UNIT 8 JAPAN AND THE WEST (UP TO

-
THE ME1JI RESTORATION)

Structure
Objectives
introduction
Initial Contacts
8.2.1 Iberian Interlude
8.2.2 Sakoku
8.2.3 The Dutch Window
Black Ships off the Coast of Japan
External Pressure and Internal Debate
8.4.1 The Coming of Perry
8.4.2 The Aftermath
Anglo-French Rivalry in Japan
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will be able to:
know about the initial contacts Japan had with the Western countries,
. learn why Japan adopted a policy of isolation,
understand the reasons behind the efforts of the Western powers to intervene in the
internal affairs of Japan,
know the debates in Japan over relations with foreigners,
understand the pressures and circumstances under which Japan had to give up its policy
of isolation,
know the impact of the opening up on its internal affairs, and
understand why Japan did not became a colony.

r
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Japan has had a long historical experience of interacting with different cultures and
societies. This has given it a tradition of acquiring new modes of thinking and using this
tradition for furthering its own objectives. The purpose of this Unit is to trace the
relationship that Japan had with the Western nations before the Meiji Restoration.

Japan's first experience with the Western nations was in the second half of the sixteenth
century and this encounter provided a tradition of scholarship on the West which was
effectively used in the middle of the nineteenth century.

The second encounter, during the high tide of Western imperialism in the middle of the
I nineteenth century, ?Hasmarked by Japan's successful transition from a pre-modern society
I

I
to a modem one without being colonized in the process. The national regeneration and
preservation of na'tional independence was a product of the successful handling of Western
I imperialist incursions. This Unit discusses the main trends in the internal transformation of
I Japan and how they interacted with Western intrusions.

- - -

8.2 INITIAL CONTACTS

In 1542 three Portuguese who were travelling by a Chinese junk were forced to land on the
Japanese island of Tanegashima because of a typhoon. This is said to mark the first contact
of Europeans and Japanese. This brief encounter was followed by increasing visits of
Western 1mperl.llsm Portuguese traders and missionaries. Japan's contact with Europe brought with it not unly
new goods, such as guns and tobacco but the Japanese were also exposed to a range of new
ideas as well as to Christianity. The rulers of Japan actively promoted these contacts and
were receptive to the new ideas allowing the missionaries to propagate their doctrines.

However, by the early years of the Tokugawa period problems arose between the Europeans
and the Japanese rulers. in part because Christianity was seen as a disruptive influence.
Consequently foreigners were banned from entering Japan. Thus Japan's first contact with
the European nations was limited to about a hundred years. Yet, the legacy of this short
interlude played an important role in the internal developments of ~apan.A group of
scholars known as the Dutch scholars, because they studied Dutch and through that language
learnt about Western science and civilization,developed a body of knowledge which
questioned the dominance of Chinese classics. Their influence though limited and confined
through much of the Tokugawa period assumed importance in the closing years of
Tokugawa rule when the Western powers appeared once again on the Japanese coast.

8.2.1 Iberian Interlude

In the middle of the 16th century when the Portuguese qnived in Japan the country was
undergoing a process of unification. In that sense it is still not really appropriate to speak of
a Japanese nation at thi>time. The land was governed by a number of powerful regional
lords or Daimyo who exe c i s d their power through a closely interlinked network of
retainers or samurai . Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582), the son of a feudal lord from the
province of Owari had through skill and strength extended his sway over a large part of
Japan. In 1568 when he entered the Imperial capital of Kyoto the medieval age of Japan can
be said to have ended. The process of unification was carried further by his general,
Hideyoshi, who usurped power after Nobunaga's death. After Hideyoshi, power was taken
by the shrewd and cunning l; kugawa 1e:~asuand he was able to establish a systen~of
government which provided Japan with a stable rule for nearly two hundred and fifty years.
Japan's initial contact with the West took place within this context.

Here it would be appropriate to point out that while Japan's contact with the European
nations was brief and limited it had a long experience of relations with its East Asian
neighbours. China and Korea. In the formative years of Japanese civilization Chinese
influence and Korean contacts had been decisive in moulding and giving Japan a
sophisticated set of institutions and philosophies (See Block-1). In the fourteenth century the
Japanese had been active in trade, commerce and even piracy4n the region and there were
Japanese settlements as far as Siam.

European expansion has a long and complex history but for o~u.purposehere it is necessary
to note that a Papal Bulljssued t: the Pope had divided the world between the Spanish and
the Portuguese. Portugal was given the exclusive right to spread Christianity in the Eastern
hemisphere while Spain was given the Western. In Portugal the Society of Jesuits founded
in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola was the dominant sect. The Jesuits consequently played the
major role in the spread of Christianity and they retained.their exclusive hold over Japan
even after Spain and Portugal were united in 1580 under Philip 11. This monopoly was
resented by other Christian orders like, the Franciscons, Dominicans, and Augustinians. It
was only in 1608 that the ban on the other orders working in Japan was lifted and this
contributed to further increasing rivalry and competitiw between the Christian orders in
Japan. This rivalry was effectively used by the rulers to further their interests.
It must be noted that though many of the missionaries came with Portuguese missions they .
themselves were not always from portugd. For example Francis Xavier (1506-1552) was
from Navarre which then was a part of Franct: and Will Adams (1564-1620), the
Englishman who worked with Ieyasu, was employed on a Dutch ship, Erasmus.

Contact between Japan and the European nations took place in a period when commercial
and tnde rivalry was intense and moreover, the version of Christianity which came to Japan
was the most militant one and strict. In 1549 Francis Xavier came to Kagoshima and began
to preach Christianity with the approval of the Daimyo of Satsuma. The Japanese religious
environment, in contrast was marked by tolerance and theco-existence of Shinto and
Buddhist religious systems. Buddhism had come from India through China d Korea and
been altered and adapted in the process of transmission. The introduction of Christianity was .
initially viewed with similar interest and toleration. It was not seen as threatening either the
 Japan and the West (up to the
Meiji Restoration)

11. St. Francis Xavier (Painting by a Japanese Artist).

political power gr the social fabric of Japan. But we must remember here that it was not just
Christianity which had come to Japan because along with it had come trade and commerce.

.'The activities of the Christian missionaries and the problems they created are very closely
linked with the desire for trade and at times it is difficult to isolate the one from the other.
From Nobunaga to Ieyasu the rulers were open to Christian ideas and treated the
missionaries well. Many Daimyo converted to Christianity. This was largely motivated by a
desire to attract trade. Nobunaga's tolerance of the Jesuits activities was also determined by
his vigorous suppression of Buddhist and other sects. The Buddhist monasteries had become
powerful centres exercising political power backed by the strength of their private armies
and extensive landholdings. Nobunaga's patronage helped the Jesuits to win converts and by
1582 there were some 150,000 Christian converts.

Hideyoshi, the next ruler put a ban on Christianity in 1587 and executed a number of priests
and Japanese converts. Hideyoshi's action seems to have been based on the fear of the
P political implications of Christianity. Spanish monks and traders also intrigued against the
Portuguese and sought to increase their own power. Though Chiistian converts were
executed it was nothing on the scale of the Inquisition in Europe. In spite of the ban he was
interested in bringing the European traders to eastern Japan. The trade camed by the
Europeans was not just of Western goods. The Portuguese played an important role as
intermediaries in the trade between China and Japan. They brought Chinese textiles,
porcelain, medicine, spices and gold as well. When Ieyasu came to power he too attempted
to influence the traders to move to ports near Edo. He was in touch with the Spanish in the
Phili2pines. However, while the missionaries were toleratkd there was growing suspicion
of their se'ctarian rivalries and a fear that they were serving the interests of,their monarchs.
Also, there was an understanding that trade could be carried on without the missionaries and
edicts barring Christianity appeared in 1606, 1607 and 1611. But it was only in 1617, after
Ieyasu's death that the first execution of a foreign priest took place.

After Ieyasu died his successor Hidetada began persecuting Christians. This was due to the
suspicion that their activities would endanger political stability. The Europeans were
competing with great intensity for trading privileges and would spread rumours and
suspicion against each other. In 1622 the authorities suspected that the Spanish Rornan
Catholic Church was planning to invade Japan. The number of Japanese converts is not
known but it is estimated to have reached 300,000. Growing suspicion increased repression
and Christianity was driven underground from 1626 onwards.

The final blow came in 1637 when the Shimabara rebellion occurred. In this area there were
a large number of Christian converts and this challenge to Shogunal authority was viewed
Western Imperialism with alarm. The rebellious peasants raised Christian slogans and carried banners with Jesus
and Mary wriqen on them. The Tokugawa Shogunate saw this as a political threat and
crushed the rebellion. In the aftermath of the rebellion Buddhist priests were sent to "pacify
the hearts and minds of the people". The following year, ~JI 1638, the Portuguese were
expelled.

The hostility to Christianity arose out of the fear of political disruption. The Tokugawa
Shogunate saw the danger of Christian missionaries encouraging Daimyo with moral and
material support and this could endanger the stability of the political order.

Christianity as a doctrine also found it difficult to integrate with existing beliefs. Initially
missionaries had appeared as another sect of Buddhism. For instance, the Jesuits used
Dainichi, a word for the Buddha and Vairocana, for God in the'belief that it meant supreme
diety. Gradually, of course, understanding of Christianity increased but its intolerance of
Buddhism and indigenous beliefs made it difficult for it to find acceptance.

The Portuguese and Spaniards were also joined by the Dutch who sought to extend their
trade. Will Adams, who was employed by the Dutch found favour with Ieyasu and he used
this to put forward the suspicion of Protestant states against the Catholic powers. The
English too were in rivalry with the other European powers. These rivalries and internal
problems which were imputed to Christianity led the Tokugawa's to increasingly limit and
ultimately proscribe Christianity. In 1624 all Spaniards were ordered to be deported and
many were executed. The Shimabara peasant rebellion in 1637 in which there were many
Christians, increased the ferocity of anti-Christian policies. In 1638 the Portuguese were
ordered to leave. The English trading station had closed by 1623 and so by 1640 only a
small group of Dutch traders were left. Of course there were Chinese traders.

8.2.2 Sakoku
The policy of isolation followed by the Tokugawa is known as sakoku or closed country
and various explanations have been offered to explain why the Tokugawa imposed a ban on
the entry of foreigners and prevented Japanese from leaving Japan on pain of death. They
also limited the size of ships to prevent long voyages. It is normally argued that the
Tokugawa were forced to take these steps because they wanted to eliminate Roman
Catholicism which for them was a socially disruptive and politically dangerous doctrine.
The Catholics owed allegiance to the Pope and could pose a danger to the power of the
Shogun. A second explanation is that the Tokugawa wanted to monopolize trade and the
Europeans were not willing to shift their trade from the ports of Nagasaki to ports around the
Tokugawa capital Edo.

However, these explanations ignore the fact that the Tokugawa continued to have diplomatic
and trade relations with their Asian neighbours, China and Korea. Foreign trade was
managed by the Daimyo and was not a monopoly exercised by the Shogun. Thus the
Tsushima Daimyo maintained a permanent factory at Waegwan in Korea from 1611 to the
Meiji period. Scholars like Ronald Toby have argued that the Tokugawa's policy of
isolation w-as part of a larger foreign policy which sought to maximize security and confirm
and strengthen the sovereignty and legitimacy of Tokugawa rule. The Tokugawa began to
assert their position and at the same time had a break from the Sinocentric world order.
They abandoned the earlier attempts to normalize relations with China and by 1635 the
Shogun was using the title of "Great Prince of Japan" (Nihon Koku Taikun). The
expulsion of European powers was just one aspect of a larger foreign policy. In fact the
word "sakoku" or closed country was never used in the 1630s. Its earliest use is in 1858
only.

8.2.3 The Dutch Window

The Dutch traders were permitted to continue their trade from a small man-made islapd
Deshima off the coast of Nagasaki. This small trading station served as a window to the
Western world for the Japanese. The trickle of trade was not as important as the ideas which
slowly seeped in and inspired the Rangakusha or Dutch scholars. These studies were
officially encouraged by the eighth Shogun Yoshimune and a number of distinguished
scholars like, Arai Hakuseki (1657-1725), Sugita Genpaku (1732-1817). and Hiraga Gerinaj
(1726-1779) who carried out important work which introduced the ideas of science. These
 Japan and the West (up to the
Meiji Restoration'

12. Dutch Settlement (Nagasaki),

scholars learnt Dutch with great difficulty and effort as there was hardly any contact with
the Dutch at Deshima and they had to compile their own dictionaries. Many of them were
doctors and they learnt about anatomy and dissection from European works. Astronomy, .
geography and military science were also some of the subjects on which they concentrated.
They sought knowledge which could be applied and not just abstract theories and doctrines.

The chief characteristic which identifies this group is their concern with national power
rather than any desire to improve the live^ of the people. Dutch studies helped to diffuse
Western learning and provided practical help to the Shogun and Daimyo. Japan's initial
contact with the West had brought firearms. The gun played a decisive role in the Battle of
Nagashino in 1575 only thirty two years after the first Portuguese appeared and later
Hideyoshi effectively used firearms in his invasion of Korea. The Dutch scholars were not
the only product of this contact with Europe. Christianity though officially proscribed
continued to be practiced by small groups and these hidden Christians, as they were called,
devised elaborate methods to continue their worship.

8.3 BLACK SHIPS OFF THE COAST OF JAPAN

Tokugawa society was, in spite of its dynamism, isolated from developments in Europe.'
When foreign ships began appearing and demanding access to Japanese ports it was faced

not very different from the Portcguese or English but by the nineteenth century the
European nations had developed in ways unimaginable in Japan. The rise of England as a
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with a serious problem. During the seventeenth century Japanese military capabilities were

major colonial power and the spread of its power to Africa and Asia was dimly known to the
Tokogawa and they were also unaware of their inability to deal effectively with the threat
posed by the Western nations. The encounter with the West in the nineteenth.century posed
new problems for the Tokugawa and it was not equipped to deal with these problems. The
imperialist intrusion became a critical factor in the decline of the Bakufu as it attacked the
Bakuhan system at-many critical points. The encounter showed clearly that while the
Bakufu could enforce the policy of isolation it could not initiate any change. The question
of who wauld exercise authority in Japan had arisen because of internal problems but the
Western encounter further aggravated the tensions and made a resolution of these issues
imperative. The entry of the European powers allowed the groups who were discontented
with the Bakufu to come together in a'coalition against Tokugawa rule.

Japan was opened to the West by the United States when Commodore Matthew Perry came
Western Imperialism in 1853 and was promised a treaty the following ye. . In 1858 Townsend Harris, Counsel
for the USA concluded a treaty which opened Jay;an to trade and commerce. This marked
the culmination of a process which had begun much earlier. The Russians and British had
been pressing on the coast of Japan since the seventeenth century. The Russians had
establiched themselves on the Sea of Okhotsk and from here they made exploratory trips. In .
1739 Spanberg, a Russian explorer had discovered a route to Japan. Subsequently serious
efforts were rr+e to open Japan and establish relatidns. In 1792 Lieutenant Laxman went to
Hokkaido but he failed tb win any concessions. The next envoy went to Nagasaki, which
was the only port where foreigners were allowed but the Japanese were not interested in
foreign trade. In 1806 and 1807 the Russians raided Japanese posts in Sakhal$ and the
Kurile Islands and this led to tensions and confrontationsbetween the two countries.

The British had been attempting to explore this area as early as the seventeenth century.
Captain Cook was planning to go to Japan when he died in 1793. The mission led by
Macartney to China in 1793also failed to go to Japan though it had been planned. In 1797
an English ship went to Hokkaido and in 1808 the frigate Phaeton entered Nagasaki.

The United States, because of its interests in whaling and trade with Qina, was beginning to
play an increasingly important role in opening Japane~eports to foreign trade. The whaling
ships had visited Nagasaki and other ports sometimes chartered by the Dutch who had lost
their ships in the Napoleonic wars. But the need to take provisions and shelter during storms
made a regular arrangement vital for these ships. By the 1840s in the United States
westward expansion had brought with it ideas of manifest destiny. Attempts by U.S.
businessmen in China to gain access proved futile and the government began to be interested
in Japan. From 1835 attempts were made to conclude diplomatic arrangements. In 1846
Commodore Biddle came to Edo Bay but he was refused entry. Commander Glym
subsequently went to Nagasaki in 1849 but did not make any arrangements to carry on trade.

dheck Your Progress 1

1) Why did Japan adopted a policy of isolation? Answer in about five lines.

2) What were the problems faced by the Tokugawa due to its encounter with the West in
the 19th century? Answer in about five lines.

3) List the efforts made by U.S. to open up Japan.

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EXTERNAL PRESSURE AND INTERNAL DEBATE

The pressure on Japan to conclude diplomatic and commercial relatiens.yith the Western
powers placed the Bakufu in a diffieult situation. The initial reaction was to maintainstrict Japan and the West (up to the
Meiji Restoration)
isolation. In 1806 a decree ordered local officials to keep foreigners out and later the
officials were told to destroy any ships which came near the coast. The barbarians had to be
kept out and the integrity of Japan preserved. Yet it must be noted that the reaction to the
problem was complex. On the one hand the Japanese clearly lacked the military capability to
keep the Western nations out but on the other hand most groups were adamant that there
should be no relaxation of the policy of sakoku or closed country.

The subsequent years witnessed the confrontation of these two trends, as one argued that
Japan should be closed and the other was urging accommodation to the foreigners or
opening the country (kaikoku). These two positions were linked to the question of
supporting the Bakufu as the legitimate ruling authority in Japan or reasserting the power
of the Imperial House as the real legitimate authority. The elements dissatisfied with the
Bakuhan system came to urge a policy of sonno-joi or "revere the Emperor and expel1 the
barbarians". This policy had its intellectual roots in the philosophical doctrines which
argued that Japan's uniqueness arose because its Emperor was regarded as a direct
descendant of the Sun Goddess. This uniqueness and the central position of the Emperor in
the political and cultural system of Japan was further reinforced by scholars who were
writing a history of Japan from the time of its mythical foundation. These doctrines evoked a
symp#etic response among groups who found it increasingly difficult to function within
the Bakuhan system.

Intellectuals like Aizawa Seishisai (1782-1863) and Fujita Toko (1806-1855) developed the
argument agaihst allowing foreigners entry into Japan. Yet, they sought to increase Japan's
strength by using Western techniques. The technical constructions of the West would be
used to protect and preserve the integrity of Japan. There were voices for reform even fmm
within the Bakufu.

The Bakufu had over the years wimessed a deterioration in its financial condition and
periodic reform had not' proved effective. From 1841-1843 Mizuno Tadakuni, head of the
highest Bakufu office of Roju (Elders), had carried out the Tempo Reforms. He was
replaced and his successor Abe Masahiro wasthe major figure to formulate Bakufu policy
till 1857 when he died. Abe was in favour of involving the great Daimyo who had been
excluded from the councils of government. Even Tokugawa Nariaki, Daimyo of Mito and
an influential member of the Tokugawa family was in favour of a broad based support from
the leading Daimyo.

The Bakufu was not united on what policy to pursue but there were a number of contending
approaches. Using the expertize of the Dutch scholars the Bakufu established a school to
study Western books and this by 1857 became the Institute for the Investigation of
Barbarian Books. Many of the Dutch scholars, familiar with the activities of h e Western
nations in China and other parts of Asia, advocated reform measures, particularly of the
Tokugawa's military capabilities tc meet the foreign threat. For instance, as early as 1784
Hayashi Shihei (1738-1793) published A Discussion of the Military Problems of a
Maritime Nation advocating extensive military reform.
Sakuma Shozan (1798-1866) an influential scholar who had studied gunnery and other
Western subjects coined the slogan "Eastern ethics and Western science". They failed to
understand that ideas arise out of certain cultural situations and that using Western .
techniques would invariably effect Japanese values. The slogan recognized Japanese
weakness but such views 'wwe still politically ineffective. The pervasive view was that
foreigners should be kept out; that trade would be harmful and that a change in the political
system was required to meet the crisis.

8.4.1 The Coming of Perry

In 1853 Commodore w at thew Perry came to Japan via China and Okinawa. His squadron of
two steam frigates and two sloops, entered Edo Bay in July 1853. Perry managed to present
a letter:from the President of the USA. Perry's imperious behaviour underlined theinability
of the Tokugawa Bakufu to deal effectively with the power of the Western nations. The
question of whether to open Japanese ports was referred to the great Daimyo as well as to
the Imperial Court. This was an unprecedented move but the Tokugawa were not in a
position to enforce a policy,withhut the support of these groups. The period from 1853 to
1868 when the Tokugawa Ilakuh was replaced'by the Meiji government marked a period
of intense, and at times, acrimonious debate and rapid changes. The positions of the various
groups were in a flux and rather than see the advocates of an open country or a closed
country as fixed groups it is better to see them as representing strategies for meeting the
foreign threat.
In 1854 Perry returnedwith greater force and after negotiations the Treaty of Kanagawa was
signed on March 31,1854. The treaty opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate where
U.S. ships could refuel and provision their ships. There was a most favoured nation clause
which would automatically extend any benefits granted to any other country. The United
States was also allowed to post a counselar agent at Shimoda. The treaty was a small step as
the ports opened were small and remote but it had a major departure from the Bakufu's
earlier policy of isolation.
Just as Perry nad concluded his treaty the Russians had also been active. Putiatin had been
trying to extract a treaty and settle the boundary to the north of Hokkaido but had failed. In
October the Bakufu concluded a similar treaty with the British and then with Russia in
which Nagasaki was also opened. In 1855 the Dutch too signed a treaty with the Japanese.
The United States sentaTownsendHarris as its counsel to reside in Shimoda in 1856. Here,
he faced considerable difficulties, but through patience and tact managed to convince the
Bakufu that they would be better served by signing a treaty with the United States otherwise
they might have to sign more onerous treaties with the other Western powers. The Harris
Treaty signed on July 29, 1858, opened the ports of Kanagawa and Nagasaki and by stages
Nigata and Hyogo. Foreigners were to be allowed to reside at Osaka and Edo and they were
to have extra-territorial privileges. Finally, the two countries would exchange
representatives. Similar treaties were concluded with the other nations. Aside from opening
ports, the major concession the Japanese made was to fix import and custom duties at low
rates.

8.4.2 The Aftermath

The Bakufu's policy of granting concessions to the foreign powers was increasing internal
opposition. While Abe Masahiro had obtained Imperial sanction for the treaty and involved
the great Daimyo in the councils of the Bakufu there was opposition from those who had
traditionally exercised control of the government. The nert head of the Council of Elders,
Hotta Masayoshi, was not in favour of involving the outside Daimyo and supported a policy
of granting trading rights to the Western powers.

Hotta sought to not only obtain the support of the Daimyo for a full commercial treaty but
went to Kyoto to get advance approval from the Emperor. But the Court in 1858, because of
opposition from some Daimyo, did not give a clear answer. In 1858 Ii Naosuke became
Tairo, the highest position within the Bakufu government and he sought to reassert the
power of the Shogunate. He signed the commercial treaty without sanction from the
Imperial Court and also resolved the dispute over who would succeed to the Shogunate. The
Shogun was without child and weak and consequently the Daimyo of Mito was trying to
have his son Keiki pamed as heir and since Keiki was adopted into the Hitotsubashi family
his claim was legitimate. His claim was supported by the Imperial Court and this was a
departure from earlier practice for the Court had never been involved in Bakufu affairs.
Ii Naosuke had the Daimyo of Wakayama appointed as successor to assert the authority of
the Bakufu.

It may be pertinent to point out that adoption was a common practice in Japan and blood ties
were not of great importance. Through adoption social status could be improved. Thus a
worn&! from a "low status" could be adopted by someone with "high status" and then
married to one of equal rank. Merchant houses often adopted capable clerks as official heirs
if their own sons were incompetent.

Ii Naosuke's actions provoked a reaction amongst the supporters of tMe Emperor but he met
this with strict measures. The Ansei purge in whicl Ii Naosuke punished those involved in
the Hitotsubashi party might have succeeded in reasserting the power of the Bakufu but Ii
was assassinated in March 1860. Ii Naosuke's death was a blow to the Bakufu but even
 13. Commodore Perry's Ofticen

a) Capt. Adams b) Cnpt Abbot c) Perry's son

Western Imper&lism

14. Perry's Flett.

IS. A Japanese Sketch of Perry'. ships.

 'more damaging was the increasing strength of the Court and Daimyo. Opposition to the Japan and the West (up to the
Meiji Restoration)
Bakufu gathered around the Imperial Court and was led by the outside han of Satsuma and
Choshu. Many samurai gathered around Kyoto and these masrcrless samurai or ronin
. provided a volatile and militant group around the Imperial Court.

The Ansei Purge was effective insofar as it attempted to create a political structure where
the Bakufu would be the dominant political force but in which the dissident elements and
the Imperial Court would also be involved. The loyalist elements were of course angry and
the climate was one in which tall< of revenge and war had become common. Ii Naosuke's
1 successor attempted to improve ties between Edo and Kyoto. The marriage of the Shogun
Iemochi and the Imperial Princess Kazunomiya was an expression of this closeness of the
Court and the Bakufu. The Bakufu also sent a mission to Europe in 1862 which managed to
L
persuade the British and the French to postpone the opening of trade in Hyogo and Nigata.

However, the Bakufu, though recognized as the ruling power, was in a weak position and
the han of Choshu seized the initiative to press its demands. Ii Naosuke's successor Ando
I
Nobuyuki was nearly killed by loyalist elements and this put an end to his attempts. The
year 1862 marked a watershed because from this point the Bakufu lost its dominance and
! became one of the contending forces vying for dominance. It steadily lost the initiative to
Choshu which began to assert its power and position and to press its demands. Kyoto was
controlled by Choshu and the Shogun was persuaded to pay a visit and issue an edict calling
for the expulsion of foreigners from June 25, 1863. The order was carried out by Choshu
which bombarded ships of the United States, France and Holland. This act invited the
retaliation of the United States and France.

Satsuma, the other main rival of the Bakufu carried out a coup and with the aid of the h ~ n
of Aizu took control of Kyoto and the Imperial Court from Choshu. Choshu retaliated but
was unsuccessful in its efforts to recapture Kyoto and moreover, because of its attacks on
foreign ships a combined fleet of U.S., French, English and Dutch forces attacked Choshu
and demanded an indemnity of $3 million. This high demand was used as a lever to gain
further privileges in June 1866 when tariffs were reduced from a general 20 per cent to only
5 per cent.

Earlier in Satsuma on September 14, 1862 a British national Richardson had been killed.
This incident is known as the Namamugi incident because it took place near the village of
Namarnugi and the Bakufu had to pay an indemnity of 100,000 pounds and after threats by
Britain Satsuma was also forced to pay 25,000 pounds.
r In 1864 the Bakufu was involved with bringing Choshu under control but its second
expedition launched in August 15, 1866 was defeated. In this context foreign inbusions
were beginning to play an increasingly important role. From 1853 till about 1865
r imperialism had been making steady encroachments into Japanese territory and was
becoming involved in Japanese social process. But after 1865 this trend assumed alarming
proportions and imperialism began to pose a dangerous threat to Japanese sovereignty.
Russian expansion in the north of Japan had been a problem and after 1865 concern began to
mount in the Bakufu that the Russians were expanding their claims in Sakhalin and
Karafuto.

In a situation of increasing domestic discord the Western pdWerS pressed the Tariff
Convention of 1866. This was guided largely by the British.Minister Sir Harry Parkes and in
the words of Conrad Totman was "a solid foundation upon which to construct a massive and
enduring imperial commercial establishment in Japan".

ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY IN JAPAN

Up to now it had been a question of Japan and the foreigners but soon Anglo-French rivalry
began to intervene in Japanese affairs with the French gravitating towards the Bakufu and
I
the British supporting Satsuma and Choshu. The French connection began in 1864 when a
I
I Bakufu official was sent to Paris and Leon Roches came to Japan. Roches gradually began
to pursue an independent French policy rather than work in concert with the other Western
powers. A decision was taken to advance a loan to build a major shipyard at Yokosuka and
the idea of a joint Franco-Bakufu trading company was also floated.
Similarly, the British too were gradually shifting towards supporting the han. In 1866 Ernest
Satow, an official of the British Legation had translated into Japanese a series of articles that
he wrote urging foreigners not to treat Japan as one single entity but rather as a collection of
Daimyo ruled han. Japan was gradually intertwined in Anglo-French rivalry and the danger
of imperialist incursion was rapidly assuming dangerous proportions. The linking of Bakufu
and France and Britain and Satsuma-Choshu had serious internal repercussions. The
Daimyo on the one hand were strengthened against the Bakufu but mutual suspicion also
increased and conciliatory overtures were made difficult. Finally, the dependence of both
Daimyo and the Bakufu on Western military technology and training increased.

The war against Choshu enabled the foreign powers to further increase their levels of
involvement particularly in the matter of supplying guns to the various groups. Sometimes
the fears were incorrect but there were many rumours that the Daimyo were receiving
financial aid and military help. Katsu Kaishu, a Bakufu official described England as a
"famished tiger" and he went on to warn that the Bakufu too should not borrow money from
France as that was a "hungry wolf '.

Inland travel by foreigners and missionary activity were two areas which were also creating
problems. By 1867 not only diplomats but technicians and missionaries were moving about
in areas of Japan. Once Hyogo and Osaka were opened this travel increased and the Bakufu
issued instructions to allow foreigners to travel, to visit Nara and to enter the "theatre and
restaurants in Edo and Osaka". This led to incidents of violence as the public had still to
accept the idea of foreigners entering Japan. Attacks on foreigners increased and this further
increased demands for indemnities.

The opening of Japan had not meant that Christianity would be allowed and the ban on the
religion continued. However, with the growing presence of foreign residents Christianity
w a dlowed to be practiced in the treaty ports. Missionaries began toamve and in spite of
the ban took steps to spread their religion. French missionaries had opened a church in
Nagasaki in 1865 and they allowed in those Japanese who began to practice the religion
openly. A Japanese official wrote in complaint to the French representative Leon Roches
that missionaries were preaching in villages, staying in peoples homes, collecting gold and
silver and that their activities were disruptive and must be stopped. These problems created
tensions not just between the Bakufu and the foreigners but between the local people and
the foreigners and the Bakufu, aggravating an already complex problem.

By 1867 the foreign powers had become,deeply involved in the internal rivalries and this
involvement created a dangerous situation for Japan in which it could easily have
succumbed to colonialism. The economic effect of the treaties and the entry of foreign trade
had been disruptive. Cheap manufactured goods like cotton fabric were ruining traditional
domestic industry. In particular the favourable gold : silver exchange in Japan was used by
foreign traders to devastating effect. In Japan the gold : silver exchange was 6: 1 whereas in
the rest of the world it was 15: 1. Traders brought in silver and bought gold cheap and then
exported this gold to make a handsome profit. The massive export of spices and influx of
silver disrupted the Japanese economy and caused undue hardship to the people. The large
number of peasant uprisings and urban disturbances is ample reflection of the strains the'.*
economy and society were undergoing.

The reason why Japan was not colonized has been explained in a variety of ways.
Explanations stress the interest of imperialist countries in China and the relative neglect of
Japan because it did not offer a potentially large market. However, as indicated in the above
paragraphs the imperial powers were actively intervening in Japanese affairs and it is only
because the period of civil war was brief that they did not have the opportunity td entrench
themselves in local politics. Leon Rocks was recalled by the French government and so he
could not act on behalf of the Bakyfu. The United States was involved in its own civil war
and Britain backed the winners and so there was no reason for it to change the outcome.

The Japanese groups aside from their slogans were largely clear that isolation was no longer
a real choice and they had to deal with the Western world and this would only be possible
from a position of national strength. Japanese society was in a position to evolve policies
and strategies to counter imperialist domination and the sources of these strengths must be
sought in the long and complex history of Japan from at least the sixteenth century. Japan's
successful handling of Western pressure was not a matter of having a breathing space.
Check Your Progress 2 Japan and the West tup .r- ...
Meiji Restoration)
1 Discuss in about ten lines the debate in Japan about relations with the Westerners.

Discuss in about ten lines the impact of Commodore Perry's visit on the internal affairs
of Japan.
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3) Which of the following statements are right or wrong? Mark (4) or (x)
i) The policy of sonno-joi meant welcome the barbarians and expel1 the emperor.
ii) Shozan gave the slogan "Eastern ethics and Western science".
iii) England and America wer? able to make Japan their colony.
iv) The interests of the British and the French clashed in Japan.

8.6 LET US SUM UP

The interaction with the West that has been examined in this Unit can be divided into two
periods:
The first was in the latter half of the sixteenth century when Portuguese traders and
missionaries came to Japan.
The second was in the nineteenth century when Western imperialist powers sought to
incorporate Japan into the imperialist system.

In both cases Japan displayed an openness and quickness in lcsponding to new ideas and
learning from them to its own advantage. Japan also displayed a conservative and closed
approach to changes within its social structure. While it had to allow the black ships, as
Commodore Perry ships were called and just as the Portuguese ships had been called, it
prevented and restricted the entry of foreigners as far as it could.
Western Imperiali5m
8.7 KEY WORDS
Daimyo : Rulers of feudal domains who were divided into three groups, the outer Daimyo
were erstwhile enemies of the Tokugawa and were excluded from any exercise of power
(eg. ~atsuma,Choshu). They enjoyed a great deal of autonomy.
Han : The territory of a Daimyo.
Kaikoku : The policy of opening the country to the entry of foreigners.
Papal bull :Decree of the Pope.
Sakoku : The policy of isolation followed by the Tokugawa.
Sonno-joi : A saying meaning "Revere the Emperor and Expel1 the Barbarians".

8.8 ANSW-ERSTO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) Base your answer on Sub-sec. 8.2.2.
2) You should read Sec. 8.3 and base your answer on it.
3) See Sec. 8.3 (last three paragraphs).

Check Your Progress 2 ,

1) Base your answer on Sec. 8.4.
2) See Sub-sec. 8.4.2.
3) i) x ii) 4 iii) x iv) 4

SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK

Bai Shouyi (ed) : An Outline History of China, Peking 1982.
Danis Twitchett and John K Fairbank (ed) : The Cambridge History of China, Volume 10,;
London 1978.
Immanuel C.Y. Hsu : The Rise of Modern China, Oxford 1985.
Jean Chesneaux eta1 : China from the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution, Delhi 1978.
Tan Chung : Trinity to Dragon, Delhi 1985.
E.H. Norman : Japan's Emergence as a Modern State, Indian reprint, Delhi 1977.