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A Brief Introduction To All Geophysical Methods PDF
A Brief Introduction To All Geophysical Methods PDF
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Selected Topics
Geophysics
Abbreviated Course Notes
1. "pure"
2. "applied"
Part 1: Gravity
Assume Earth does not rotate and has uniform density distribution.
Determine acceleration of gravity (usually just called "gravity" by geophysicists) at point
on Earth's surface.
1
GMeM
F = -------
R2
G = Universal Gravitational Constant = 6.673 x 10-8 dyne cm2/gm2 +/- 0.003 (dyne = 1
gm cm/sec2)
GMeM GMe
Since F = F; then Mg = ------ and g = ----
R2 R2
Complication #1:
Earth rotates
Result: Earth not round but bulges at equator and is flattened at poles.
Equatorial radius is 21 kilometers greater than at poles.
Complication #2:
Earth's mass is not symmetrical about the equatorial plane - Earth is "pear-shaped."
Complication #3:
The equator isn't perfectly spherical but only varies by a few meters.
The regular surface which most nearly approximates the surface of the actual Earth is a
surface called the geoid.
The geoid surface is everywhere perpendicular to a plumb bob.
The geoid corresponds to mean sea level.
In land covered areas, the geoid is the surface that would be determined by the level to
which water would rise in narrow canals cut through the continents.
Since g depends on distance from center of Earth (radius), g varies with latitude.
International Gravity Formula can be used to determine g at a particular latitude:
g = 9.780318 (1 + .0053024 sin2 - 0.0000059 sin2 2 ) where is the latitude; units are
m/sec2
Calculated value for g "corrected" for latitude is called the theoretical gravity and
abbreviated gt
2
1. can use pendulum
Can get some idea of Earth's density distribution from study of its angular momentum:
Angular Momentum = Moment of Inertia x Angular Velocity
• solid cylinder revolving about its axis, I = 0.5 MR2; where M is mass and R is
radius of cylinder
• sphere, I = 0.4 MR2
• spherical shell, I = 0.67 MR2
Measured value of g (called "actual" value and abbreviated ga) is not usually the same as
gt.
Difference in ga and gt called a gravity anomaly.
3
To adjust for difference #1, we apply two "corrections" to the measured value before
comparing it to the theoretical value:
To adjust for difference #2, we then add another "correction" to the measured value
before comparing it to the theoretical value by removing the influence of nearby
mountains and valleys.
called the Topographic or Terrain Correction
Since this correction rarely exceeds 1 mgal except in mountainous areas, it is frequenty
ignored.
To adjust for difference #3, formulas are available to determine the necessary correction.
This tidal correction is very frequently ignored.
Finally, any difference between the "corrected" values of actual gravity and
theoretical gravity should be due to density variations (#4).
Higher than average density rock will cause the measured value of g to be greater than
the theoretical value and produces a positive "anomaly" while less dense rock
produces a negative anomaly.
Questions:
4
Process so subjective that I have sometimes thought that "the regional anomaly is what
you take out in order to make what's left look like what you want it to."
Small scale anomalies (often called residual anomalies) produced by ore bodies or
geologic structures.
Seldom more than a few milligals in size.
Use trial and error to find a body of the right location, shape, size and density to produce
the anomaly.
where R is the radius of the sphere, z is the depth to the center of the sphere, x is
measured from a point on the surface directly above the center of the sphere to the
location, and is the density contrast (difference in densities of body and surrounding
material).
There is usually assumed to be a constant density difference between an ore body and its
surroundings and a sharp, well- defined boundary separating them.
Neither assumption is likely to be correct.
Finding the density contrast to use in the formula is very difficult if you don't know
what lies below ground. (And if you knew what was down there, why bother with
exploration methods like gravity surveys?)
Other shapes can be modeled with similar but more complex formulas.
Complex forms can be thought of as combinations of simple forms.
Usually use computers.
• graben
• buried folds
• buried channels
• subduction zones
• oceanic ridges
5
Negative anomalies:
Positive anomalies:
The deeper the body, the broader and lower in amplitude will be the anomaly profile.
Radioactivity
Discovered in 1896
Natural change from one element to another by emission of particles from nucleus or
addition of particles to nucleus
Particles include:
Decay occurs at constant rate and is not affected by temperature, pressure, chemical
combination or any other known thing
6
Half-life - time for half of element to decay
The equation which represents radioactive decay is (derived in most geophysics texts for
those who are interested and know a little calculus):
RbSr dating
(Subscript m stands for measured, or in other words, now; o stands for original)
It is easier to measure ratios of atoms rather than absolute numbers so expression usually
written:
7
Could solve for t (age of mineral):
Now measure Sr87/Sr86 and Rb87/Sr86 ratios and for reaction ( = 1.39 x 10-11/yr)
Then estimate (Sr87/Sr86)o (Can measure this ratio in coexisting undisturbed minerals
which contain no Rb)
If we plot (Sr87/Sr86)m vs (Rb87/Sr86)m, the values should be different for different rocks
and minerals because they would have different initial amounts of Rb.
The slope of the line obtained by connecting these points is -1 and the intercept is
87 86
(Sr /Sr )o
Thus we can obtain both the age of the suite and the initial strontium ratio.
These plotted lines are called isochrons.
8
Present Sr87/Sr86 ratio for mantle rock estimated from analyses of recent basalts and
gabbros from oceanic environments (direct origin from mantle assumed and no
contamination by continental material)
Value is about 0.704
Extrapolation between 0.699 and 0.704 gives reasonable estimate for ratio in mantle at
any time in past.
Look at Sr87/Sr86 ratios for rocks when they formed to determine origin.
(ratio above or consistent with expected mantle ratio?)
(Remember can get Sr87/Sr86 ratios from isochrons.)
or:
By using U238, U235, and Th232, theoretically you get three age determinations and they
should agree (concordant ages).
If disagreement, ages are said to be discordant.
This is probably due to gain or loss of material.
Lead-lead method
9
If equation for U235 is divided by equation for U238, we get another equation:
Use of Pb-Pb method is good check on U235, U238, and Th methods because if lead lost,
the ratio of isotopes of remaining lead should not be changed and valid age should still be
given.
These two quantities increase with time at different rates and if plotted against each other,
a curved line is formed (called a concordia curve because all points on the curve have
concordant U238/Pb206 and U235/Pb207 ages).
If a rock sample has lost no Pb, calculated ages from U238 and U235 would be
concordant and a point representing the ratio of the above quantities would lie on the
concordia curve.
If Pb has been lost, the ages will be discordant and the point representing the ratio will
lie below the curve.
Since lead loss would presumably be different for different areas in the sample, several
different analyses from different locations in the sample should give several different
ratios and thus several different points below the concordia curve.
It can be determined mathematically that these several points will lie on a straight line
(called a discordia).
If the discordia line is extended to intersect the concordia curve, upper intersection
gives age of rock.
Lower intersection supposedly gives time lead lost but almost never accurate since lead
almost never lost all at once but gradually over long time.
10
Technically could use U238 -> He4, U235 -> He4, or Th232 -> He4
But, helium may be lost since a gas.
Other Pb uses
1. Can measure average amounts of U238 and Pb206, or U235 and Pb207 in rocks at the
Earth's surface (usually use recent marine sediments).
Assume no radiogenic lead to start with, can calculate age of Earth's outer portion.
2. Begin with primeval lead (lead present when Earth formed): Pb204, Pb206, Pb207, Pb208
in certain ratios for Earth as whole (usually assume this to be same as ratios in meteorites
without U, Th).
With time, radiogenic lead increases, thus higher Pb206/Pb204, etc., ratios with time.
Can get age of Earth (4550-4750 my).
3. (variation on 2)
After a time, ore might form (example: galena).
This ore would "sample" the lead at time of formation, which would consist of the
primeval lead plus all radioactive lead formed before the time of ore formation (total lead
called the common lead).
Thus, age of ore can be determined by comparing its lead ratios to the ratios which
would have existed at various times.
4. Stable nuclei atomic weight about 40 and above are present in about same abundance.
Assume when elements formed, same rule applied to unstable elements.
Now U238 is 140 times as abundant as U235.
If both once equally abundant, would take 6 billion years to reach present proportion.
Age of Universe? of our part of Universe? of our Solar System nebula?
Fission-track dating:
U238 spontaneously breaks down by fission (splits into two large parts).
This is a rare occurrence.
These fission particles pass through the surrounding material with very high energy and
leave tube-shaped damage tracks.
11
These tracks can be counted (etch mineral with HFl, look at under microscope) and thus
the number of spontaneous fissions may be counted.
This gives amount of daughter product in sample.
Useful because can be used on wide variety of substances of wide range of ages.
Potassium-Argon dating:
Since 2 separate decay types are possible, decay equation somewhat more
complicated.
Let be total decay constant, Ar be decay constant for K-Ar reaction, and Ca be decay
constant for K-Ca reaction.
Then decay equation can be written:
Ar40original = 0 for all but very exotic minerals (original Ar a gas, wouldn't survive
formation except under very unusual circumstances, such as enormously high pressures).
Therefore, substituting 0 for original Ar and also substituting decay constants:
12
If metamorphism occurs, Ar40 already formed will probably be lost and clock reset.
K-Ar methods can therefore be used to date metamorphic events.
Disadvantage to method:
Advantages to method:
• can be applied to very common and abundant rocks and minerals, since K one of
major elements in Earth's crust
• Glauconite in sedimentary rocks can be used and other methods not generally
useful for sedimentary rocks
• schists and slates can be dated
• since Rb usually found with K, 2 independent ages can usually be obtained from
same sample and compared
• wide range of ages because of length of halflife (from age of Earth to about 5000
years old); no other methods allow dating of rocks a few tens of thousands of
years old (important for establishing chronology of recent magnetic reversals)
Samarium-Neodymium dating:
Has advantage that both elements are members of rare-earth group and have virtually
identical chemical properties.
Both similarly affected by weathering and metamorphic processes.
Sm/Nd ratios would remain unchanged, giving reliable date for original crystallization.
Carbon dating:
Carbon in organism has same C14/C12 ratio as air or water does as long as organism alive.
When organism dies, C14 not replenished, disappears, and C14/C12 ratio decreases to zero.
C14/C12 ratio thus gives age since death.
13
Limited to very young samples (less than 70,000 years) because of short half-life (5730
years).
Natural Gamma
Other minerals such as titanium and zirconium are often associated with radioisotopes
so radioacivity surveying may also be used in their search. Nonradioactive minerals
(especially those formed by mineral replacement processes) are sometimes associated
with depletions as well as with concentrations of radioisotopes.
Measurements may be made from the air, along a ground traverse or in boreholes.
Different rocks often have different radioactivity and these differences can be utilized
in geologic mapping.
Radioactivity lows are sometimes associated with oilfields but the reason is not known.
Part 3: Heat
14
Methods of heat transfer:
where is the density and Cp is the specific heat of the substance at constant pressure.
Examples:
• 50 cm below surface - daily changes are seldom more than 1 degree and are 1/2 to
1 day late
• few meters down - only seasonal changes detectible and arrive months late
• few thousand meters down - effects of last ice age still detectible
• Pliocene and Pleistocene lavas are warmer than the average lava
15
Temperature on both sides must be same.
Material at bottom of mantle solid; material at top of core liquid.
Considering all possible materials, maximum is 2700oK.
Heat flow about the same all over the Earth; average heat flow for continents same as
that for oceans.
However, continental materials much richer in radioactive materials and thus should give
off more heat.
Explanation: Some heat flow in ocean basins due to conduction.
Total surface heat flow:
Interesting speculation: Is it a coincidence that oceanic heat flow equals continental heat
flow?
16
• chemical reactions which give off heat (ex. - oxidation of sulfide ores produces
detectable heat)
• presence of local radioactive heat sources (ex. - granite intrusions)
• differences in heat conductivity of rocks (ex. - salt is highly conductive)
• presence of volcanic and hydrothermal sources
Part 4: Magnetism
Speculation:
Do poles always exist in pairs?
Earth is a magnet.
North-seeking pole of a magnet (also called positive) is one that is attracted to the Earth's
north pole.
Earth's north pole is a south-seeking pole.
The Earth's magnetic field is defined by giving its strength and direction.
The magnetic field strength (H) at a point in the field of a magnet is the force per unit of
pole strength which would be exerted on a pole at that point.
Magnetic field strength is also sometimes given in terms of the density of imaginary lines
of force representing the field.
1 Oersted = 1 line of force per cm2 (called a gauss)
Typical laboratory magnet has field strength of 10,000 Oersteds
The field strength of the Earth varies from about 0.3 Oersteds at the equator to about 0.6
Oersteds at the poles.
Some terminology:
• Magnetic equator - curve around the Earth connecting points where inclination
is horizontal
17
• Magnetic dip poles - points on the Earth's surface where inclination is vertical
(several in polar region; also occur where strong local fields exist)
• Isomagnetic charts - plots of Earth's magnetic field
• Isodynamics - contours of equal intensity
• Isogonics - contours of equal declination
• Isoclinics - contours of equal inclination
Internal field can be mostly accounted for by a fictitious magnetic dipole displaced from
the center of the Earth about 400 kilometers southward (toward Indonesia) and tilted 11
1/2 degrees with respect to the axis of rotation.
18
Now remove original magnetic field.
If disk continues to spin quickly enough, the current keeps flowing through the wire and a
magnetic field still exists.
Called a self-exciting dynamo.
• thermal convection?
If so, source of heat?
Why doesn't the convection disturb the layering of the outer core (called fine
structure)?
• solification of inner core?
• rocking of Earth as it moves around Sun (precession) setting liquid in outer core
in motion
try rocking a bottle of liquid to see similar effect
1. magnetic storms
2. diurnal changes
3. secular variation
4. westward drift
5. reversals
1. Magnetic storms:
19
• last several days
• change of about 1000 gamma (1 gamma = 10-9 Oersteds)
• produced by charged particles emitted by the Sun.
2. Diurnal changes:
3. Secular variation:
• regional changes
• occur over decades or centuries
• possible cause?
variations in core motions, especially eddies near the core boundary
4. Westward drift:
• entire magnetic field "drifts" around Earth in period of about 2000 years
• possible cause?
core rotates slower than rest of Earth
5. Magnetic reversals:
North magnetic pole becomes a south pole and vice versa.
There are no reasons why the Earth's field should have a particular polarity and there is
no fundamental reason why its polarity should not change.
Magnetic reversals are known to occur in the Sun and have been observed in other stars.
Major groupings of normal and reversed sequences are called magnetic epochs.
Briefer fluctuations in polarity are called events.
Average of three reversals per million years.
Reversals occurred in the preCambrian and have been found in all subsequent periods
except the Permian.
Question: Why were there no reversals in the Permian?
The most recent period of reversed polarity was about 8000 - 20000 years ago.
20
During a reversal, the dipole field strength decreases to near zero.
The strength is currently dropping 5% per century and has been dropping for the past
2000 years.
We may be approaching a reversal.
Lenz's law:
When a substance is placed in a magnetic field, little extra currents are generated inside
the atoms by a process called induction.
These currents produce a magnetic field opposite in direction to the applied field.
(For details, look up Larmor precessions in a quantum mechanics book.)
This induced field is called the Intensity of Magnetization (I) and is proportional to the
applied field: I = kH
k is called the magnetic susceptibility of the substance
The total new field in the substance is the applied field plus the induced field.
This is called the Magnetic Induction (B): B = H + I
B is usally given in Tesla (104 Oersteds).
Gamma (or nonotesla, 10-9 Oersteds) are usually used in exploration geophysics.
Motions of electric particles (including electron spin and orbital motion) produce
magnetic fields.
1. diamagnetic
2. paramagnetic
3. ferromagnetic
21
1. In diamagnetic substances, small magnetic fields produced by particle motions are
randomly oriented and cancel each other out, leaving atoms and ions with no net
magnetic field.
Examples: salt, gypsum, marble, quartz, graphite
2. In paramagnetic substances (which include most substances), the small fields don't
cancel each other out but leave the atoms or ions with net magnetic fields.
However, since the atoms are randomly arranged, the substance as a whole has no net
magnetic field.
3. In ferromagnetic substances, the atoms have net magnetic fields and the atoms are
arranged in regions called domains in such a way that each domain has a magetic field.
(Domains can only be explained by using quantum theory.)
However, normally the domains are randomly oriented and there is no net magnetic field
in the substance.
Examples: iron (which is technically ferrimagnetic), magnetite, hematite (technically
canted anti-ferrimagnetic), ilmenite, pyrrhotite, goethite, many other iron compounds
When each of these kinds of substances is placed in an external magnetic field (like the
Earth's field, for example), additional small magnetic fields are induced.
1. Diamagnetic substances:
Small induced field produced opposite to applied field.
Thus total field is slightly less than the applied field.
Produces small negative magnetic anomaly.
Remove applied field; induced field disappears.
2. Paramagnetic substances:
Two effects occur:
Don't line up completely because of thermal agitation; so the lower the temperature, the
stronger the effect
Effect 2 is greater.
Net effect is total field larger than applied field.
Produces small positive magnetic anomaly.
Remove applied field; induced field disappears, thermal agitation randomly distributes
the atoms
3. Ferromagnetic substances:
Three effects:
22
2. Domains which are oriented in a favorable direction grow larger.
3. Domains may rotate to a more favorable direction.
• effect 1 disappears
• effect 3 disappears because of thermal agitation
• effect 2 remains and substance becomes "permanently magnetized"
Exceptions:
The effects of an applied external magnetic field on a ferromagnetic substance are usually
shown by using a plot called a hysteresis curve.
Magnetism remaining in a rock when the applied field is removed is called natural
remanent magnetization (NRM) or paleomagnetism.
Types include:
• Thermoremanent magnetization
• Depositonal remanent magnetization
• Chemical remanent magnetization
• Isothermal remanent magnetization
• Viscous remanent magnetization
23
Example of viscous remanent magnetization (VRM):
on exposure to a magnetic field for a long time, thermal fluctuations gradually favor
direction of applied field.
1. relative dating
Example: preCambrian dikes in one part of the Canadian Shield all have the same
orientations but 3 different remanence directions, indicating that they are of 3 different
ages.
6. Determine former fit of continents and time of plate break-up by use of "polar
wandering" curves which are identical until the time of break-up and then diverge (or
convergence of plates if curves merge)
Earth's magnetic field shows little relationship to broad features of geography and
geology;
no obvious relationship to mountains, oceanic ridges, continents or oceans
However, field strength varies from place to place due to magnetization of rocks
beneath the surface
Can produce local disturbances of 3 Oersteds or more
(remember, Earth's average is much less)
24
• variation in distance to magnetic body (including relief in basement rocks)
• difference in magnetic susceptibility (how easily rocks magnetized)
Magnetic susceptibility is very low for most materials; only high for
ferromagnetic substances.
Susceptibility of rocks is primarily controlled by the amount of ferromagnetic
minerals in the rock and is extremely variable.
• difference in NRM
Examples of use:
1. depth to basement
measurements close to anomalous bodies show sharp anomalies; distant bodies produce
smaller, broader and smoother anomalies
On maps, the closer the contours, the shallower the source.
4. Map rock bodies whose magnetic properties are very different from those of
surrounding rocks.
6. Locate faults
A sudden change in spacing of contour lines suggests a discontinuity at depth.
Offsets of magnetic anomalies may indicate strike-slip faults which extend below the
sedimentary cover.
25
Example of sphere studied in profile:
The vertical component of the magnetic field strength (V) at a location x
Other formulas can be used for horizontal cylinders (useful for veins), horizontal sheets
(for dikes or layers faulted by vertical faults), etc., but are considerably more
complicated.
All the formulas assume susceptibility known, Earth's field is vertical and
magnetization is in the directions of Earth's field, none of which is usually true.
Marine anomalies:
Due to thermoremanent magnetization of basalt, which is injected along the central rifts
in oceanic ridges, magnetized in the direction of the Earth's field, and then conveyed
away in either direction from the ridge.
Reversals result in parallel, linear, alternating positive and negative anomalies which are
symmetrical about the ridge axis.
Age of reversals and distance from ridge can be used to determine rate of spreading.
Varies from 1-8 cm/year.
Types of methods:
26
1. Self- Potential Methods:
Uses Potential Difference or Voltage - the difference in electrical potential energy
between two places. Unit is volt.
Potential differences occur naturally within the Earth and can be measured.
a. ore bodies behaving like natural "batteries" with separation of positive and
negative charge (called Electrolytic Potential)
How this works is not understood.
The most accepted theory for sulfides suggests that the portion of the ore body
above the water table is being oxidized (losing electrons) while the portion below
is being reduced, setting up a flow of electrons from one end of the ore body to
the other.
This theory cannot explain anomalies where the ore body is completely below the
water table, explain why a clay overburden prevents a self-potential from
forming, or explain how self-potentials form in poor conductors.
b. differences in salt concentration in water (called Electrochemical Potential)
c. solutions flowing through permeable rocks (called Streaming Potential)
d. electric activity caused by life processes of plants and animals (such as
differences between open ground and bush) (called Bioelectric Potential)
2. Resistivity methods:
Make use of the fact that some materials are good conductors of electricity and some are
poor conductors
27
Current in most rocks is carried by ions in fluids in the rock's pores (called electrolytic
conduction).
A small change in water content affects resistivity enormously.
Also, the salinity of the water is highly important in determining conductivity.
The shapes and arrangements of the pores can result in greater current flow in some
directions than in others.
Faults, joints, etc., can produce "structural" conductors.
Procedure:
Current driven through ground using 2 electrodes
Potential distribution mapped with 2nd set of electrodes to determine potential difference
pattern (voltage distribution) and directions of current flow.
Anomalies (conducting bodies, for example) disturb regular patterns that would normally
be produced
problem 1- the deeper you go, the wider the electrodes must be spaced and the more
powerful the current supply necessary.
This limits the method to a few hundred feet.
problem 2- a layer with intermediate resistivity between layers of high and low
resistivitywill not show up.
Example - looking for groundwater where layer of wet alluvium lies between layer of dry
alluvium and layer of shale
28
2. to measure horizontal variations in resistivity
place current electrodes great distance apart and move closely spaced potential electrodes
along grid between them
plot resistivity vs. locations of potential electrodes
can use map or profile to display data; profiles are most common.
Interpreting maps:
Can use either current lines or equipotential lines on maps
Lines of current flow always perpendicular to equipotential lines (lines along which
potential is constant)
Usually interpret maps qualitatively to simply identify locations of good conductors or
good resistors
Interpreting profiles:
• Estimate of depth to conducting body (to +/- 100%) can be made by the shape
of the profile - depth is half of the width of the curve at half its maximum height.
• Steep gradients in resistivity curve are characteristic markers of structures
with near-vertical boundaries, such as faults, dikes, veins, stream channels, etc.
• A lack of symmetry in the profile implies a dipping body, with steeper slope and
positive tail on the downdip side.
3. Well Logging:
In well logging, both potential differences and resistivities are used.
Example:
High resistivity could be due to limestone or oil bearing sand.
A potential difference indicates flow of water into or out of well and/or difference in salt
concentration.
Therefore indicates oil bearing sand.
Main value of well logging lies in the possibility of correlation between wells.
4. Electromagnetic Methods:
a. Telluric methods
b. Magnetotelluric methods
c. Electromagnetic Induction methods
d. Induced Polarization methods
a. Telluric methods:
Faraday's Law of Induction: changing magnetic fields produce alternating currents.
Changes in the Earth's magnetic field produce alternating electric currents just below the
Earth's surface called Telluric currents.
The lower the frequency of the current, the greater the depth of penetration.
29
Telluric methods use these natural currents to detect resistivity differences which are then
interpreted using procedures similar to those described earlier under resistivity methods.
b. Magnetotelluric methods:
The changing magnetic fields of the Earth and the telluric currents they produce have
different amplitudes.
The ratio of the amplitudes can be used to determine the apparent resistivity to the
greatest depth in the Earth to which energy of that frequency penetrates.
Typical equation:
apparent resistivity =
Depth of penetration =
30
added removed
When the current is turned off, the separation of charge remains for a short time and the
voltage can be measured.
The total voltage for the formation depends on the percentage of metallic minerals it
contains.
Part 6: Seismology
Stress - specifies the nature of the internal forces acting within a mineral
Strain - defines the changes of size and shape (deformation) arising from those sources
In a plastic substance, under a given stress, strain is not constant but is dependent on
time.
If the stress becomes large enough (the elastic limit is reached), fracturing will occur,
suddenly releasing stress and producing elastic waves which travel through the Earth
(earthquake)
• Body waves -
o compressional (longitudinal, primary or P-waves)
o transverse (shear, secondary or S-waves)
• Surface waves (S-waves) -
o Love waves (transverse, horizontal)
o Rayleigh waves (circular, reverse of water wave motion)
31
• Free oscillations
P-waves:
usually have the smallest amplitude
Velocity can be calculated from elastic constants of material through which wave is
traveling - one formula is:
vp = where is density
S-waves:
If the particles in an S-wave all move in a parallel line, the wave is said to be polarized.
An S-wave with all vertical particle motion is called SV; one with all horizontal motion is
SH.
Vs =
Because K and are always positive numbers, the ratio of Vp to Vs will always be greater
than 1.
Love waves:
transverse and horizontal
possible only in a low-speed layer overlying a medium in which elastic waves have a
higher speed
Rayleigh waves:
particle motion in circles like water waves, but in opposite direction
travel only along the free surface of an elastic solid
amplitude decreases with depth below surface
slower than Love waves
32
When there is a low speed layer overlying a much thicker layer of material in which the
speed of elastic waves is higher, the surface wave velocity varies with wavelength.
This variation of velocity with wavelength is called dispersion.
For deep focus earthquakes, surface waves are either non-existent or have very low
amplitudes.
Free Oscillations:
motions of the Earth as a whole
The relation between the natural period of a seismograph and the period of the
waves being recorded determines whether the instrument will measure the displacement,
the velocity or the acceleration associated with the Earth motion.
• If the natural period of a seismograph is much less than that of the earth vibration
(frequency greater), the displacement of the seismograph becomes proportional to
the acceleration of the Earth and the instrument acts as an accelerometer.
• If the two periods are approximately equal, the instrument reading will be
proportional to the velocity of the Earth motion.
• If the natural period is much greater than the period of Earth vibration, the reading
becomes proportional to the actual displacement of the Earth.
When a wave meets a surface of discontinuity, part of it will be reflected and part
refracted (bent).
Every reflection or refraction generates additional waves, producing an incredibly
complex situation and seismograms which are extremely confusing.
The recognition of the several different arrivals is a skill acquired by long practice.
It is often easier to follow reflected and refracted waves by viewing them as rays moving
at right angles to the wave front.
Review of physics:
When a wave is reflected, the angle to reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
33
where v1 is the velocity in the 1st medium; v2 is the velocity in the 2nd medium;
is the angle of incidence and ' is the angle of refraction.
A wave which strikes the discontinuity at the particular angle when sin = v1/v2 will not
penetrate into the 2nd medium but will travel along the interface. is known as the
critical angle of refraction when this occurs.
2. determining magnitude:
The magnitude of an earthquake is a quantitative measure of its size.
Magnitude scales were originally determined from the amplitudes of the elastic waves
generated.
34
• a is the amplitude of the ground motion for surface waves from a Southern
California earthquake recorded on a Wood-Anderson seismograph (in microns,
.001 mm)
• T is the dominant wave period (in seconds)
• is the distance (measured as the angle subtended at the center of the Earth)
between the earthquake and the seismometer
• h is the depth of focus
• f ( , h) is a term found from a study of many recordings. It is basically an
expression for the attenuation of the waves and has the effect of reducing all
observations to a standard distance
• C is a station correction to adjust for local peculiarities of seismometer siting.
The Richter Magnitude Scale did not originally specify which wave type used.
Now we commonly use P-waves for deep focus earthquakes and the horizontal
component of Rayleigh waves for shallow focus earthquakes.
One big problem with the Richter Magnitude Scale is that it doesn't directly measure
anything related to fault mechanics.
A relatively new scale, called the Moment Magnitude Scale, which attempts to address
this problem is now becoming widely used.
A formula often used to give the relationship between magnitude and total elastic
wave energy of an earthquake is:
log10 E = 12.24 + 1.44 M (E is in ergs)
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4. locating areas of molten or partially molten rock:
The formulas for the velocities of P and S waves indicate
Major regions:
• Crustal layers
• Low Velocity Zone in upper mantle (discussed previously)
The Earth can be thought of as being made up of an infinite number of layers, each with
greater density than the one above. This results in an infinite number of refractions and is
responsible for the general curved nature of the paths of seismic waves through the
Earth.
Diagrams which trace the paths of seismic waves through the Earth usually use symbols
as follows:
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• J is used for an S-wave refracted through the inner core.
• For deep focus earthquakes, a small preceding s or p is used to indicate a wave
moving up from the focus to the surface (ex. pP, pS, pPcP)
Exploring the Earth's interior with P and S waves is sometimes called seismic
tomography by analogy with CAT scans (Cathode Applied Tomography) which use x-
rays to study the interior of a human body.
1. Seismic refraction:
Can be used to detemine thicknesses and dips of layers and seismic velocities in each
layer, making identification of rock types possible.
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where Ti is the intercept on the T axis and V2 is the velocity in the lower layer.
The slope of the line is 1/V2.
In reality, since we measure only first arrivals, at distances less than a certain distance
(called the critical distance), the direct wave is recorded and at distances beyond the
critical distance, the refracted wave is recorded.
The plot we obtain is thus made up of segments of two straight lines and allows us to
obtain the velocities in both layers and the depth to the interface.
Example of a situation where the higher velocity layer is on top (very rare in nature):
No critical refraction occurs
Layer missed and thickness not accounted for
Leads to depth calculation errors
2. Seismic reflection:
the most widely used and valuable geophysical exploration method and one of the
easiest to interpret qualitatively
Seismic waves traveling down from a source are reflected upward from each interface
encountered.
Interfaces are not necessarily boundaries between layers but could be any of a number of
lithologic changes which cause velocity contrasts.
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Reflections from a single shot are usually recorded by groups of geophones - frequently
as many as 96.
When several closely spaced detectors are laid out along a line, each will record a
reflection from each interface.
If the seismograms from these detectors are recorded parallel to each other, the waves
corresponding to a reflection will all line up across the records in such a way that the
crests and troughs on adjacent traces will appear more or less to fit into one another.
To make a record easier to analyse, we usually make a dynamic correction (also called
normal moveout).
The different geophones were at different distances from the shot point and therefore the
waves had longer distances to travel.
The dynamic correction has the effect of mathematically placing all geophones at the
same distance from the shot point.
• elevation variations
• removing the effects of the surface layer because it is generally very variable and
not of particular interest
• correcting for the fact that we are assuming vertical paths for the incident and
reflecting rays and this would not be true for dipping or irregular surfaces and
correcting for diffraction effects (both corrections called seismic migration)
• removing multiple reflections (called deconvolution)
After reflections have been identified, they are timed, using the trough of the 1st
wave.
For horizontal beds, where T is the travel time, x is the distance between the shot point
and the receiver, and V is the average velocity in the section above the interface, the
depth to the interface is:
The difference between the times of a peak or a trough for the same reflection at
successive detector positions gives information about the dip of the reflecting interface.
Changing the distance between the shot point and the geophones gives several readings
for the same reflecting surfaces.
This results in the same reflection signal being recorded but different "noise" signals,
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enabling us to remove the noise signals (or at least to minimize them) with the use of
various techniques.
Filters used in geophysics can be compared to maps of different scales
One geophysicist's noise is another's music. Rayleigh waves (disparagingly called ground
roll) get in the way of exploration geophysics but are very important in crustal studies.
Noises are due to many things and we could devote an entire course to the techniques
used to deal with them.
Interpretation:
Know thicknesses and know velocities.
Have at least some knowledge of the geology of the area.
In addition to type of rock, several other factors also affect velocity, including
porosity and water content.
Guess a little.
Seismic Tomography
Seismic tomography uses data from hundreds of earthquakes and recording stations to
generate a sort of CAT scan of the Earth in a way that is similar to the whole-body
scanning method used for medical purposes.
The computer modeling methods are very complex. The end result is a three-
dimensional model of the shear-wave velocity within the Earth.
Earthquake Prediction
• Before an earthquake, the P-wave velocity drops to a minimum and then returns
to normal.
• Quake occurs in about 1/10 time that anomaly lasted.
• Size of quake correlates to duration of anomaly
• Possible explanation: When cracks first begin to open, P-waves slow down
because they don't travel as fast through open
• space as they do through solid rock. Ground water then seeps in and P-wave
velocity returns to normal; also rocks are lubricated.
• Problems:
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o usually doesn't occur
o Sometimes when it occurs, earthquakes don't
2. rock deformation
5. electromagnetic "noise"
6. "earthquake lights"
Source : http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/slaymaker/Geol112/Geophysics.htm
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