a inserting gambling with real coins within the structure of fantasy games), Both voluntary Involvement and fun are related to the nature and extent of tngrossment—ut these are analytically separable constructs hat Siectengrossment while increasing or deeeasing the likelihood of frameshifting. ‘Mundane shits of levels oocur when the fantasy is interrupt- co bythe pressures ofthe eal world—the ringing telephone, the ‘rdeting (and then eating) of pizza, or the biological needs of Dartcipants, These activities gonerate breaks in the game—and Uown-Ley te interaction tothe "eal world. The “real world” ‘vill always intrde, forthe gaming structure is wot impermeable to outside events. However, the extent t0 which this down- Keying occurs is also a consequence of interest inthe game. One player comments: ‘From a theoretical standpoint I would guess that a the, {game gets more and more interesting people do less and {Ear tlking out of characters Tm sure that there are‘« Fann aes Simes wen (aking out of character] can be vey, ve Ising ore ose ie wing ae nce, and he players Ket raking comments abt the ‘oom and how the water dd tate vs ould spect tha asthe ame got more and more atone, le would stick more sad more i vole wld stick mre ad more fhe ane sce fer Just as ganes canbe dove keyed keyed 000 cn ay be up ey 10 the level fantasy, which occrs when nes pay rey proves frustrating: vee ‘Al the convention tans the fod od servic i vey slow and diners joke sbout the sped ofthe med, baagag thle Scns nition orawrsine walng te saved ate ates Once seam ‘We rad ‘have brought along dungeon rations,"" tee Gare may 0 inte th lve th up ying of rely. As cused ia chap in near conexs,sefee may ae comet ae by player outside his game role and incorporate rapier incorporate itinto the action Boe ines uae eye to te int where wo meet st Kaigts Tenplar wh tha Lewis's character comes wit theme alk foe Driest. Lewis agrees, and, while atthe church, his charac. {Silt bese hey hak ns then ‘monic. (Field notes} 7 ees oneer, there acompiton ie he xan fe hungry convertion pane hteupeyed cones Ghat Comments gen sh ston eane ov nation hos sives grounded ine une evens: The) ast thee Crentsil ing pane cent cence ay wor hte een fe ap Lyed by eere he te coon ie te gaming frame, Thus the referee's action is a mocking of @ Mocking, whichis accepted spar of the gaming world: CGAF: I sotice in playing atthe Golden Brigade that some refer 28 wl incorporate what people say out of character into the game structure Barker Edo tis 28 a oke, For instance, somebody will make a art crack. Like her sy, “Bullshit,” whereupon Y have ‘ne ofthe Tekumel characters say "What's a ball?” of fay "He ikea the bucket, "Sivy did he do thot?" and "What sas this bucket doing ‘nerein the fst place?” Just to tease them and embarrass {hem srt of and ake them realize that you rust nt shift ‘at of character. [Personal interview) By speaking out of character, players up-key the structure ofthe fame, and Barker upekeys it further by inconporating this talk Faumorousy inthe context of the game. ‘By up keying, players and referees transform game-relev statements into remarks that are not defined in terms ofthe game Context but are based upon it These remarks ate distinet from Secondary involvements and out-oftrame activities, which are ‘ewed as separate and subsidiary to the game. These remarks tee the game framework and can only be understood in this Context although they do not presuppose an extended framed Sei Asa consequence, players can make a up-keyed joke, get a Taugh, end immediately return to character es if nothing had happened Gf the referee or other players don't up-key the remark fare For example, a player who has “haste” spell placed on fis character will himself sa player talk rapidly, Ora dungeon pool of bubbling water is referred vo as "Mountain Dew or “7 Bp? These comments sre not dsattended by players in that they ‘draw laughter, but are dlsatended by the characters whose Sotons afe beng mocked. Only rarely is there confusion about the level on whieh sjocalar statement is tobe taken, Ts such fooling with frames unique to faatasy gamine? ‘Aswuredly not, although there seoms nt to be any generic name for its parallel inthe geal world, except perhaps what we might fal an extended put-oa of informal joking. Friends often "put ‘on characters when gabbing with others, and the others in turn Ihave the opportunity t0 engage in conversations with other personae oF reeround the joking remarks back ino the primarym Fane wd ie ‘framework, as gamers do. These gambits have the same evanes cent quality as fantasy interludes, and perhaps for this reason ‘have been litle studied (See Goffman 1974:87-89; Hall 1974), ‘Despite the possibiites for engrossment in fantasy gaming, frame shifting occurs fequently both up keying (adding laine. tions to the game wor) and dows-Leying (eturaing to players" primary frameworks or to # discussion of the gaming res), ‘These keyings may be stable, chaining the frame for a consider. able period of time, but often are evanescent. The implications of this are consistent with secing intractants nepoiting realty ‘with each other—a reality that is continually in dynamic tension, subject to shifts in interpersonal definitions Pralon a Fare Welton ‘As Gotlman notes, ambiguity inthe interpretation of events isnot uncommon, and this produces dificult in determining hich fame of reference to use to respond to an event: ‘What is ambiguous is the meaning of an event, but what i st stake fs the question of what framework of understand ng to apply aod, once selected, to go on spplying, andthe potential frameworks availabe often difer quite radically, ‘ne from the other, [Goffman 1974304) ‘Although such radical shits do not occur in fantasy gaming, we stl ind ambiguities of frame. We can immagine sch gaming statements as "Did you kl ames?” being taken in two ways, but this confusion did not occur, partly because context and parave- cal elugs indicated that no “real” crime was being discussed, even though “real names were used. The misundersandings between frames are relatively minor more suitable to chuckle than to a blush—and they center around those aspects of the game that have counterparts in the primary frameworks of players: name, place, age, and te, Usually the nature of the speaker (in terms of which keyed identity is taking) and the Keyed identity of the audience can be reasonably well dete mined. However, we do fod some briefly confused situations George asks me: "How old are you?” Thinking of my characte, I say, “Twenty-three.” George: "No, in rel Ife" say, “Twenty-seven.” He comments, i.” [Pild notes a ape ie ‘A group of players were discossing various games that they thd participated in. Sandy was explaining a event in & same he had recently played * Rows Where were you"? ‘Sandy: In Detot + Ron: No, in the gue |.” Sandy: Gver by Sorte huts. (Field notes] “These ambiguities are resolved quickly, because the speaker will + typically provide a corrective secount (Goffman 1974480) which Fas the elect of protecting the other from embarrassment as well, + as gaining the information originally desired. Indeed, if such a yj cometive isnot given, it may well be impossible to know that & mistraming has occurred. + Audiences must determine who the speaker is. They must * discover not enly the touroe of the words, but which of the | speakers selves is doing the talking—the person or the referee, fhe player of the character. The folowing is one of the more # complex confusions ofthis sere: [my character] had gone over tothe and on the docks “I” (my character) ad met "Bary" (Bary's character) “Barry” [the per sonl shakes my hand {my ceal hand] and says, “Nice to “1 eet you [the character)" "fin character} say, “Nice ‘Inet you [Barry's character)” to him. Jerry reems $0" Drised snd asks: “Don't the two of You know each other?” Bary comments, "Not in tis game.” (Feld notes) Tis the game context, players or characters often refer (0 2 character by the person's “real” name, and this practice pro- tices a potential confusion, The “source” of the greeting be- comes unclear, This was especially ikely inthe above example, because Barry and I bad not gamed togeber often, and our characters had not yet matin the game. ‘The ambiguity jn tis instance arose in the physical act of the two persons shaking ‘hands. Only persons or players physically act, not characters— unless these characters are up-keyiag, by pantomiming thet Statements, Thus, had "Barry" sid,“ say ‘nice to mest you" And shake his hand," Jerry would not have become confused ‘Another example of confusion derives from the all-encom- ‘basing caltare of Tekumel:= fee an ane Doug: What be the date? Barker: Its the end of Langs Doug: No, in this world Barker: This world doesa’t exit Doug: I know, bat anyway. Barker: August tent, [Pild notes] ‘This encountor isthe reverse situation of the previous example Inthat situation players assumed they were talking as persons in this situation, players assumed the character was the soutee. Confusion may arise cithor from attributing an action to the primary framework or to one ofits keyed len Comment, “T know, but anyway,” Switching from one frame to another in mid-entence—his char ‘acter says “I know," and his person says "but anyway.” ‘When a linkage can be mace between the two worlds of being that coexisin the gaming encounter, tension (and joking) sound Goffman 1974:77). Through humorous up-keying of game en- counters participants connect the game to a version of the “natural werld"expressed unnaturally through humor. Joking happens when peopl are faced with situation in which altemate perspectives can apply, or in which « sharp dichotomy exists between the player's publicly given impression and the charac- ters attitude expressed within the context ofthe game. Topics i which ambiguity of attribution may be present, and hence implicit tension, are sexuality and aggression and these are topics in ‘which there is much humorous up-Keying, as if to deny the Seriousness of the topics ack (the referee) reports that one soldier in Larry's char acter's army reports feling il, Larry: Remove your clothes. Not him, you. (Fo Jack) “ack sles und gives Lary the finger. (Field notes] Hla: What's 9 bash? ‘Sam: (oking} That means 1 bash you i George: This guy's (Sam's) a psychopath, he chokes people for the fun oft (Sam playfully chokes Hal) (Feld notes] In these examples joking occurs when players make distinctions ‘between the character's orientation and that of the player oF referee. Each example involves & play on words in which the partes to the humor ae portrayed simultancovsly ax persons and as characters. Its this juxtaposition in conunction with the very = hts erent attitudes toward sex and violence between fee-wheeing Characters and rather repressed (nonaggresive, nonsexial) pr Sons, that provides the tension that results im humor. Fama er “ai ‘The world offantasy gaming as. framed world is both typical aind unique I is unique inthe particular experiences it eeates tnd the rules necessary to crate those experiences. At the same time ii typical of other forms of soci life in that it permits the api shifting of frames and requires the enactment of several framed seives, While not every situations characterized by both fsellation of frames and pretense awareness, the former i found Wnmany situations of play and informality and the later is found in station in which the person “seis” a roe other than the one TD which he feels entitled (not only acting and espionage, but many forms of impression managoment). In other words, the performer recognizes the existence of several selves that must be Jee, hidden, or exhumed when appropriate. Both, then, characterize “everyday life” as well a this pastime. "The point, of course, isnot thal we can generalize directly from the description of fantasy gaming; rather, fantasy gaming. provides satiag in which the dynamics of feaming are particu {avy central othe enterprise and are evident to the participants In this chapter I have atiempted to extend Gottman’ argument by specifying two components of frame analysis: (1) the relation ship among identities generated in diferent frames, and @) the Stability of frames. If we assume, as 1 do, that these issues transcend the narrow socal scene Ihave described, they open the ‘way for further investigations ofthe relationships among fumes, tengrossient, and identities, which Goffman only hints ‘Specifically, have argued that frames have diferent stabi ities, Some, svch as in fantasy gaming, mock fighting, and {informal tai are flexible, while others, such as the dramatic {ame or malicious fabrications, typicelly are more stable. Central to the stability of frames are the level of engrossment possible ‘within them and the external (social a political) consequences of Upkeying and down-keying. The possblity of the rapid osils- ‘don of frames suggests that frame stablity and change should be ‘conceptualized as an interactional achievement of members rath fr than as a function of stable situated meaning. Since particoe Fares ad Goes pnts commonly and cooperatively shift frames in the same situation frames are not merely a shared inividval schema that ‘a triggered by the objective properties of a situation; ater, they are part ofa dynamic consensus that canbe bracketed, ltered, oF restored through the collective ation of the participants The other focus ofthis chapter is related t0 the first, On ‘occasions in which tome frame switching occurs, actors must ‘eal with the knowledge that adheres to each of the “nested denies they present. In some caves, as in fantasy gaming, this ‘may pose interactional dificlties, particularly when up-keyed figures know both more and less than their dowa keyed counter prs. This leads the actor 1 adopt a pretense awareness context lamong kis own selver. The implications snd generality of this “inner espionage” remain to be explored in depth, although it would not be unreasonable to assume that regur pretenders have distinely diferent interactional styles than those, who engage in such activities less frequently. Pollowingintersctionst theory I have conceived of persons 28 clletions of selves oF identities, However, such selves typically are seen as operating sequentially and ia isolation from each other; frame analsie suggests that we need to examine the ects of simultaneously setvated selves on worlds of meaning Seven t Role-playing and M Person-playing 1A central feature of fantasy role-playing games that sin ie auishes them fom oer leisuretime avis fs that they, w8 1 thie ame reminds ws, jvolve role-playing In all games succes E {fat payers must be sie at "role taking" they mus accurately previ and react tothe actions af the oer patcpans. Yet the faatasy game player dos not only take ona oe! Ia fantasy role saying ames he not ony deteraies what others wil do, bt « Goes so while playing a charactr—a hypothetical person With 4 sttbutes, fears, emotions, and goals. In chaper 6 argued that Selves operate on three levelethe primary framework, the sv guing frame, andthe fantasy frame. The fst two are iectly 1 Sonmected tothe person, wil the this va portant sens @ tole sharply distinguished from the person Corner 1978; Goffman 1974:208-78. oe characters that players adopt ae figures ia much the same way that Goffin talks of store and actresses When an acres takes on the stage part of Cea Cope one, abe animates a make ble person, a stage charac- ter By using much the spe pica! confgration— her (wa body fern the case of these gamers, thei voscel—she «Ean ptuect nie fer em as; ore nage goddess zombie, «vampire, a fesby me Feast Gens tGcdman 50 : Fantasy games ar similar othe theater, but withthe ference that the games we inprovsatona. Sgniennty, one of be ‘aimed benefits of these games i Inereased thespian sks. In"Gary Alan Fine S pared Fantasy Role-Playing Games as Social Worlds The University of Chicago Press Chicago and London