Peroomian 1

Professor Kroskrity
Anthro C155
12 March 2018
Native American Education Reform
For most Native Americans, language has been in decline as they were forced to

assimilate and have not fully recovered since. They have made attempts at revitalizing their

native languages, but much of the damage brought on by the involuntary assimilation into

English was already done. In order to assimilate Native Americans, the United States

government implemented a subtractive approach to education, which did not consider the Native

American culture and what Native Americans learn at home and only attempted to shift them

entirely to the English language. This is not only detrimental to Native American languages, but

also to their identity, as research done in four areas support the idea that one’s language and

identity are strongly correlated. Observations in tribes relating to linguistic stereotypes,

ethnography of communication, interethnic communication, and language, communication and

education demonstrate the relation between language and identity that presents the need for

reform in education. Linking education to a person's culture seems to be a promising approach to

education reform due to the proven connection between language and identity.

In light of the attempts of language revival, a new curriculum must be proposed. This

new curricula will have to consider that there are different levels of language fluency within a

tribe as a result of standardization. For this reason, there should be multiple classes for each

subject that will account for the tribe’s variation in fluency. The core curriculum should be

developed towards the native language and many different levels of classes will be provided

depending on the level of standardization that the society has been subjected to. Placement tests

should be administered before each academic year to measure each student’s fluency and
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determine their class. The most advanced students who are most fluent will learn virtually

everything in their native languages and the least fluent will be taught in English, but with some

translations to the their native languages that will help to increase fluency. Those who are fluent

in the language will take advanced language classes that will include advanced literature, and

those with limited fluency will take basic language classes. There can be multiple levels of

classes based on the variation of fluency within the tribe. This will ensure that students of all

levels of fluency in both English and their native language will be given the opportunity to

succeed.

All students at every fluency level will have classes on culture, history, science, math,

and English classes. Science and math classes should be taught in English with varying levels

based on fluency, pushing towards more fluency in English. The culture and history classes

should be taught in the native language with varying levels based on fluency, pushing towards

fluency of the native language. This way, students will eventually be fluent in both English and

their native language.

Their increased knowledge of their own culture will show them they are more than a

stereotype, as they are shown that their customs and traditions are special and that they should

find beauty in them. In addition, learning Native American history before European settlement

will show that they are not one people like the stereotypes make them out to be, and that they are

diverse “host of groups manifesting a remarkable diversity of cultures and languages” (AIL week

1, p. 4).

Misconceptions in regards to Native American language lead to stereotypes depicting

them as primitive, uniform, and extremely simple. The stereotypes are presented in films,
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television, literature, and other media and are highly inaccurate but extremely effective in

representing Native Americans negatively. The unfortunate portrayals are detrimental to Native

American identity as it attacks their culture, society, and above all, their language. The

stereotypes in media are described by Barbara Meek as she discusses what is referred to as

“Hollywood Injun English.” Hollywood Injun English is characterized by certain grammatical

markers such as lack of tense, deletion, substitution, and lack of contraction. This combination

results in the presented language sounding primitive, and even drawing “on a range of

nonstandard features similar to those found in ‘foreigner talk’ and ‘baby talk’” (Meek 06:93). It

is essential that Native American education motivate students to learn about their culture and

their language instead of believing what others say about it. The culture, history, and language

classes that would be included in the new curriculum will boost morale and spark a sense of

pride within the students.

The ethnography of communication of certain tribes demonstrates the link between

language and identity by showing that the way a person speaks relates to who they are. Barnhardt

and Kawagley establish the changing Alaskan Native indigenous knowledge systems in their

advanced education and how it relates to their identity. The developed knowledge systems may

be surprising to many, as it is common for outsiders to view Native Americans as primitive and

undeveloped. Barnhardt and Kawagley state that one of the most essential steps in advancing

Native American education is acknowledging the validity of indigenous knowledge systems in

education (Barnhardt 05:19). By comparing and contrasting indigenous knowledge systems and

Western science, it is evident that there is a great deal of common ground. The common beliefs

include organizing principles such as the unification of the universe, habits of mind such as
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perseverance, skills such as empirical observations in nature, and knowledge such as that of plant

and animal behavior. Though this does not even begin to list the commonalities between Western

Science and Traditional Native knowledge systems, it is important for students to understand that

they are not primitive or undeveloped like they are stereotyped to be, as this will give them a

feeling of pride in their language and culture and will push them to pursue their native language.

As part of the curricula, students will learn about the similarities and differences between

indigenous knowledge systems and Western science in their history classes in an attempt to show

that they are not as different as they are made out to be.

Most Native American tribes have lived in the same place for many millennia and as a

result have developed a deep relationship to the land. This relationship results in an emphasis on

the importance of the place. This observation leads to the importance of the addition in the

curricula of place-based education. The pedagogy of the classroom must be place-based in that it

must connect the curriculum to the unique culture, history, and environment it is being taught in.

According to Barnhardt and Kawagley, this enriches students’ educational experiences and

fosters civic responsibility. It is important that students learn everything they need to about the

land they are living on especially if they plan to spend their entire lives in the same place. This

includes learning about aspects of life such as the ecology and political systems. This will

advance the students so that they will understand the history, culture, and environment well

enough to obtain jobs and have general knowledge about where they live.

The curriculum should include a culture class that talks about the literature and art of the

tribe as well as a history class that focuses both on global and local tribal history. The culture

classes should include the beliefs of the tribes, including their value of the place they live in and
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the ways to make the most of where they live. These classes should be taught by elders who have

greater knowledge of the matter. Having Native elders teach these classes validates the native

students’ beliefs in their own culture and gives them a sense of confidence they have not been

given by the classes conforming to Western norms. Current events should be extensively covered

in history classes if they are not already. In addition to basic scientific knowledge, the science

classes should teach about the ecology of the specific environment the tribe lives in in order to

benefit those that will go on to agricultural jobs. This is especially important in tribes that feel

connected to the nature and the place they and their ancestors have lived for hundreds of years,

as it is central to their identity.

Interethnic communication is the study of the effects of negative stereotyping and how

these stereotypes result in altered perspectives between members of different ethnic groups.

Differences in speech such as presentation of self, distribution of talk, information structure, and

content organization between English and native languages create confusion in communication

within different ethnic groups, resulting in misconceptions and potential conflict. Due to the

considerable amount of communication that occurs between English and any Native American

language, it is vastly beneficial for students to learn English and its structural differences in

reference to their own native language. Without an understanding of the other language,

communication can be misleading and lead to formation of stereotypes and misconceptions of

that group. By learning both English and their native language, students will be able to control

their interpretation of other ethnic forms of communication.

Scollon and Scollon illustrate the trouble with communication within Athabaskan and

English speakers. Athabaskan and English vary greatly in the way speakers present themselves.
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Athabaskans do not talk as much to strangers as English speakers, they do not expect subordinate

people to be exhibitionists, and they do not boast about themselves. When Athabaskans learn the

differences in classrooms, they will be better understand the discrepancy and avoid stereotyping

English speakers as “boastful of his own abilities, sure he can predict the future, careless with

luck, and far too talkative” (Scollon 81:21). This is contrary to Athabaskan speakers’ and can

lead to stereotypes from both groups of one another. Unfortunately, often times stereotypes go

against Native Americans as opposed to against English speakers. Some of these stereotypes

have even become institutionalized. This is disadvantageous to Native students as they are

insulted and stereotyped, being told that they are inferior to English speakers. Though being able

to understand the differences in communication between themselves and English speakers will

not fully amend the issue, perhaps it will give Native speakers a chance to show English speakers

that their institutionalized misconceptions are inaccurate.

The distribution of talk also differs between Athabaskan and English speakers. In such

conversations, the English speaker most likely starts the conversation, and because of this, then

controls the topic. Problems begin to occur when the differences become more evident, such as

the Athabaskan tendency to pause between English speakers. This can give English speakers the

idea that the Athabaskan speaker has nothing to say and therefore that he or she can continue

speaking. This and other differences in speech cause an imbalance in the distribution of talk,

clearly favoring the English speaker. Being taught the constraints of communication with

English speakers will help Athabaskan speaking students understand the structure of English

communication and the differences between English and their own communication. However, it

is important to understand that many Athabaskan speakers learn English in order to speak in
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more formal settings such as political settings. Some even grow up learning English as their

primary language. Therefore, students should be taught both Athabaskan and English

communication practices in order to be able to communicate properly in both languages

whenever necessary.

Donna Eder stresses the importance of maintaining cultural integrity in Navajo schools

by bringing in Navajo storytelling practices as it is central to their identity and will benefit them

by enhancing their education. In a society like the Navajo’s, storytelling is essential to their

culture and identity, and therefore must be included in the curriculum. This is essential because

building upon a piece of their identity in the classroom will instill a sense of pride in the students

and benefit them in their education. Storytelling should start from the youngest age at which

children start school, as it is “a core practice by which to teach children the important principles

necessary to live well” (Eder 07:279). Though the stories seem like they are only for children to

those who are unfamiliar with the culture, it is important that Navajo students of all ages are

properly told these stories. The stories “benefit people of all ages and include values and history”

and therefore should be told to students of all ages. They also emphasize “relations of respect -

having a moral responsibility to self, others, and the environment - by providing models of how

to live.” As the students grow up, they can be told different versions of the same stories as it is

conventional to their culture and shapes how they grow up as it promotes a sense of pride to be

taught in a way so central to their identity. In the culture and history classes, storytelling

practices should be upheld by bringing in cultural texts. However, what is most important is that

the story is told, not read, and in the correct context. These stories should be told by elders who

know the parameters the stories must be told in and who will accurately tell the stories. Much of
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the stories’ significance comes from the context the story is told in, therefore the teachers must

be cautious as to when, where, and how they are telling the stories.

Many Hopi children growing up feel that they are missing an essential piece of their

culture: language. This curricular reform attempts to amend that by emphasizing language,

culture, and history. Unfortunately, most schools are integrated and attempt to put an emphasis

on English as to assimilate the Hopi. This raises problems of identity within students as their

culture is invalidated. This proposed education reform will attempt to remedy this issue by

shifting back to native languages and their customs. Hopis have one of the most elaborate

ceremonial calendars, which will be reflected in the culture classes they take by them learning

about each ceremony and its origin. Any and all cultural holidays or ceremonies will be

reflected and celebrated in the culture classes as they are of great importance to the tribes.

For tribes such as Hopi, there are certain jobs that require a proficient knowledge of the

native language. Accelerated courses may be offered for the young adults who are not fluent and

need the language to enter the workforce. Sheilah Nicholas describes three students who each

need a different level of fluency of the Hopi language for their respective careers. They are

already at an age where they need to learn the language as much and as fast as they can in order

to begin their jobs, so an accelerated course would be ideal for them. Culture and history classes

at different levels of fluency should be offered at college and community college so that students

or anyone else with the desire wants to take those classes.

In every case, it is important to consider that each student has grown up based on certain

traditions and will behave as such. All teachers should be trained so that they are prepared and

not surprised about the behavior presented by the students, especially if the teacher in non-native.
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The teachers can be trained on certain days where the students do not attend school, noted as

staff development days. The teachers should be trained by elders who know the culture and

history of the tribe as well as anyone who knows the proper way to educate students of all ages.

If the teacher is non-native, he or she should be made aware of certain norms that the students

will surely bring to the classroom. Native teachers should be able to identify this behavior

following their training and not punish the students as teachers who would recognize the

behavior would. Having native teachers will additionally help boost confidence in themselves

and their culture. It is important for students to see natives that have made it far in life so that

they do not give up because of their previous discrimination in education. For integrated

classrooms, teachers should also be trained as to not react poorly to the native students if they act

differently from non-native students. Whether the teacher is native or non-native, the teachers’

styles should conform to how the students were brought up based on their cultures in order for

them to benefit most.

They should be trained to mimic home and community practices as closely as possible, as

it is evident that students will benefit from learning the same ways in school as they are at home.

It would be beneficial for teachers to learn to follow the ideal learning sequence stated by Susan

Phillips in her study of the Warm Springs Reservation. The four steps she presents are learner’s

expression of interest, demonstration by teacher, supervised participation, self-test, and

demonstration controlled by learner. In addition, Phillips states that native students often excel in

student group settings as opposed to teacher centered classrooms. Both can be implemented so

that students will be given group work to strengthen their social skills as well as benefit their
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education. This will not only benefit native students, but also non-native students as they will all

learn how to work together and overcome any linguistic barriers as they are learning.

The combination of culture and history classes in the native language and other core

classes in English will be advantageous to all students in that it will keep them fluent in their

native language while they also learn English. Though English is the reason for the language

death of many indigenous languages, it is impossible to completely cut it out as English is

necessary for economic transactions. This educational reform will be advantageous to students as

they grow up bilingual with skills essential to their futures and knowledge useful both on and off

their reservations. This will be beneficial as well because students will not be forced to leave

their reservations or go to boarding schools in order to obtain higher education. By the end of

their education, students will not only have the linguistic skills and knowledge down, but they

will also be confident and prideful in their culture by knowing that their curriculum was designed

for the betterment of their culture.