Utah State University

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All Graduate Plan B and other Reports Graduate Studies, School of

4-1-2013

The Relationship Between Confidence and

Performance Throughout a Competitive Season
Benjiman R. Skinner

Recommended Citation
Skinner, Benjiman R., "The Relationship Between Confidence and Performance Throughout a Competitive Season" (2013). All
Graduate Plan B and other Reports. Paper 285.
http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/gradreports/285

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 The Relationship Between Confidence and Performance
Throughout a Competitive Season
by

Benjiman R. Skinner

A Plan B research project submitted in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

in

Health and Human Movement

from

Health, Physical Education and Recreation

Approved:

______________________ ___________________
Richard D. Gordin, Ed.D. John M. Kras, Ed.D.
Major Professor Committee Member

______________________
Hilda A. Fronske, Ed.D
Committee Member

UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY

Logan, Utah
2013
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 2

Abstract
The importance of understanding how confidence varies across time has been encouraged

by sport confidence researchers (Vealey & Chase, 2008). The purpose of this study was

to examine the relationship between confidence and performance throughout an entire

competitive season. Two levels of confidence consistent to team sports were analyzed.

Team and coach confidence were collected through the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire

for Sport (CEQS) and Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES) respectively. Two teams, women’s

soccer and volleyball (n=48) from a college in the western United States, completed their

specific questionnaires five times throughout the season. The CEQS measured collective

efficacy (team confidence) and the CES measured coaching efficacy (coach confidence)

for each team. Simple linear regressions were used to determine the relationship team

confidence and coaching confidence had on the success of each team. Pearson’s

correlation coefficients were taken to determine if team and coach confidence were

connected throughout the season. Volleyball was statistically significant for both team

and coach confidence at p = 0.033 and p = 0.040 respectively, with a .68 correlation

coefficient. Conversely, the soccer team was not statistically significant for both team and

coach confidence at p = 0.53 and p = 0.93 for each. There was, however, a strong

correlation coefficient at .89 for the two levels. The findings suggest that team and coach

confidence may be related and associated with the success of the team. The results also

hint, through the correlation coefficients, that team and coach confidence may be

connected.
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 3

Introduction
Confidence is a quality found in many aspects of society. Therefore, confidence

isn’t a stranger to sport, when it can be associated with qualities like mental toughness,

poise, grit, belief, courage, and heart. These qualities are descriptive verbs that are

constantly used when describing someone who is successful. Recent research has shown

that success has affected the level of confidence and confidence can affect success

(Covassin & Pero, 2004; Hays, Maynard, Thomas, & Bawden, 2007; Hays, Thomas,

Maynard, & Bawden, 2009). Elite athletes have revealed that confidence affects their

performance through their thoughts, behaviors, and feelings (Hays et al. 2009). Levy,

Nicholls, and Polman (2010) found that subjective performance and confidence were

statistically significant and positively correlated.

The world of sport recognizes the importance that confidence has on success

(Vealey & Chase, 2008). Athletes are constantly evaluated on the level of confidence

they have in their abilities to perform. Coaches, fans, and media constantly discuss

confidence when talking about the ability to win. Confidence can affect performance

when our efficacy expectation is strong and our abilities are clearly developed (Bandura,

1977). Self-confidence is a term known to more than sport, influencing Vealey (1986) to

coin the term “sport-confidence.”

Trait/State Distinction

Confidence has been described in two categories, trait and state. Trait-confidence

can be defined as a dispositional feeling about being able to perform a task, whereas

state-confidence refers to a more “in the moment” belief about being able to perform the

task (Vealey, 1986). Understanding the two main concepts can play a crucial role in
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 4

understanding where a person’s confidence level is at and how to help them achieve a

higher level of confidence. Vealey (1986) took this idea and developed the trait-

confidence (SC-trait) and state-confidence (SC-state) and developed inventories for

conceptualizing sport-confidence, namely the Trait Sport Confidence Inventory and State

Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI & SSCI).

Researchers were critical of the inventories, citing that SC-trait only predicts SC-

state and thereby renders it ineffective (LeUnes, p. 168). These criticisms lead Vealey to

develop the Sport-Confidence Inventory (SCI) (Vealey & Knight, 2002; LeUnes, p. 168).

Other inventories have been developed as well to help strengthen the research in sport-

confidence, including the Carolina Sport-Confidence Inventory (CSCI) and the

Competitive Orientation Inventory (COI) (Manzo, Silva III, & Mink, 2001; Vealey

1986).

Sources of Sport-Confidence

Confidence has been researched from these and other assessments to help identify

how confidence plays a role in the success in sport. Understanding where confidence

plays a role in sport starts with the recognition of how confidence is developed in sport.

A variety of research shows that there are sources of confidence that help establish and

strengthen the confidence level of a person (Bandura, 1977; Hays, Maynard, Thomas, &

Bawden, 2007; Vealey, Hayashi, Garner-Holman, & Giacobbi, 1998; Wilson, Sullivan,

Myers, & Feltz, 2004).

Bandura (1977) established that there were four sources of efficacy (confidence):

personal accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological

 Confidence and Performance Across Season 5

states. Vealey et al. (1998) added onto Bandura by establishing the Sources of Sport

Confidence Questionnaire (SSCQ) and found nine sources of confidence: mastery, social

support, physical/mental preparation, coach’s leadership, demonstration of ability,

vicarious experience, environmental comfort, situational favorableness, and physical self-

presentation. Wilson et al. (2004) found that a confirmatory factor analysis failed to find

the same 9-factor structure found by the SSCQ, but rather an 8-factor minus the

situational favorableness as well as fewer items. More recent research has been

conducted and found that 9 sources of confidence were instrumental in confidence:

Preparation, performance accomplishments, coaching, innate factors, social support,

experience, competitive advantage, self-awareness, and trust (Hays et al. 2007).

To look at sources of sport-confidence the research by Kingston, Lane, and

Thomas (2010) examined how the sources of sport-confidence can affect elite athletes

performance. They found a significant effect in time-to-competition; citing that

demonstration of ability, physical/mental preparation, physical self-presentation, and

situational favorableness was viewed as factors relating to sport-confidence during the

pre-competition phase. Kingston et al. (2010) suggests that understanding where an

athlete’s confidence derives from before competition is essential for development of the

athlete’s confidence.

Resilient Confidence

Confidence for an athlete has been previously thought to be high and stable in

order for an athlete to have success. Research in the confidence-performance relationship

found that performance affects confidence and confidence affects performance. A

change in either will elicit a change in the other, for good or bad. This concept has been
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 6

termed “confidence-performance spirals” by Lindsley, Brass, and Thomas (1995) who

suggest that upward spirals might not always be beneficial; citing that success will

typically occur after an athlete has been faced with failure and learns from it. Bandura

and Jourden (1991) found that consistent success leads to complacency and eventually

overconfidence.

Many situations can cause an athlete, team or coaching staff to stumble in their

confidence. Different obstacles, like choking in sport, may lower their self-confidence

level, being one of four results as described by the athletes. This, unfortunately, can be a

vicious cycle because the athletes revealed that because their confidence was lowered,

they expected to fail more (Hill, Hanton, Matthews, & Fleming, 2009). Failure can

actually help athletes and teams by keeping them focused on development and

preparation, but if athletes lack the ability to overcome setbacks or failures, then their

confidence and performance could drop. Galli and Vealey (2008) found five “general

dimensions” that can be used as a model to help athletes and teams develop the resilient

characteristic needed in order to use the failures as strengths. The general dimensions

were breadth and duration, agitation, personal resources, sociocultural influences, and

positive outcomes.

Vealey et al. (2008) discuss the idea that confidence might need to fluctuate in

order for athletes to have consistent success. For an athlete to have continued success

their focus should be on where they failed thus leaded to success in the future. When an

athlete focuses on where they failed during a success, it can keep their confidence from

moving to overconfidence through the upward spiral (Vealey et al. 2008).

 Confidence and Performance Across Season 7

However, Bandura (1997) found that developing a “resilient” confidence is

needed to weather the obstacles and problems that can arise in sport. Elite athletes

described this resilient confidence as an “unshakable self-belief” as necessary for success

(Jones, Bray, Mace, MacRae, & Stockbridge 2002; Bull, Shamrock, James, & Brooks

2005, Vealey et al. 2008) Having a level of confidence high enough for athletes to rise

over obstacles but low enough that they understand that work can be done to better

themselves might be key to having consistent success.

Confidence still must be strong, leading researchers to determine from a

qualitative analysis, with a small focus group and individual interviews of elite athletes,

that in order to have a “robust” sport-confidence level, the athlete(s) need to have “A set

of enduring, yet malleable positive beliefs that protect against the ongoing psychological

and environmental challenges associated with competitive sport.” Emphasis was placed

on a “set” of positive beliefs and not just one factor (Thomas, Lane, & Kingston, 2011).

Understanding the need for steady, strong, and modest confidence, Vealey et al. (2008)

suggests that research is needed to investigate the resiliency of athletes’ confidence

across time and different obstacles.

Confidence Layers

Vealey (2009) discusses how athletes’ level of self-confidence is “embedded

within increasingly broader layers of confidence.” Athletes, teams and coaches,

respectively, are levels of wide-ranging peaces of sport-confidence that assist in the

development of confidence for an athlete, team, coach and the whole organization

(Vealey p. 43-44). Jong, Ruyter, and Wetzels (2006) researched a potential link between

employee confidence and performance and found that there was a statistically significant
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 8

“reciprocal, causal relationship.” Since sport can be associated as a business, it is

essential to know how different pieces of confidence affects the overall success of a team

throughout a season. Doing so could strengthen the impact of consideration taken by a

team, coach or organization in enhancing these mental aspects at all levels.

The Present Study

The purpose of this study was to examine confidence across a competitive season

and investigate how it was connected to the performance of the teams throughout the

season and if the team and coach confidence aspects are correlated. Analysis of the

coaches’ confidence, and teams’ confidence levels was examined throughout the season.

Examining the team and coach aspects of confidence across a season could indicate

whether each could be associated to the other aspect of confidence, as well as their

overall success or failure as a team.

Methods
Participants

The participants were a sample of 41 collegiate athletes from a university in the

western part of the United States and 7 coaches from two teams. The participants

included a sample of (N =3) men and (N = 45) women. The three men sampled are

coaches from the two teams. The other 4 coaches and 41 athletes are women. Of the

athletes sampled, (n = 27) were from the women’s soccer team, their age was between 18

and 21 years (19.1 +/- 1.0 years) and their average time on the team was 2.1 years (SD

+/- 1.1 years). The other athletes, (n = 14) were from the women’s volleyball team with

their age between 18 and 21 years (19.6 +/- 1.2 years) and their average time on the team
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 9

was 2.5 years (SD +/- 1.0 years). Of the coaches sampled, (n = 4) from the soccer team,

their age was between 22 and 40 years (30.8 +/- 8.6 years) and their average time on the

team was 3.8 years (SD +/- 4.3 years). The other coaches, (n = 3) were from the

volleyball team with their age between 30 and 45 years (36.3 +/- 7.8 years) and their

average time on the team was 4.8 years (SD +/- 2.9 years). The ethnicity of the two teams

was fairly similar. Overall, 44 where Caucasian, 2 were Pacific Islanders, 1 was Asian-

American and 1 was African-American. Two athletes, one from each team, started the

study and participated in the “pre” data collection, but were no longer with the team

before the ¼ data collection. There answers were excluded from the analysis.

Instrumentation

General Questionnaire. The general questionnaire was designed for this study.

This questionnaire was a 4-item self-report measure intending to receive the demographic

information needed to complete the study. The four items inquired about demographic

information (i.e. age, gender, ethnicity, year in school [year coaching at school]). It was

administered only the first time during the preseason assessment for descriptive purposes.

Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sports. Short, Sullivan, and Feltz (2005),

as a multidimensional measurement scale, introduced the Collective Efficacy

Questionnaire for Sport (CEQS) (a =0.97) to determine a group or team collective

efficacy. This inventory is a 20-item self-report measure using an 10-point Likert scale, 0

“Not at All Confident” and 9 “Extremely Confident.” To make up the 20 items, the

CEQS has 5 factors in which it measures collective efficacy; Ability (a = 0.92), Effort (a

= 0.88), Persistence (a = 0.85), Preparation (a = 0.89) and Unity (a = 0.85). Adjustments

were made to the instructions of the questionnaire, in this study, by explaining that the
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 10

“the upcoming game/competition” portion of the instructions were to be taken generally

as all upcoming games or competitions to compensate for only collecting at the quarter

points in the season. Each athlete can score from 0 to 180, which is the sum of all

subscales. To get a quantitative number as to the team’s collective efficacy, the mean of

the sum of all subscales for each athlete represented their collective efficacy.

Coaching Efficacy Scale. To understand the level of efficacy that a coach has,

Feltz, Chase, Moritz, and Sullivan (1999) developed the model known as the Coaching

Efficacy Scale (a = 0.95). A 24-item scale derived from 4 factors suggested for a coach to

have efficacy; Game strategy (a = 0.88), Motivation (a = 0.91), Technique (a = 0.89),

Character Building (a = 0.88). An overall coaching efficacy score was obtained by

calculating the mean of the sum of all subscales for all coaches.

Team/Coach Success Variable. To assess the teams’ and coaches’ success,

obtaining the win/loss percentage of each team will be required for the evaluation. Each

time data is collected; the teams’ “current overall” win/loss percentage will be acquired.

The final win/loss percentage will be obtained at the end with the last evaluation as well.

To determine if the team is successful, the wins divided by the games played will be done

to achieve a percentage score of the teams’ success or failure. Anything above 50%

(.500) will be considered a success, at or below 50% (.500) will be a failure.

Procedures

After the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, all participants signed

voluntary informed written consent forms. To start the data collection, before the first

game/competition of the season, the athletes were administered the Collective Efficacy

Questionnaire for Sports (CEQS). The coaches were administered the Coaching Efficacy
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 11

Scale (CES) as well. The respective questionnaires were given throughout the season.

The administration of the questionnaires was determined by the time between games or

competitions. Each sport has different schedules and so the administering of the

questionnaires was consistent between all sports. To accomplish this task, the

questionnaires were given 5 times, throughout the season, for all sports (preseason, ¼

through season, ½ through season, ¾ through season, and at season’s end). The

questionnaires were not administered closer than 1 or 2 full days before competition to

protect the team and the athletes from being uneasy before the upcoming game or

competitions either physically or mentally.

Data Analysis

The two factors (team & coach confidence) were analyzed to quantify the teams’

collective efficacy (confidence) from the CEQS, and the coaches’ confidence from the

CES. The third factor (success or failure) was compared to the first two factors through a

simple linear regression analysis of team and coach confidence to each team respectively.

To identify if there was a relationship between the two independent variables (team and

coach confidence), the data was analyzed through a Pearson’s correlation coefficient to

determine the relationship of the team and coach confidence throughout the season.

Cronbach alphas were calculated to determine the internal consistency of each data set.

Results
Previous to analyzing the data, Cronbach alphas were calculated to determine the

internal consistency of the answers of all questionnaires from both the CEQS and CES

for each data collection. An average of a = 0.97 (Volleyball) and a = 0.93 (Soccer) for the

teams and an average of a = 0.98 (Volleyball) and a = 0.96 (Soccer) for the coach was
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 12

found from all five total Cronbach’s alphas computed (See Table 1).

Results of the simple linear regression were done in a dual-method approach.

First, in processing the data for the dependent variable win/loss, the “pre” data point was

taken from the end of the previous season. Analysis found that the volleyball team was

significant at p = 0.033 for the team and p = 0.040 for the coach with a moderate

Pearson’s correlation coefficient of r = 0.680. However, the soccer team was not

significant with p = 0.530 for the team and p = 0.935 for the coach, but did have a

convincingly strong and significant (p < 0.05) correlation coefficient of r = 0.893.

Second, in processing the data for the dependent variable, the “pre” data was taken as a

zero, since that is how all season’s win/loss columns start. This second step was only

analyzed to assess both viewpoints, however, the first method was the primary approach.

Analysis found that the volleyball team was not significant at p = 0.066 for the team, but

was significant for the coach at p = 0.010. The soccer team was not significant for both

with p = 0.087 for the team and p = 0.059 for the coach.

Discussion
We examined the relationship that confidence has with performance throughout a

season and collected team confidence (collective efficacy) and coach confidence five

times throughout the season to determine if there was a significant relationship between

the confidence levels and success of the teams. Previous research has demonstrated that

confidence and performance has been related, however very little research has been done

to systematically study the significance of the relationship between the two in a

longitudinal format. Vealey and Chase (2008) suggest research in confidence across time

should be considered to understand how stable confidence is throughout a period of time.

 Confidence and Performance Across Season 13

Our hypothesis was that there would be a significant relationship between confidence and

performance as well as a strong correlation between the two variables, team and coach

confidence. Our examination of the data found that there is some evidence that a

significant relationship between confidence and performance throughout a season or a

period of time. In addition, a strong link was found between team confidence and coach

confidence, strengthening the hypothesis that team and coach confidence are connected.

Support was found for a connection between confidence and performance across

time (See Figure 1) with a graph showing similar movement of team confidence growing

with success and falling with failure (all figures have both factors changed to percentage

in order to compare to performance score). The figure also shows the slopes, which

represent the average rate of change from the “pre” to “final” time points. The slope

serves as a vector estimating what the analysis found when it indicated that volleyball

(team and coach) was statistically significant. The raw data, however, shows all three

factors spike from pre to quarter points, but after that each individually drop, rise or stay

constant. The only other real match is the three-quarter to final data point where they all

stay fairly consistent from the three-quarter to final collections. The slopes of each line

show a more consistent similar movement, which might indicate why the factors were

statistically significant. These vectors are evidence that could begin to help understand

how team and coach confidence is connected with performance.

In Figure 2, we see that even though there wasn’t a significant linear relationship,

the raw data shows some noteworthy associations. A linear relationship seems evident

from the “pre” to “quarter” phase both are rising and then a sudden drop in confidence as
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 14

their success plunges. After the drop, the soccer team goes on a winning streak through

the rest of the regular season and we see a constant rise in success and therefore a rise in

confidence. However, the confidence in the coaching staff conflicts with the team. They

have a sharp rise from pre to quarter, but no drop during their tough mid-season fall, and

continue to climb in confidence, although at a lesser angle.

There is also indication (See Figure 2) of a significant linear relationship between

team and coach confidence. Figure 2 shows that team confidence has a fairly similar

linear line to coach confidence, explaining why they were found to be significant and

have a high Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The slope on each factor in figure 2

illuminates the reality of this link. Although the raw data does look different between the

team and coach confidence measurements, the slope vectors show a clear relationship

between team confidence and coach confidence. Figure 1 shows team and coach

confidence as a moderate but not significant relationship. The slopes shown indicate the

linear relationships are not quite even as team confidence grows at a sharper angle more

than coach confidence. Both are still climbing which shows why they look similar

enough to have a moderate correlation, but Figure 2’s factors have a strong indication of

a connection between team and coach confidence.

In breaking down the team and coach confidence scores (See Figures 3-6) to their

individual subscales, we were able to identify how each specific subscale was answered

and what, if any, outliers were present. Figures 3 and 4 each show a strong group of

consistent responses that are quite uniform with the others; however, figure 3 also

demonstrates that they match the win percentage strongly. Overall, between the two
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 15

teams, this might point toward each team being honest and aware of their confidence

levels as a team throughout the season. Figures 5 and 6 illustrate, however, a more

inconsistent set of answers between the subscales. Both are spread at the “pre” point in

the season, but all do climb higher and closer by the “final” data collection. This could

indicate inconsistent levels of confidence at the beginning of the season, but by the end of

the season a stronger set of confidence between the coaching staff had developed.

There were a few limitations to this study that need to be identified. In

preparation to complete this study, the football team was originally sought to participate.

They could never be reached and had to be removed from the plans. This was a critical

change to the study since the initial plan was to evaluate how gender might play a roll in

confidence. Another limitation was the limited time and ability to work with the teams.

Only being able to measure there confidence levels at quarter points in the season left

gaps in the season, making the data take a more general role then the specific one desired.

Finally, the study was done purely as a quantitative approach, looking at the relationships

and correlations of the different factors.

Some suggestions for future research would be to gather teams that will allow for

both genders to be part of the study. A study could also be done by having the teams

complete the questionnaires before every game, within reason, thereby giving a stronger

indication of exactly where the team and coach confidence levels are for each game as

well as produces more data points for the quantitative analysis. Implementation of a

mixed methods approach might also gain valuable insights as to what factors might be
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 16

affecting confidence, which could lead to a better understanding of what causes

confidence to fluctuate, rather than purely looking at relationships.

Conclusion
In summary, the present study aimed to understand how confidence was related to

performance throughout the course of an entire season. Evidence was established that

there might be a connection between confidence and performance as measured by the

CEQS, CES and winning percentage. Additionally, support was found for the hypothesis

that there is a correlation between team and coach confidence. These findings support

the notion that it is important for teams to understand how confidence is connected to

performance and for researchers to continue to study confidence across time in sports.
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 17

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 Confidence and Performance Across Season 20

Appendix A
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 21

Figure 1

Figure 2
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 22

Figure 3

Figure 4
 Confidence and Performance Across Season 23

Figure 5

Figure 6