1

Part 1 Investigating Australia’s physical environments

Australia’s
physical
environments
‘Australia—a unique country.’

In this chapter you will learn about:

 Australia’s geographical dimensions
 the origins of the continent, both from an Aboriginal perspective and a
geographical perspective
 the patterns of major landforms and drainage basins, climate and weather,
natural resources, vegetation, flora and fauna.

In this chapter you will learn to:

 locate and recognise Australia on a world map using latitude and longitude,
and compare its size and shape with other continents and countries
 explain the origins of the continent from an Aboriginal perspective and a
geographical perspective
 describe and identify Australia’s major physical features and patterns on a
variety of maps
 explain the interrelationships that exist in the physical environment of Australia
 explain adaptations of flora and fauna to the Australian environment
 construct a cross-section, calculate gradient of a slope and identify bearings
on a map
 read and interpret weather maps
 interpret satellite images.

[1.1] Australia—the dry continent

  Geography for Australian Citizens
The Australian continent
island
a landmass surrounded
by water
continent
a large landmass (there are
seven world continents)
country
a political unit having a
national government
hemisphere
one of the halves of the
spheroidal world globe, which
is divided at the Equator
[1.2] Latitude and longitude of Australia
661/2°N Arctic Circle
160°E
120°E
Did you
know?
A satellite image is
an electronic image
transmitted from satellites.
The electronic data is
transmitted by radio signals
that are converted into a
colour image. Computer
technology is used to adjust
the colours.
Australia is at the same time:
 an island—the world’s largest
 a continent—the world’s flattest
 a country—the world’s sixth largest.
Australia is located in the southern hemisphere, between latitudes 10ºS and
44ºS and between longitudes 113ºE and 154ºE [1.2]. The satellite image [1.3]
shows Australia’s position in the world. Spatially, Australia is part of the Asia–
Pacific region. Our nearest neighbours are Papua New Guinea to the north and
New Zealand to the east.
[1.3] Satellite image of Australia from space
231/2°N
Tropic of
Cancer
0° Equator
231/2°S
Tropic of
Capricorn
0103
Skills
Map reading
Latitude and longitude
Geographers use latitude and longitude to help locate places in their spatial
context.
The parallels of latitude are imaginary lines that run east–west around the
globe. They measure north (N) and south (S) of the Equator between latitudes
0° and 90°.
The meridians of longitude run from the North Pole to the South Pole around
the globe. They measure east (E) and west (W) of Greenwich or the Prime
Meridian (0°) and the International Date Line (180°).
Both parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude are measured in degrees
and minutes. Each degree is further subdivided into 60 minutes. This level of
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 

accuracy is necessary for precise navigation (of ships and aircraft). An atlas entry
in the index would appear as:
Sydney, Australia 33° 55′S 151° 13′E
Map [9.2] on page 246 shows the location of Australia in the world in terms
of latitude and longitude. The lines of latitude and longitude on the map are
shown at 30° intervals. The map of Australia [1.7] has latitude and longitude
shown along the map borders.

Australia’s geographical dimensions

Australia’s total land area makes it one of the largest countries
FACTFILE
in the world. It is nearly 4000 kilometres west to east and over
Australia 3000 kilometres north to south. If Tasmania is included in the
Area: 7 682 300 km2 calculations, the size of Australia increases to 3680 kilometres
Nearest neighbour: Papua New Guinea from Cape York, Queensland to South-East Cape, Tasmania.
(150 km north) The relative sizes of each state and territory is shown in map
Distance west to east: 3983 km (Steep Point,
WA to Cape Byron, NSW)
[1.7].
Distance north to south: 3138 km (Cape York, The sheer size of Australia [1.4] means that there is a
Qld to Wilson’s Promontory, Vic.) or 3680 km huge variety of physical environments. Australia’s physical
from Cape York to South-East Cape, Tas.
dimensions have also shaped the development of its human
Highest point: Mt Kosciuszko, NSW—2228 m
Lowest point: Lake Eyre, SA—15 m below
environments.
sea level The size of Australia can be put into context if we consider
travelling the same distances in other parts of the world [1.5].
For example, the distance between Cairns and Sydney is
2680 kilometres, which is the equivalent of travelling between London and Paris
about eight times. We can also see the size of Australia relative to the countries
of Europe [1.10].
[1.4] Australia is the world’s sixth largest country [1.6] The vastness of Australia can be seen from Five Rivers Lookout near
Wyndham in northern Australia
Country Area (km2)
Russia 17.1 million
Canada 9.97 million
China 9.59 million
USA 9.36 million
Brazil 8.51 million
Australia 7.68 million

[1.5] The tyranny of distance

Distances within Australia Kilometres

Sydney to Melbourne 870
Sydney to Brisbane 980
Sydney to Adelaide 1420
Perth to Darwin 4160
Brisbane to Cairns 1700
Comparative distances Kilometres
Singapore to Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) 310
London (UK) to Paris (France) 320
Los Angeles to San Francisco (USA) 580
Los Angeles to New York (USA) 2650
  Geography for Australian Citizens

[1.7] Australia’s states and territories

Total area Northern Territory Queensland
7 682 300 km² 1 346 200 km² (18% of Australia) 1 727 200 km² (22% of Australia)

Western
Australia
2 525 500 km² New South
(33% of Australia) Wales
801 600 km²
(10% of
Australia)

Australian
Capital
Territory
2 400 km²
(0.03% of
Australia)

Victoria
227 600 km²
(3% of
Australia)

South Australia Tasmania

984 000 km² (10% of Australia) 67 800 km² (1% of Australia)

Skills
Map reading
Maps are essential tools that help us understand the spatial dimensions of the
world around us. A range of different maps is presented throughout this text
and there are important skills you need to learn and/or review in reading maps
correctly.

Using the scale

The scale of a map shows the relationship between distances on the map and
actual distances on the land. A geographer needs to know how to read the
scale of a map. Scale can be shown as:
 a linear scale  a sentence
 a representative fraction (ratio)  a combination of these.
A representative fraction (RF) scale uses numbers or ratios. These ratios use
centimetres to calculate the actual distance as shown in the examples in [1.8].
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 

[1.8] Identifying scale as a representative fraction

Ratio Can be rewritten as

1:10 000 one centimetre represents 100 metres (10 000 centimetres)
1:50 000 one centimetre represents 500 metres (50 000 centimetres)

1:100 000 one centimetre represents 1000 metres or one kilometre

(100 000 centimetres)
1:200 000 one centimetre represents 2000 metres or two kilometres
(200 000 centimetres)

Note that the map of Australia [1.7] has both a linear scale and a
representative fraction scale.

Skills
Map reading
Estimating the area of a feature
A geographer can use one of two methods to measure the area of a feature on
a map. Each of the methods is outlined below.

Method A
This method is more suited to features that have a regular shape.
Step 1: Measure the length of the specified feature, then measure the width.
Make sure you use the scale to convert each measurement.
Step 2: Multiply the converted length by the converted width.
Step 3: Your answer may be expressed in square kilometres (km2), square
metres (m2), or hectares. (There are 10 000 m2 in one hectare.) Read a
question carefully to make sure that you give your answer in the
correct unit.

[1.9] Estimating the area of a feature Method B

with an irregular shape
This method is more suited to areas with an irregular shape.
Step 1: Trace the area to be measured.
Step 2: Using the scale of the map, divide the area into
grids as shown in [1.9].
Step 3: Add up the number of complete grid squares. In
[1.9] there are four complete grid squares.
Step 4: Add up the number of incomplete grid squares and
halve the total. In [1.9] there are nine incomplete
grid squares.
Step 5: Total the calculations made in steps 3 and 4. For
[1.9] the total is 8.5 (that is, 4 + 4.5).
Step 6: Multiply the total from step 5 by the area of each
grid square. For [1.9] the area is calculated by
multiplying 8.5 x 0.25 km2. Therefore, the area of
the feature is 2.125 square kilometres.
  Geography for Australian Citizens

Did you
know?
The land within the borders
of New South Wales and
Victoria changes due to
variations in the course
of the Murray River during
floods.
[1.10] The size of Australia in
relation to Europe
60˚N 20˚W
Skills
Map reading
How to distinguish between large- and small-scale maps
There is a simple rule for geographers to remember to help them distinguish
between large- and small-scale maps. A map with a large scale shows a small
area of land with a lot of detail. For example, a map of your school may have a
scale of 1:100 showing all the classrooms, sporting fields and pathways.
A map with a small scale is the opposite. It shows a large area with little
detail, such as a map of Australia that only has major features. You would not
be able to find your school on a map of this size. It is likely to have a scale of
around 1:200 000.
Remember also that if you divide 1 by 200 000 your answer is a much smaller
number than if you divide 1 by 100.
Small- and large-scale maps, however, are relative. In the example below, the
map of Australia is the small-scale map. But if you compare a map of the world
with a scale of 1:1 000 000 with the 1:200 000 map of Australia, the map of
Australia has the larger scale.
10˚W 0˚ 10˚E 20˚E 30˚E 40˚E 50˚E

Kilometres
SWEDEN
0 250 500

NORWAY 60˚N
FINLAND

NORTH RUSSIA
SEA
ESTONIA
UNITED
KINGDOM
50˚N LATVIA
DENMARK
REPUBLIC BALTIC SEA
OF LITHUANIA
IRELAND
NETHERLANDS
BELARUS
GERMANY POLAND 50˚N
BELGIUM
LUXEMBOURG
CZECH UKRAINE
Bay FRANCE SLOVAKIA
of
Biscay AUSTRIA MOLDOVA
SWITZERLAND HUNGARY
SLOVENIA ROMANIA
BOSNIA and
40˚N HERZEGOVINA
PORTUGAL CROATIA SERBIA and
MONTENEGRO BLACK SEA

ITALY
BULGARIA
KOSOVO 40˚N
SPAIN FYROM
ALBANIA

MED TURKEY
IT E RR
AN E
AN
GREECE

MOROCCO
TUNISIA SYRIA
ALGERIA MALTA CYPRUS
SE
A LEBANON
0˚ 10˚E 20˚E 30˚E
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 

[1.11] The northern-most point of the Australian mainland is [1.12] Cape Byron in NSW is the eastern-most point of the Australian
Cape York, Qld mainland

[1.13] Wilson’s Promontory in Victoria is the Australian mainland’s [1.14] Steep Point in WA is the western-most point of the Australian
southern-most extremity mainland

Learning about …
1 Choose the most correct answer for each of the following statements.
a Australia can be described as:
i an island iii a continent
ii a country iv all of the above.
b The two landmasses that make up Australia are:
i mainland Australia and Antarctica
ii mainland Australia and Tasmania
iii the Australian Antarctic Territory and the Australian Capital Territory
iv Tasmania and Norfolk Island.
c The main characteristic responsible for the unique features of Australia is its:
i size
ii shape
 Geography for Australian Citizens

iii physical environments

iv human environment.
d Australia is which of the following?
i Tenth biggest country in the world
ii Second biggest country in the world
iii Sixth biggest country in the world
iv Fifth biggest country in the world
e Table [1.4] shows that the USA is how many million square kilometres larger than
Australia?
i 16.8
ii 1.68
iii 17.87
iv 178
2 Use [1.7] and an outline map of Australia to label the following features:
a states and territories
b capital cities
c major river systems
d major mountain ranges
e Great Barrier Reef
f major oceans, seas and other waterways.
3 Is it accurate to describe Australia as an island-continent? Give details.
4 Describe Australia in terms of its size.
5 Why is the sheer size of Australia responsible for many of its unique features?
6 Using map [1.7], copy and complete the following sentences.
a The total area of Australia is ______________.
b The largest state or territory is _____________________ with an area that represents
________ of the total area of Australia.
c The smallest state or territory is __________________. It has an area of ________ that
is ________ of the total land area.
d The remaining states and territories have a total area of _____________ and represent
________ of the total area.

Learning to …
1 Use the map of Australia [1.7] to complete the following tasks.
a Give the scale of the map as a:
i sentence
ii representative fraction
iii linear scale.
b Estimate the distance between:
i Sydney and Perth
ii Hobart and Melbourne
iii Adelaide and Darwin.
c State the direction of Kalgoorlie from:
i Perth
ii Lake Eyre
iii Tennant Creek
iv Brisbane.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 

d Using an atlas to assist you, give the latitude and longitude for:
i Albany
ii Launceston
iii Mt Isa
iv Kangaroo Island.
e Name the following features:
i the body of water between Tasmania and Victoria
ii the northern-most point of Australia
iii the river border of New South Wales and Victoria
iv the body of water between Australia and Papua New Guinea
v the island north of Darwin
vi the geographical feature off the coast of Queensland
vii the lake at 28°S and 137°E.
f Estimate the area of:
i Lake Eyre
ii Melville Island.
g Which of the following has the smallest scale? Which one has the largest scale?
i The satellite image of Australia [1.3]
ii The map of Australia [1.7].
2 Identify small-scale maps and large-scale maps in this textbook. Make a list of three
small-scale maps and three large-scale maps.
3 Using the map showing Australia’s size in relation to Europe [1.10] complete the
following.
a Name a country in Europe that is about the same size as Victoria.
b Approximately how many European countries could you ‘fit into’ Western Australia?
Name them.
c Using the same scale, draw an outline map of the United Kingdom and superimpose
it on a map of Australia.
4 Use the index of an atlas to record the full latitude and longitude (in degrees and
minutes) of:
a Sydney
b Melbourne
c Brisbane
d Adelaide
e Perth
f Hobart
g Darwin.

[1.15] The index of an atlas

10 Geography for Australian Citizens

The origins of the continent

Any examination of the origins of Australia should be viewed both from an
Aboriginal perspective and a geographical perspective.

Australia’s Aboriginal heritage

Aboriginal people have occupied Australia for at least 50 000 years. Some
researchers believe that Aboriginal occupation may even date back 170 000 years.
The first Aboriginal settlers arrived from Asia.
The period of Aboriginal migration was at a
[1.16] Ancient rock cave painting in Kakadu National Park
time when sea levels were about 150 metres lower
than they are today. This was during the last ice
age when much of the world’s water was stored
in ice sheets. During this period the Australian
mainland was connected to New Guinea in the
north and Tasmania in the south, forming ‘Greater
Australia’ [1.17]. This made access to Australia
from the South-East Asian islands of Borneo and
Sulawesi possible for the Aboriginal people. They
were able to ‘island-hop’ their way to the shores
of ‘Greater Australia’.
The first Aboriginal settlers lived along the
Australian coast and relied on the rich variety
of fish and shellfish provided by the sea. Other
Aboriginal groups moved inland. During the ice
age, inland Australia would have been a very
different place to what we see today. Fresh water
would have been available in the places where

[1.17] During the last ice age the Australian mainland was connected to New Guinea in
the north and Tasmania in the south, forming ‘Greater Australia’
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 11

there are now dried up saltpans. The vegetation would also have been much more
varied and prolific. Researchers suggest that Palm Valley, west of Alice Springs,
gives us some idea of how inland Australia could have looked at this time [1.26].
While Aboriginal populations remained relatively low in central Australia,
Aboriginal people inhabited a wide range of physical environments all over the
continent at least 50 000 years ago. As well as being in central Australia, they were
located around the Australian coast, in the foothills of the Snowy Mountains and
close to the glacial areas of western and central Tasmania.
nomadic The Aboriginal people lived a nomadic life, moving systematically from place
moving from place to place to place, hunting and gathering food according to where it was most plentiful.
without making a
permanent settlement This nomadic way of life helps to explain the longevity and stability of the
Aboriginal population. The movement of people based on food supplies and
the seasons meant that they were never vulnerable to the failure of one or two
food crops. Aboriginal people were skilled hunters and knew the movements of
birds and animals in their area in great detail. They knew where water could be
found—in tree trunks, waterholes or underground springs.
The work of the women and children guaranteed a rich supply of food [1.18].
They were responsible for gathering edible roots, fruits, shellfish, grubs and
snakes. Fruits, nuts and roots provided at least half of the Aboriginal diet
because these food supplies were the most reliable.

[1.18] The work of women and children provided a rich supply of food for their group

Relationship with the land

The Aboriginal people of Australia have a unique relationship with the land. Their
sustainable view of the land is very different to that of other cultures. Because the Aboriginal
meeting current needs without
harming the environment people relied on what the land could provide for their livelihood, their use of
for future generations
the land was sustainable. They were the custodians, or guardians, of the land.
12 Geography for Australian Citizens

Land was not a commodity to be bought and sold, it was the property and
responsibility of the group that inhabited it for the majority of the time.
Responsibility for conserving the land is passed down through generations of
the clan group. The people see themselves as part of the land, which, when used
sustainably, guarantees not only their survival but also the survival of future
generations.

o ri g in e s c o n se n t to ritual burial
A b
excavations n not seen before,
The results of the excava
tions
at day
in a fashio were presented yester
Deborah Smith fire that
sitting upright on a the Austr alia n Ar cha eol ogical
Science Reporter n had a
had gone out. Both me As soc iat ion conference in
h prom-
20-year moratorium
has robust appearance, wit
A been lifted on excava
skeletal remain s at the NS
tin
W
g ine nt
Pro
bro
fes
wn
sor
rid
We
ges .
bb said the skel-
valu-
Jindabyne.
Australia’s oldest hu
remains, Mu ng o La dy
man
and
wh ere the wo rld ’s oldest eto ns were scientifically Mu ng o Ma n, wh o both died
site portant
ritual burials were fou
nd. able. ‘But the most im about 40 000 years ago
, were
ent ed ng abo ut the m is that we Mu ng o in
In an act of unpreced thi discovered at Lake
we en scie nti sts we re allo we d to excavate them. dra reg ion in 196 9
cooperation bet tes t for us, wh ether the the Willan
La dy’ s
fro m It wa s a ng o
and Aboriginal elders ld trust us.’
and 1974. Mu
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La kes reg ion the eld ers cou rep res ent the
the Willandra earch remains
o were The future for more res known cremation and
Mungo
remains of two men wh siti ve, he sai d. ‘Th e the
ut 18  000 yea rs loo ked po rem ain s rep res ent
buried there abo ely Man’s
hav e bee n rec ove red from Wi llandra area is an extrem old est kn ow n ritual burial
ago scien-
the sand dunes and stu
died. important cultural and using ochre.
of are a. It wil l tea ch us an
ve We bb, a pro fes sor tifi c
Ste ut the
Australian Studies at
Bond enormous amount abo Sydney Morning Her
ald,
ma n tor y, cul tur e and life style of 6–7 December 2003
ive rsi ty, sai d on e his
Un s.’
appeared to have bee
n buried Australia’s oldest people

The Dreaming
Aboriginal ties to their land, as well as other aspects of Aboriginal life, are bound
up in their religion based on the Dreaming, or Dreamtime.
This belief system helps explain the era of creation for Aboriginal people—that
is, the origin of the universe, the workings of nature, the patterns of kinship and
family life, and the cycle of life and death. Every Aboriginal tribe, or clan group,
has an ancestral being with supernatural powers. The ancestor is a living creature
such as a wallaby or lizard that the clan group believes has created the land,
including the hills, rivers, plants and animals, as well as their clan group. The
energies of these ancestral beings remain within the Earth along the Dreamtime
tracks they followed. The places where the ancestors stopped are the sacred sites.
Traditionally, Aboriginal people get their energy, or their purpose for living,
from these sacred sites, from the Dreaming tracks, and from the land in between.
Ceremonies performed by the clan keep the Dreaming energies alive and pass
on knowledge about the connection between the custodians, the land and the
Dreaming to the next generations.
Once Aboriginal people lose their link with the land, they can no longer
perform their ceremonies. As a result, the energies are reduced, the lifeforce is lost
along with the identity of Aboriginal people. They become dispossessed.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 13

There are many Aboriginal myths about the origin of fire. Some tribes believe
that it came from a burning mountain, others that it originated in a lightning
flash. For the people who lived in the north-west coastal regions of Australia, their
fire came from the sky [1.19].
Another myth—Tiddalik the Floodmaker—is about a big, thirsty frog who drank
all the water in the land. The kookaburra, unsuccessfully, tried to make Tiddalik
laugh and spill the water. The eel did a fancy dance that made Tiddalik burst out
laughing so that the water gushed from his mouth to fill the swamps and rivers
again [1.21].
[1.19] One of the Aboriginal myths about the origins of fire

Two brothers named Kanbi and Jitabidi lived in the sky. Their camp
was near the Southern Cross. At that time there was no other fire in the
universe. Food was getting scarce in the heavens and so Kanbi and Jitabidi
came to Earth, bringing their firesticks with them. They established their
camp and laid their firesticks on the ground while they went hunting.
The two brothers were away so long that the firesticks, becoming
bored, began to chase each other about in the grass and among the
branches of the trees. This game started a bushfire that burnt out a lot of
the countryside. Seeing the smoke and flames, the brothers returned to
their camp and took their firesticks back up into the sky.
Meanwhile a group of Aboriginal hunters saw the fire and felt its
warmth. Realising its value they took a blazing log back to camp from
which many other fires were lit.
Now all Aboriginal people have the fire that once belonged to the men
of the Southern Cross.

[1.20] An Aboriginal man demonstrating the traditional [1.21] Tiddalik the Floodmaker

method of making fire
14 Geography for Australian Citizens

Learning about …
1 How long have Aboriginal people occupied Australia? From where did they arrive?
2 Explain how Aboriginal people were able to make their way from Asia to Australia.
3 Use [1.17] to describe ‘Greater Australia’.
4 Describe the Aboriginal occupation of Australia 20 000 years ago.
5 Define the term ‘nomadic’ in your own words.
6 Explain why Aboriginal people have been able to survive for so long.
7 Outline the role played by women in ensuring the food supply.
8 Discuss the Aboriginal people’s view of the land. How does it differ from the European
view?
9 Explain why the Dreaming is significant to Aboriginal people.
10 How have Aboriginal people been dispossessed? What are the implications of this for
Aboriginal people?

Learning to …
1 Read the article ‘Aborigines consent to ritual burial excavations’ to answer the
following.
a Describe the discovery in the sand dunes in the Willandra Lakes region.
b Where were Australia’s oldest human remains discovered? How long ago?
c Describe the nature of the cooperation between the Aboriginal elders and scientists.
d Explain why discoveries like these may be important.
e Outline the Aboriginal elders’ response to the findings.
2 Use the map of ‘Greater Australia’ [1.17] to complete the following.
a Calculate the longest distance Aboriginal people might have travelled in their journey
to Australia.
b Name the islands from which Aboriginal people migrated. What nations are these
islands part of today?
3 Research the reasons for Aboriginal migration to Australia. Present your findings to the
class.
4 Use the Internet to find a Dreaming story to explain the existence of a particular
Australian landform. Explain the significance of the story for Aboriginal people.

Geographical origins of Australia

Over 200 million years ago Australia was part of a great landmass known as
Pangaea. This ‘supercontinent’ split in two, making Laurasia (which later became
Europe, Asia and North America) and Gondwanaland, which consisted of Africa,
Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica and South America [1.22]. If you look at the
shape of the present day continents of Africa and South America on a world map
(with the Atlantic Ocean in between) you can see how they may once have fitted
together. Scientific studies have shown that the Earth’s crust has followed cycles
continental drift of ‘supercontinent formation’, with continents joining and breaking up. This
a theory that explains how
landmasses broke up to form process was known as continental drift.
continents
Even today the Earth’s crust is not stable. It is divided into plates, known as
tectonic plates tectonic plates. They fit together like a jigsaw puzzle and each plate is named
large moving areas of the
Earth’s surface relative to its geographical location [1.23]. Tectonic plates are always moving
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 15

against each other, sometimes with dramatic effect. Volcanoes and earthquakes are
the result of the sudden movement of tectonic plates [1.24] and [1.25]; however,
most of the changes in the Earth’s surface are very slow, taking millions of years.
[1.22] Formation of Australian landmass

Position at 160 million years ago Position at 45 million years ago Present

Australia

Meganesia Tasmantis
New
Zealand

Antarctica

The great southern landmass is known
as Gondwana—part of what is now
Australia was within the Antarctic circle
Gondwana split as a result of
'Continental Drift'.
Separation of the Australian continental
plate was complete by approximately
40 million years ago
Much of the landmass of Meganesia and
Tasmantis (the area around New Zealand)
is now submerged beneath the sea

0115
[1.23] Tectonic plates

Arctic Ocean

Arctic Circle

Eurasian Plate
Juan De Fuca Plate
Atlantic
Ocean
North American Plate
Philippine
Tropic of Cancer Plate

Caribbean
African Plate Plate
Cocos
Pacific Plate Plate
Equator

Indian South American

Pacific Ocean
Ocean Plate
Nazca Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
Tropic of Capricorn

Converging plate boundary Volcano

Diverging plate boundary Earthquake zone

N
Uncertain plate boundary Tsunami O
R
T
0 1500 3000 km H

Movement of plate Major earthquake

16 Geography for Australian Citizens

[1.24] Molten lava erupting from a volcano Another important factor that affected the Australian
continent over time was climate change. Australia’s climate
has not always been the same. In fact, over millions of
years our climate has undergone dramatic changes. There
have been a number of ice ages, when the world’s climates
became considerably colder. Long ago, Australia’s climate
was warmer and wetter than it is today. Large areas of the
continent were covered by the sea as indicated by seashells
and marine fossils found in inland areas. Palm Valley, in the
arid centre of Australia, is currently fed by an underground
river system, but it does give an indication of how central
Australia might have looked millions of years ago [1.26].

[1.26] Palm Valley in central Australia—the palm tree oasis gives an indication of

how inland Australia would once have looked
[1.25] The results of an earthquake in Kobe, Japan

Learning about …
1 Describe the origins of Australia from a geographical perspective.
2 Explain the process of ‘continental drift’. How did it apply to Australia?
3 Explain the meaning of ‘tectonic plates’. What effects do their movements have?
4 How has climatic change affected the Australian continent? What evidence is there of
this?
5 Examine the photo of Palm Valley [1.26]. Describe the main features shown and how they
illustrate how central Australia might once have looked.

Learning to …
1 Use the Internet to research more information on Australia’s geographical origins. Write a
report on the results of your research. Make a list of the most useful websites.
2 Working in groups, use an outline map of the world and cut out the continents. Try to fit
them together to prove (or disprove) the theory of continental drift. Discuss the accuracy
of your findings.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 17

Australia: a unique country

We already know that Australia is a continent, an island and a country. In this
respect it is unique in the world. But Australia is also a unique country in other
ways. It is unique in the sense that:
 it has a relatively stable landmass with distinctive landforms

 it has a variety of climatic types and weather patterns

 it has distinctive flora and fauna

 it is rich in natural resources.

Major landforms and drainage basins

Australia is a geologically old and stable country. Earthquakes and volcanic
volcanoes eruptions are rare, although remnants of ancient volcanoes do exist. The land
mountains formed by
successive layers of molten surface has been worn down by erosion over a very long period of time. By world
rock or magma that has standards, Australia is a relatively low, flat country with no significant mountain
erupted from within the
Earth’s crust ranges. Large areas of plains and plateaus cover the greater proportion of the
Australian land surface [1.27].
For convenience, Australia can be divided into four main landform regions as
shown in map [1.28]:
 Eastern Highlands  South Australian Highlands

 Central Lowlands  Western Plateau.

fold mountains
mountains formed by lateral
pressure on the Earth’s crust
causing rock strata to fold
The Eastern Highlands are fold mountains—they were formed by folding. The
Eastern Highlands extend from Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland to
Tasmania in the south. Once referred to as the Great Dividing Range, because
they acted as a barrier to western expansion and settlement, they are by today’s
standards, neither ‘great’ nor ‘dividing’, nor indeed a ‘range’. They are really a
series of ranges of varying heights. The Blue Mountains to the west of Sydney, for
example, are part of the Eastern Highlands. The Snowy Mountains are the highest
of the ranges, rising to over 2000 metres above sea level. Mount Kosciuszko,
Australia’s highest peak, is 2228 metres above sea level—not high by world
standards.
[1.27] Murray River from the air
18 Geography for Australian Citizens

[1.28] Australia’s major landform regions

The Central Lowlands extend from the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north to
the Great Australian Bight in the south. This vast area of low-lying land can be
further divided into three parts, based on the drainage systems. To the north,
the Carpentaria Basin is drained by the Mitchell, Gilbert, Norman, Flinders and
Leichhardt rivers. The Lake Eyre Basin in the dry centre is an inland basin, with
the Diamantina, Georgina, Barcoo rivers and Cooper Creek draining into a large
salt lake known as Lake Eyre. This huge area of salt-encrusted land is sometimes
dry and at other times filled with water, depending on rainfall in the catchment
area of these rivers. To the south lies the Murray–Darling Basin, in which the great
Murray River [1.27] and the Darling River join to flow into the Great Australian
Bight. The Darling River [1.31], the longest in Australia at over 3750 kilometres,
is sometimes a chain of waterholes in the dry season. The Murray River is fed by
the snowfields to the east and therefore provides a more reliable water supply.

[1.29] Artesian water

High rainfall area Low rainfall area

Natural Artesian bore-water

springwater pumped from
bubbles to underground
surface porous rock
Porous
rock
Oasis

Non-porous rock

0127
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 19

Throughout the Central Lowlands, there are vast reservoirs of underground

block mountains
mountains formed by upward
movement along fault lines or
cracks in the Earth’s crust
rift valley
a depression surrounded on
each side by fault lines and
block mountains
[1.30] Processes that have shaped Australia
water of varying depths, in the porous rock beneath the surface. These are
artesian basins and the artesian water contained in them can be pumped out by
drilling a bore as shown in [1.29].
The South Australian Highlands are a series of low ranges that were formed
by faulting—where cracks or fault lines and subsequent movements have formed
block mountains and rift valleys [1.30]. The Mount Lofty Ranges and the
Flinders Ranges were formed by this process [1.32]. Spencer Gulf and Gulf of St
Vincent (where Adelaide is located) are now drowned rift valleys.

Fold mountains

rata
k st Anticline
Pressure Roc ers)
(lay Syncline
Block mountain
Block mountains
Rift valley

Fault lines

Lava Crater
Volcanoes Neck
Rim
Ash

Magma
(molten rock)

[1.31] Darling River at Wilcannia in NSW The Western Plateau is a vast area of 0128
land that has been uplifted and then worn
down by the forces of erosion over a long
period of time. Much of the land surface is
occupied by sandy deserts, stony deserts and
treeless plains such as the Nullarbor in the
south. In the centre, several low mountain
ranges, such as the Macdonnell Ranges
[1.34] and the Musgrave Ranges, rise above
the plateau surface. Uluru (Ayers Rock) and
Kata-Tjuta (the Olgas) also stand out above
the surrounding land. In the west are the
Hamersley and Carnarvon ranges, and in the
north-west is the Kimberley [1.35]—a rugged,
dissected plateau into whose surface rivers
have cut deeply.
20 Geography for Australian Citizens

[1.32] Flinders Ranges in South Australia [1.33] Glasshouse Mountains on the east coast of Queensland

[1.34] Central Australia—Macdonnell Ranges [1.35] Plateau landscape of the Kimberleys in Western Australia

Learning about …
1 What factors make Australia a unique country?
2 Name the four main landform regions of Australia.
3 How did the Great Dividing Range get its name? Why is it now deemed to be inaccurately
named? What is it called now?
4 Name Australia’s highest mountain. What is its height above sea level?
5 Which Australian mountains are fold mountains and which were formed by faulting?
6 Name the three drainage systems of the Central Lowlands. Which of these systems is an
inland system? What does this mean?
7 How were the Flinders Ranges formed?
8 What is artesian water? How is it formed and how can it be used?
9 Refer to [1.30] and describe the processes that have shaped Australia.

Learning to …
1 Working in groups, research more information on the following. Use the library or the
Internet to assist you. Each group could present its findings to the class. Write a report
on your research.
a The Glasshouse Mountains d Lake Eyre
b Wilpena Pound e The Kimberley
c The Murray River
2 As a class, discuss the statement: ‘Australia’s landforms are unique’.
3 In groups of two or three, select one of the photographs in this chapter. Describe the
features of the photograph and consider how it typifies Australia’s physical features.
4 Make a line drawing of one of these photographs.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 21

Skills
Identifying bearings on a map
Bearings are used, along with the points of the compass, to give the direction of
one place from another. A bearing is usually expressed in degrees from north, in
a clockwise direction. Bearings can range from 0° (north), through 180° (south)
to 360° (north).

[1.36] Calculating bearings on a map

To calculate the bearing of point B from point A

N=0

B
B B 57°

PROTRACTOR
A
A A

Draw a line from point A Draw a vertical line through Use a protractor to measure
to point B point A the angle. Work clockwise from
north to point B. Bearing is 57°

Calculating local relief 0129

Local relief is the difference in height over a relatively small area. To calculate
local relief, find the highest and the lowest points in the given area and work
out the difference in height between them. You might need to use the contour
interval on the map.
In the topographic map extract of Omeo [1.38], the local relief is:
 highest point—1950 metres
 lowest point—1300 metres
 local relief—650 metres.

Constructing a cross-section
A cross-section is a useful way of showing the shape of the land from a side
view. It has a starting point and a finishing point and shows the shape and
slope of the land as if you travelled from one point to the other. Cross-sections
are drawn from maps, usually topographic maps, and provide a more visual
interpretation of the contour pattern as shown in [1.37] overleaf.
A cross-section should include:
 a heading
 a vertical scale—this shows the height in metres above sea level
 a horizontal scale—like the scale of a map, this shows the relationship
between distances on the cross-section and distances on the ground
 a vertical exaggeration—the vertical scale needs to be exaggerated relative
to the horizontal scale to make the landform features stand out more
clearly. The ratio between the vertical scale and the horizontal scale is the
vertical exaggeration (VE).
22 Geography for Australian Citizens

[1.37] How to draw a cross-section

100

100
200
200
300
300 400
400

A 100 200 300 400 400 300 300 400 400 300 200 100 B Straight
edge

pat
ur ter
n
to
C on

400

300
Metres

200

100

A 100 200 300 400 400 300 300 400 400 300 200 100 B

Calculating the vertical exaggeration

The formula for calculating the vertical exaggeration is: 0130

Vertical exaggeration = _______________

Vertical scale VE = VS
__
Horizontal scale HS

If a cross-section has a vertical scale of 1: 5000 (1 cm represents 5000 cm) and

the horizontal scale is 1: 50 000 (1 cm represents 50 000 cm), by using the
formula correctly (that is, putting a ratio over another ratio), you can arrive
at a vertical exaggeration of ten times. This means that the vertical scale has
been exaggerated (made larger) by ten times. Note that both scales must be
expressed in the same units.
VE = VS
__ = 1
_____
HS _____________
5000

1
______
(invert and multiply)
50 000
= 1
_____ 50 000
_____
X = 10
5000 1

In selecting a suitable vertical exaggeration it is important to use common

sense. You don’t want to make hills look like gigantic mountains, nor do you
want hills or mountain ranges to appear as an almost flat line.
Note that the vertical scale must appear as the numerator as it is the vertical
exaggeration you are measuring. You are dividing ratios and not numbers.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 23

Calculating the gradient of a slope

The gradient of a slope is simply a measure of its steepness. Gradient signs can
often be seen on mountain roads and are generally expressed: gradient 1:10
(which means a vertical drop of one unit for every ten horizontal units). Some
road signs have a visual representation with a triangular diagram with the
gradient. In practical terms, a gradient of 1:10 means that you drop 100 metres
for every 1000 metres you travel.
Gradient can be calculated on a map by identifying two points and measuring
the vertical drop between them and their distance apart. A simple formula can
be used:
gradient = __________________________
vertical distance (drop)
horizontal distance (length)
= ___________
60 metres
2400 metres
= __
1
40
= 1:40 or (1 in 40)
Note that the calculation must be in the same unit of measurement, for
example, in metres.

Skills activities
1 Use the topographic map [1.38]:
a Give the bearing of Mt Cook from Omeo town centre.
b Give the bearing of Mt Livingstone from Omeo town centre.
c What is the bearing of the centre of Omeo from Mt Livingstone?
d Give the grid references for Mt Livingstone.
e Give the area reference for Mt Cook.
f Name the feature located at grid reference 502991.
g Name the natural feature at area reference 5301.
h Describe the settlement pattern in the map area. What is the largest
settlement? What factors do you think have influenced the settlement
pattern?
i What appears to be the main form of transport in the area? How can you
tell? What transport problems do you think are evident in the map area?
j Draw a cross-section from Mt Livingstone to Mt Cook. State the vertical
exaggeration on your cross-section.
2 Examine the key to the topographic map [1.39]. This is a common form of key
that accompanies many of the topographic maps drawn in Australia.
a How many features on the key can you identify on the map?
b Explain why all the features are not on the map.
3 Write a paragraph stating the advantages topographic maps have over other
types of maps for geographical inquiry.
4 Calculate the gradient of the slope from Mt Cook, west to the Omeo
Highway.
5 Calculate the gradient of the slope from Mt Livingstone due east to the
Livingstone River. Which gradient is the steepest?
24 Geography for Australian Citizens

[1.38] Topographic map of Omeo at 1:100 000. Contour interval is 40 metres.

Scale
0 1 km 2 km 3 km 4 km 5 km 6 km

[1.39] Key to topographic map
climate
the average conditions of the
atmosphere for a particular
area of the Earth over a long
period
weather
the day-to-day condition of
the atmosphere at a particular
location
[1.40] Australia’s
climatic zones
1 : Australia’s physical environments 25
Australia’s climate
The climate of an area is the average atmospheric conditions over a period
of thirty years or more for that particular location. Climate is concerned with
seasonal changes that occur from summer to winter and changes that occur over
longer periods of time. Weather (discussed later) is the day-to-day condition of
the atmosphere. It involves such elements as temperature, precipitation, humidity,
wind direction and speed, and air pressure.
Because of its size, Australia has a variety of climates [1.40]. However, the
most significant feature is its dryness. Rainfall in Australia is
not only low but also very unreliable [1.42]. About two-thirds
26 Geography for Australian Citizens

of Australia’s land surface is classed as desert or semi-desert. Large areas of the

inland have an average of less than 250 millimetres of rainfall a year [1.41].
Northern Australia lies in the tropics and has warm to hot temperatures
throughout the year. Southern Australia has much cooler temperatures, especially
in Tasmania and in the Snowy Mountains. Summer and winter variations in
climate are the result of the way pressure systems operate. In summer, northern
Australia receives heavy rainfall, mainly in the form of thunderstorm activity
from low pressure systems. Southern Australia is generally dry with mild to
warm temperatures. In winter, northern Australia experiences fine, sunny and
warm conditions while southern Australia has cool, wet winters with light misty
rain. Eastern Australia is generally wetter all year than the western part of the
continent, which is influenced by stable high pressure systems [1.41].
[1.41] Australia’s average annual rainfall [1.42] Australia’s variability of rainfall

Learning about …
1 Why does Australia have a variety of climatic types?
2 How would you describe Australia’s rainfall?
3 How is northern Australia’s climate different from that of southern Australia? (Mention
both temperature and rainfall in your answer.)
4 Study the three maps on Australia’s climate [1.40], [1.41] and [1.42].
a Describe briefly the climate for:
i Darwin iv Hobart
ii Sydney v Alice Springs
iii Adelaide vi Brisbane.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 27

b In which season would Melbourne normally receive most rain?

c In which season would Cairns normally receive most rain?
d What is meant by rainfall variability? Why is it useful in describing climate?
e Which areas of Australia experience the greatest variability of rainfall? Suggest
possible reasons for this.

Learning to …
1 Working in groups, prepare a collage of photographs depicting Australia’s variable
climatic types.
2 As a class, build up a mind map using the theme ‘Australia’s climate’.
3 Visit the Internet website for the Bureau of Meteorology at <www.bom.gov.au>.
Describe the range of information provided by this site. Check the page links.

Australia’s weather patterns

Australia has a distinctive weather pattern, influenced by seasonal changes from
summer to winter and dependent on latitude, altitude and ocean influences.
Weather maps are the main tool for examining day-to-day weather patterns.

Weather maps
synoptic data
weather observations and The best-known weather map is the mean sea level analysis, compiled from
measurements such as hundreds of weather observations—synoptic data—taken simultaneously around
maximum and minimum
temperatures, air pressure, the country. It is seen daily on television and in the newspapers. A weather map
rainfall, winds, cloud cover cannot show all of the features associated with our weather. For example, it does
[1.43] Typical weather map, 9 October 2004

A cold front is the Calm conditions are indicated by a Rainfall is shown by shaded areas on the weather map indicating
boundary where cold air coloured-in circle (not shown on this map). that there has been rain in the previous twenty-four hours.
moves to replace, and
undercut, warmer and
less dense air. Cold fronts
are most frequent over
southern Australia. As a Wind speed is proportional
cold front approaches a to the distance between the
region, winds freshen from isobars—the closer the lines,
the north or north-west the stronger the winds. The
and pressure falls. <take in a/w 0140> wind speed scale is shown
in the key of the weather
map and is indicated by the
number of vanes on the
symbol.
Warm fronts are not
common in Australia
and are usually found in
high latitudes such as the Wind direction is shown
Southern Ocean. Warm by arrows that have a
fronts progressively displace series of barbs on their
cool air by warmer air. tails to indicate speed.
Winds are named after the
direction from which they
Isobars are lines of equal are blowing. If the wind is
atmospheric pressure. blowing from the south-
Generally the air pressure is west, it is called a ’south-
measured in hectopascals. west wind’ or a ‘south-
It can also be measured in westerly’.
millibars.

A high pressure system occurs where isobars (as measured A low pressure system occurs where isobars (as measured
in hectopascals) are higher towards the centre. in hectopascals) are lower towards the centre.
28 Geography for Australian Citizens

not always show the conditions in the upper atmosphere. It is a fairly simple
representation of past and probable future locations of surface weather systems
synoptic chart such as highs, lows and fronts. A weather map or synoptic chart, however, is
a weather map, providing
a range of weather data
still a useful guide to the weather. The main features of a weather map are shown
collected from weather in [1.43].
observation stations around
the country
High and low pressure systems
Air moves away from areas of high pressure and towards areas of low pressure.
This movement of air is called wind and is the result of the differences in pressure
that occur across the Earth’s surface at any time [1.44].
The Earth is spinning on its axis, so winds do not blow in a straight line
between an anti-cyclone (high pressure) and a depression (low pressure). In the
southern hemisphere, the Earth’s rotation causes air to flow clockwise around low
pressure systems and slightly inwards, and anti-clockwise around high pressure
systems and slightly outwards. The opposite applies in the northern hemisphere.
The weather normally associated with a high pressure system is light winds,
dry air, clear skies, hot days and cool nights in the summer; mild days and cold
nights in the winter. The weather normally associated with a low pressure system
is strong winds, cloudy skies, rain and mild temperatures.
Remembering that air flows clockwise around low pressure systems and anti-
clockwise around high pressure systems, a fairly typical summer weather map is
shown in [1.45] and a typical winter map is shown in [1.46].
[1.44] Pressure systems

a Side view

High pressure system Low pressure system

Moist air cools,
condenses into cloud
Cold, dry Rain may fall
descending air
Rising air
Direction of wind

b As viewed from above

Southern hemisphere location
Isobars Isobars
10 10
10 10 10 1 6
12 14
10 10
14 1 2
H L
Wind direction

Typical summer weather map 0141

These conditions often occur in summer:

 Northerly winds blow over eastern Australia on the western flank of a Tasman

Sea high. They carry hot, dry air from inland Australia southward over Victoria
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 29

[1.45] Typical summer weather map and Tasmania. With winds strengthening ahead of an approaching
front, this represents a classic weather situation with extreme
bushfire risk.
 The moist, easterly flow from the Coral Sea onto the Queensland

coast causes very warm, humid and sultry weather east of the
Great Dividing Range. This air is unstable and often leads to the
development of showers and thunderstorms as shown in [1.47].
 The cold front passing South Australia replaces the hot, dry

north-westerlies with southerlies carrying cooler, often relatively

humid air, from waters south of the continent. Such summer
fronts are usually quite shallow and may not penetrate far inland,
particularly if they are distorted and slowed over the Victorian alps.

[1.46] Typical winter weather map Typical winter weather map

These conditions often occur in winter:
 Very cold, unstable air flows from well south of Tasmania

northward over Tasmania, Victoria and south-east New South

Wales, reducing normal day temperatures typically by 5°C or more.
 There is a cold front and deep low-pressure system (below 976

hectopascals) south of Tasmania and a high (1020 hectopascals)

south of the Bight. Occasionally, rapid interaction with other
weather systems around the southern hemisphere can almost halt
the pattern’s eastward movement, causing successive cold fronts
to bring a prolonged spell of cold, showery weather to southern
Australia.

[1.47] Lightning flashes across Sydney

30 Geography for Australian Citizens
[1.48] Snowfalls are typical of winter weather in
Australia’s southern alpine regions
Skills
Did you
know?
The coastline near Whim
Creek in Western Australia
holds a weather record—the
most extreme variability of
rain on Earth. A massive
747 mm in twenty-four
hours was recorded on
3 April 1898 as a cyclone
passed nearby. Yet in 1924,
Whim Creek recorded just
4 mm of rain in the whole
year—one of the lowest
annual totals ever recorded
in the world.
[1.49] An approaching storm
Interpreting a series of weather maps
Weather patterns and trends can be observed from a series of weather maps
over several consecutive days as in [1.50]. Here are some handy hints:
 Examine the first weather map in the series. Identify:
— where the highs and lows are
— how close the isobars are together (an indication of wind speed)
— the direction of the wind
— the presence or absence of rain.
 Look at the second map to see:
— where the pressure systems are centred, and how and where they have
moved (remember that pressure systems in Australia generally move from
west to east)
— whether the pressure systems have intensified or not (whether the isobars
are closer together or wider apart)
— changes in wind direction
— changes in the pattern of rain.
 Examine the remaining weather maps and continue systematically looking
for changes. Check any finer details shown on the maps for clues. Use the
key to assist.
 Forecast the weather for the next day. By closely studying what has
happened over a number of days you should be able to predict what is likely
to happen next. Forecasting the weather is not always easy. However, it is
worth a try as it tests your knowledge. You may well get it right!
Tropical Cyclone ‘John’ was a category five storm and hit Western Australia
on 15 December 1999 with wind speeds of near 290 kilometres per hour. It
crossed near Whim Creek, which, although sparsely settled, caused damage to
the properties there, as shown in [1.51].
The series of weather maps in [1.50] show that John formed into a rain
depression and drifted across the continent bringing widespread heavy rainfall.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 31

Skills activity
Examine the four maps in [1.50].
a What changes can you identify from Tuesday 14 December to Wednesday 15
December?
b What happened on Thursday 16 December?
c How is the weather map for Friday 17 December different from the day
before?
d What can you say about the movement of the tropical cyclone over the
four days?
e What do you think happened a few days later? Why?

[1.50] Four weather maps of Australia, 14–17 December 1999 (Tuesday was the 14th)

[1.51] A property destroyed by Cyclone John in December 1999, Whim Creek

32 Geography for Australian Citizens

Weather satellite images

Weather forecasters often use satellite images of Earth taken from space. They do
not show as much detail as standard weather maps. However, they are useful in
allowing forecasters to interpret cloud patterns and identify weather systems on a
continuous basis so that subtle changes can be observed.
These subtle changes then enable weather forecasters to analyse the current
sequence of events and possibly activate early warning signs of potentially
disruptive weather. Local residents can then be warned of any precautions that
need to be taken.
Examples of patterns that can be identified are:
 fronts—shown by narrow bands of dense clouds

 depressions—shown by a circular swirled pattern of clouds

 anti-cyclones—an area with generally clear skies.

[1.52] Satellite image and associated weather map for 13 December 1999 showing the eye of a
severe tropical cyclone moving towards the WA coast

Learning about …
1 What is synoptic data? Give examples.
2 What is a synoptic chart?
3 What do isobars measure?
4 Study the typical weather map [1.43].
a Name the feature approaching Melbourne.
b What weather is usually associated with this feature?
c Name the feature influencing Darwin’s weather.
d What weather is usually associated with this feature?
e What unit is used to measure the isobars on the map?
f What is the highest air pressure shown on the map?
g Describe the weather that Perth experienced on that day.
h Name two areas that received rainfall in the past twenty-four hours.
i State the wind speed and direction at:
i Cairns ii Port Hedland.
j Refer to the pressure system influencing Hobart’s weather and estimate the direction
the wind is blowing.
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 33

k Name two places experiencing calm weather.

l Is this map typical of a summer or winter Australian weather map? Explain.
5 What is a satellite image?
6 List three patterns that can usually be identified on a satellite image.
7 Refer to the weather map and satellite images [1.52]. Describe how the following features
appear on the satellite image:
a Tropical Cyclone John
b the low pressure system below the tropical cyclone
c the high pressure system off Sydney
d the cold front to the south of Australia.

Learning to …
1 Working in groups, collect a different series of Australian weather maps over four
consecutive days. Each group should give the first three maps to another group and
ask them to predict the weather for the fourth day and to draw a likely synoptic chart.
When finished, each group should check with the actual weather map for the fourth day
to see how accurate the group’s weather forecasting was. You could make this into a
competition by awarding points for the degree of accuracy in forecasting.
2 Look up the following useful Internet websites and write a brief comment about how
useful each website is in learning about the weather in Australia:
a Bureau of Meteorology at <www.bom.gov.au>
b Learn About Meteorology at <www.bom.gov.au/info>
c Australian Severe Weather Association at <www.severeweather.asn.au>.
3 Make a video recording of the weather report for a given day on at least two television
channels. Working in groups, analyse the similarities and differences between the two
reports.
a Which television channel provided the most detailed information?
b Which television channel had the clearest graphical presentation?
4 Working in groups, design your own television weather report. You may wish to record it
on video and show it to the rest of the class. Class members could then make constructive
comments on your presentation.

[1.53] Analysing weather maps

34 Geography for Australian Citizens

Australia’s flora and fauna

flora Because of its isolation, Australia has developed a unique variety of flora and
native vegetation
fauna. Forests are mainly found along the eastern border of the continent.
fauna Rainforests are found in coastal pockets along the east coast of northern Australia
native animal life
where hot, wet conditions favour growth. To the south are the temperate forests,
sclerophyll forests
forests that have adapted to sometimes referred to as sclerophyll forests [1.54]. They consist of woody shrubs
harsh, dry conditions and trees that have developed various ways of withstanding harsh, dry conditions.
Most of the trees are eucalypts or gum trees, with names like stringybark,
spotted gum, scribbly gum, ironbark and bloodwood. The giant karri trees of
savanna Western Australia are also eucalypts. Tropical grasslands or savannas are found
tropical grasslands found
between the rainforests and in northern Australia. Where the rainfall is high, the grasses are tall and coarse
deserts with scattered trees (savanna woodland). Examples of this vegetation are found in
Kakadu and Arnhem Land. Further south, the trees become less frequent and the
grasses shorter, giving way eventually to desert.
Australia’s low and unreliable rainfall has resulted in large areas of the
continent being desert or semi-desert. Low shrubs such as saltbush and spiky
grasses like spinifex survive the harsh conditions.
Australia is known throughout the world for its unique and fascinating mix
of native fauna—the result of the continent’s long period of isolation. The two
marsupials unusual groups of animals that survived in Australia are the marsupials—the
animals that raise their young
inside a pouch kangaroo [1.56], wallaby, koala, wombat [1.55], possum and quokka—and the
monotremes monotremes—the echidna or spiny anteater and the platypus. These animals are
animals that lay eggs yet raise well recognised as symbols of Australia’s wildlife.
their young on the mother’s
milk Other unique fauna include the dingo, Australia’s native dog [1.58]; the emu,
a large, flightless bird [1.59]; the kookaburra, noted for its unique laughing call;
and the goanna, a large reptile. There are many other examples of animal, bird,
insect and marine life in Australia.
Animals not native to Australia but which have been introduced include the
rabbit [1.57], fox, cat, pig, goat, camel, donkey, water buffalo, horse and cane
toad. Many of these have caused problems by killing other animals, carrying
disease, eating native vegetation or breeding in large numbers.
[1.54] Dry sclerophyll forest, Blue Mountains NSW [1.55] Wombat, a native of Australia
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 35

[1.56] The kangaroo is a marsupial native to Australia [1.57] The rabbit is an introduced species to Australia

[1.58] The dingo, Australia’s native dog [1.59] The Australian emu

Learning about …
1 Why has Australia developed a unique variety of flora and fauna?
2 Explain how natural vegetation is affected by climate. Refer to specific parts of Australia.
3 What are tropical savannas? What variations could you expect to see in Australia’s
savannas?
4 Describe the specific characteristics of Australia’s desert vegetation.
5 Explain, using examples, what these types of animals are:
a marsupials b monotremes.
6 Make a list of some of Australia’s best known fauna. Beside each one, write a brief
description of its distinctive features.
7 Make a list of some of the animals that have been introduced into Australia. Beside each
one mention what problems they have caused.

Learning to …
1 Working in groups, research one or more of the following animals. Consider the different
species, their habitat, their food and specific or unique characteristics. Present your
findings to the rest of the class.
a Kangaroo e Platypus
b Koala f Echidna
c Emu g Any other native animal of your choice
d Quokka
2 Working in groups, prepare a collage of Australian flora and/or fauna.
3 As a class, discuss how Australia has suffered from introduced animals.
36 Geography for Australian Citizens

Skills
Understanding satellite images
Satellite images result from the observation of part of the Earth’s surface from
a distance (by remote sensing). Satellite images are not photographs. There is
no camera and no film. From hundreds of kilometres into space, satellite sensors
scan the Earth, reacting to electromagnetic radiation. The data is converted into
digital form and then transmitted to ground stations where it is processed into
satellite images.
Computers are able to manipulate the data by assigning particular colours
to the various wavelength bands to produce a colour image. This image can
then be further manipulated to highlight particular features. The colours on a
satellite image are ‘false colours’ and do not necessarily correspond with the
colours you would see in an aerial photograph. It is therefore important to be
able to interpret the colours on a satellite image. Table [1.60] provides a guide
only as the colours can be altered to suit a particular purpose.
Satellite imagery is now widely used for a variety of purposes. It can be used
to pinpoint the location and extent of bushfires, and disease in vegetation.
Satellite images are also useful in mineral exploration, land management,
pollution control, agricultural and forestry research, urban planning and
tourism.

[1.60] Satellite image colour guide

Colour Ground surface
White—maximum reflection of Sandy surface—beaches, sand dunes, sandy desert
light rays Dry salt lake beds
Yellow Ploughed fields, areas with sparse vegetation
Brown Sparse woodland vegetation, semi-arid country
Pink to mauve Cropland and improved pastures, grassland, suburban parkland, lawns
Red Healthy vegetation—more vigorous, intense growth (in older satellite images)
Note: This can be digitally altered by computer to make healthy vegetation show
up as dark green (see below)
Green Dark green indicates thick, healthy forest
Light green indicates lightly forested land or scrub (colour corrected)
Light blue to purple and grey Urban areas, concrete, buildings, roads, housing
Dark blue to black—maximum Deep water, oceans, large rivers, lakes (the darker the blue, the deeper the water)
absorption of light rays

Skills activities
1 What is a satellite image? How is it different from an aerial photograph?
2 What is meant by the term ‘false colours’ on a satellite image?
3 What are some purposes for which satellite images are used?
4 Study the satellite image of the Southern Highlands [1.61]:
a How can you recognise Canberra and Goulburn?
b What colour is Lake George? How is the colour different from Lake
Burragorang and what does this indicate?
c Describe the landscape to the north of Canberra. How is it different from
the landscape to the south-west of Lake Illawarra?
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 37

[1.61] Satellite image of Southern Highlands of NSW (approximate scale 1:650 000)

Blue Mountains Warragamba Dam

National Park
Lake Burragorang

Lake Illawarra

Goulburn

Lake George

Canberra
38 Geography for Australian Citizens

Australia’s natural resources

natural resources Natural resources are elements of the physical environment that can be used
any part of the natural
environment that can be used to satisfy human needs and wants. They include mineral and energy resources
by humans such as gold, silver, copper, coal, oil and uranium; but they also include other
elements, such as soil, fresh water, forests and fishing grounds.

Mineral and energy resources

Australia is richly endowed with a variety of both mineral and energy resources
[1.62]. The discovery of gold in the 1850s brought prosperity and an influx of
immigrants to Australia. More recent mineral discoveries, however, especially in
the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, have enhanced Australia’s reputation as a major world
[1.62] Australia’s major mineral resources

[1.63] Ranger uranium mine in Kakadu, Northern Territory


non-renewable
a natural resource that cannot
be used again
land degradation
the process where land is
gradually being damaged
[1.64] Soil erosion in Australia
1 : Australia’s physical environments 39
exporter of minerals and energy products. Coal and iron ore are exported, mainly
to Japan, in large quantities, especially from the iron ore-rich Pilbara district in
Western Australia. Other minerals found in significant quantities include bauxite,
copper, nickel, uranium, lead, zinc and, more recently, diamonds. While Australia
has significant deposits of oil and natural gas, large quantities are required to
produce petrol for motor vehicles. Consequently, Australia still imports a high
percentage of its oil needs. Because these resources are non-renewable, there
is now more focus on developing renewable resources such as solar and wind
power.
Soil
Soil is an important natural resource as it is essential to Australia’s agricultural
output. Generally speaking, Australia has shallow soils with low fertility. This
is the result of climatic factors, especially the highly variable, seasonal rainfall.
Australia’s best soils are found on river floodplains, and on the slopes and plains
west of the Great Divide where grasslands and woodlands once existed. Today
these black soil and red-brown soil areas have been put to agricultural use.
Soil formation is a very slow process, which means that the soil resources
that exist now are virtually non-renewable. European settlement has caused the
acceleration of soil erosion, resulting in significant land degradation [1.64].
[1.65] Iron ore mining in the Darling Ranges, WA
[1.66] Parts of the McLaren Vale, SA, have rich soils supporting
many vineyards
40 Geography for Australian Citizens

Water
Water is also considered to be a natural resource and, in this respect, Australia
is deficient. Any study of Australia’s climate easily demonstrates this fact. At
least two-thirds of Australia suffers from inadequate rainfall and arid or semi-arid
conditions. Even in the wetter south-east corner, the rainfall can be variable, with
droughts sometimes lasting for several years. It is therefore very important that
Australia conserves its limited supplies of water.
[1.67] Water is a precious resource in Australia

Forests
Australia’s forest resources are mostly concentrated along the east coast of
the continent, the south-west tip of Western Australia and the west coast of
Tasmania [1.70]. Of more concern is the rate of land clearing which is reducing
Australia’s forest resources. More attention needs to be paid to sustainable forest
management in which plantation timber is an important factor.
[1.68] Rainforests provide plant resources used in the manufacture [1.69] Plantation forest in Queensland
of medicines
 1 : Australia’s physical environments 41

[1.70] Forest resources in Australia

Fishing grounds
Despite an extensive coastline, Australia’s fish resources are not large by world
standards. As with forests, Australia’s fishing grounds need to be managed
aquaculture sustainably. Fish farming or aquaculture is of growing importance but overfishing
breeding fish or seafood in a
controlled environment of fishing grounds, oceans and rivers or estuaries, is a problem.

[1.71] Aquaculture near Strahan on the west coast of Tasmania

42 Geography for Australian Citizens

Learning about …
1 Describe the main characteristics of Australia’s soils.
2 Which areas of Australia are likely to have the most fertile soils? Why?
3 What is meant by the term ‘land degradation’? Why is it a current geographic issue?
4 How did the discovery of gold help in the development and growth of Australia?
5 Make a list of Australia’s major mineral resources. Beside each one, name the state or
states where this mineral is found in significant quantities.
6 Where are Australia’s most recently discovered diamond mines?
7 Why is water also considered to be a natural resource? Why is it important to Australia?
8 Write a paragraph each about the effects of overuse or misuse of the following Australian
resources:
a water
b soil
c forests
d fishing grounds.

Learning to …
1 Working in groups, research more information on Australia’s natural resources. Each
group could choose a different resource. Present the main points of your research to the
other groups.
2 As a class, build up a mind map using the theme: ‘Australia’s natural resources’.