Robert R. Compton - Geology in The Field (2016, Earthspun Books) PDF

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2-4. The Compass
A variety of compasses are available at a considerable range of prices (see,

for example, a supplier’s catalog). Of these, the Brunton compass (Fig. 2-3)
has the advantages of combining a precise sighting-clinometer and hand
level w ith a compass that can be used to m easure bearings at either waist-
height or eye-height. The less expensive and more compact Silva Ranger
Compass is excellent for m easuring strike and dip, or trend (bearing) and
plunge, but cannot be used as a precise sighting-clinometer or hand level.
The Silva compass also lacks a leveling system for sighting bearings and
thus is not as precise as the Brunton compass when traversing or m aking
locations by intersection (Section 6-3).
Brunton compasses, however, may be damaged when handled roughly,
and should therefore be checked before use to be sure that: (1) the compass
needle swings freely; (2) the hinges of the sighting arm and lid are firm; and
(3) the point of the sighting arm touches the axial line of the m irror when the
arm and lid are turned together. The clinometer level, which may become
misaligned, can be checked by setting the vertical angle index at 0 and plac-
ing the compass on a smooth surface th at has been leveled w ith a long car-
penter's level or an alidade (the bull's-eye level on the Brunton compass is not
precise enough). If the tube bubble does not move to center, the plastic (or
glass) cover m ust be removed and the level-mount rotated gradually until
the bubble is centered.
The compass m ust also be opened to clean or dry the needle bearing or to
level the magnetic needle by moving the small wire coil on it. For mapping
south of the equator, the coil m ust be removed and placed on the north-
seeking half of the needle.
The magnetic declination (the local difference between magnetic north
and true north) m ust be added or subtracted from all bearings taken w ith a
magnetic compass. The correction is made beforehand and automatically
for most compasses by turning the graduated compass circle the amount of
the local declination. The circle of the Brunton compass is turned by a screw
Fig. 2-3. 9LHZGLUHFWO\GRZQRQD%UXQWRQFRPSDVVZLWKOLGDQGVLJKWLQJDUPIXOO\RSHQ

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Q u artz and quartzite
Percentage of feldspar fragments)
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0L[tXUHV of silt and clay, called mudstone, may look like

claystone because abundant clay-sized material screens the larger grains, but
these rocks are gritty to the teeth or knife. Poorly sorted mXGstone
commonly contains sand that may be hidden on broken surfaces by the
abundant clay but is visible on clean weathered surfaces. Sandy mudstone
may grade to mud-dy fine sandstone (fine wacke) that looks like mudstone
except on clean, weathered surfaces.
Shale is a lutite with a flaky cleavage (fissility) and, commonly, thin bed-
ding laminations (but the name is also used for any silicate-rich lutite). Silty or
sandy shales may have abundant visible mica flakes that lie parallel to
the cleavage. The name DUJLOOLWH is sometimes used for tough lutite that
breaks into angular fragments, and can be distinguished from calcite-
cemented lutite because it does not effervesce and crumble in dilute HC1.
Limestones are composed mainly of calcite or aragonite, and those with
clastic WH[WXUH may be named according to grain size: FDOFLUXGLWH for
sizes coarser than mm; FDOFDUHQLWH or sizes between and 1/16 mm; and
FDOFLOXWLWH RUPLFULWHRUOLPHPXGIor finer sizes. Dunham (1962) proposed
an additional set of names based on sorting: JUDLQVWRQH is calcarenite or
calcirudite with no micrite (calcilXWLWH matrix; SDFNVWRQH is calcarenite
or calcirudite with a relatively sparse micrite matrix and with
the larger grains touching (clast-VXSSRUWHG ZDFNHVWRQH is a micrite-
VXSSRUWHG PL[WXUHFRQWDLQLQJPRUHWKDQRIVDQGVL]HGRUFRDUVHUFODVWV
Biosparite Pelsparite Oosparite Intrasparite

(bioclastic (pelletal (oolitic (intraclastic
grainstone) grainstone) grainstone) grainstone)
Biomicrite Sparse pelmicrite Oomicrite Intramicrite

(bioclastic (pelletal (oolitic (intraclastic
packstone) mudstone) wackestone) packstone)
)LJ 1DPHV IRU OLPHVWRQHV ZLWK IUDJPHQWDO WH[WXUHV $ 6SDUU\ FRDUVHO\ FU\VWDOOLQH
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Limestone may also be classified according to five common
kinds of particles (Folk, 1959,1962): (1) ELRFODVWV (skeletal grains); (2) SHOOHWV
(also called SHORLGV 3) RROLWHV RU RRLGV Dnd SLVROLWHV LQWUDFODVWV
fragments of limestone); and (5) PLFULWHDOO particles finer than sand size).
The dominant kind of particle serves to name the rock (Fig. 4-11).
Two varieties of biogenic limestone are classified on a structural basis.
Reefal limestone biohermite (Folk, 1959), or boundstone (Dunham, 1962)
forms thick lenses or steep-sided bodies composed mainly of skeletons of
sessile organisms held together by encrusting or ramifying forms, typically
algae. Biostromal limestone may be similarly composed but forms tabular
sheets or thin lenses. Either kind of limestone can be specified further by
adjectives such as algal, stromatolitic , and coralline.
Limestones with diagenetic textures are crystalline (or crystallized) lim e-
stone. Grain-size adjectives may be useful to indicate the degree of grain
growth, as: FRDUVH, larger than 1 mm; P H G L X P , 1 to mm; and I L Q H , smaller
than mm.
Dolomite (dolostone) consists predominantly of the mineral dolomite.
Most varieties have crystallized diagenetic textures, so that the adjective
crystalline need not be used before the rock name. Grain-size adjectives are
generally useful, as just noted for crystallized limestones. Rocks with pri-
mary particles (see limestone, above) may be named accordingly (as oolitic
dolomite). Rocks formed by replacement of a specific kind of limestone, as
shown by gradations or by relict structures or residual materials, may be
given compound names, as dolomitized ooliticpackstone. Sections 9-7 and 9-9
describe primary structures that help in identifying varieties of dolomitic
rocks.
Phosphorite consists largely of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline
apatite (collophane) in the form of bones, oolites, pellets, nodules, coprolites,
and finely divided grains. When fresh, these materials are typically dark
gray to black or brown in Mesozoic and older rocks and typically pale tan to
medium brown or orange in Cenozoic rocks. The darker varieties can be
recognized by a secondary coating (“bloom”) that is white or pale gray and
slightly bluish, and the pale varieties by local secondary green coatings.
Pyrite and fish scales are common constituents. Cements are typically fine
silica minerals, calcite, or dolomite. Bedded phosphorites are typically asso-
ciated with organic-rich (kerogenic) laminated siliceous rocks, or with cal-
cilutite, shale, and dolomite. Nodular deposits occur with glauconite in sandy
sediments that accumulated very slowly and thus suggest unconformity.
Siliceous lutites that have not been strongly compacted or crystallized
range from more or less pure diatom ite , radiolarite , and spiculite (composed
of sponge spicules) to ordinary mudstone or limestone with abundant
siliceous skeletons (as diatomaceous mudstone and radiolarian calcilutite).
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PRVW DGYDQFHG VWDJHRI PHWDPRUSKLVP 5HOLFW DQG UHWURJUDGH PLQHUDOV PD\
EH LQFOXGHG E\ EULHI PRGLI\LQJ VWDWHPHQWV DV SDUWO\ FKORULWL]HG JDUQHW
ELRWLWHTXDUW]VFKLVW
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rocks have been named specifically: serpentinite (consisting mainly of ser-

pentine minerals and formed typically from peridotite or pyroxenite);JUHLVHQ
(quartz-muscovite rock, often with topaz; see Section 15-7); adinole (pale,
fine-grained albite-rich rock typically formed near diabase bodies); and rod-
ingite (white to pale green, heavy rock consisting mainly of hydrogrossular-
ite, tremolite, and chlorite, and occurring in serpentinized peridotite near
contacts). Other metasomatic rocks may be named descriptively, as coarse
quartz-schorl rock, silicified tuff , and so on.
References Cited
Dunham , R. J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional
texture, p. 108-121 in Ham, W. E., editor, Classification o f carbonate rocks: Ameri-
can Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 1.
Fisher, R. V., 1961, Proposed classification of volcaniclastic sedim ents and rocks:-
Geological Society of America B ulletin, v. 72, p. 1409-1414.
Fisher, R. V., 1966, Rocks composed of volcanic fragm ents and their classification:
Earth-Science Reviews, v. 1, p. 287-298.
Fisher, R. V., and Schm incke, H.U., 1984, Pyroclastic rocks: New York, Springer-
Verlag, 472 p.
Folk, R. L., 1959, Practical petrographic classification of limestone: American Asso-
ciation of Petroleum Geologists B ulletin, v. 43, p. 1-38.
Folk, R. L., 1962, Spectral subdivision of lim estone types, p. 62-84 in Ham, W. E.,
editor, Classification o f carbonate rocks: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Memoir 1.
Goldsmith, R., 1959, Granofels, a new metamorphic rock name: Journal of Geology,
v. 67, p. 109-110.
Isaacs, C. M., 1981, Guide to the Monterey Formation in the California coastal area,
Ventura to San Luis Obispo: Pacific Section American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, v. 52, 91 p.
Isaacs, C. M., 1982, Influence of rock composition on kinetics of silica phase changes
in the Monterey Formation, Santa Barbara area, California: Geology, v. 10, p.
304-308.
James, H. L., 1966, Chemistry of the iron-rich sedim entary rocks: U.S. Geological
Survey Professional Paper 440-W, 61 p.
Moore, J. G., and Peck, D. L., 1962, Accretionary lapilli in volcanic rocks of the
w estern continental United States: Journal of Geology, v. 70, p. 182-193.
Pettijohn, F. J., 1975, Sedimentary rocks, 3rd edition: New York, Harper & Row,
628 p.
Powers, M. C., 1953, A new roundness scale for sedimentary particles: Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 23, p. 117-119.
Streckeisen, A. L., chairman, 1973, Plutonic rocks: classification and nomenclature
recommended by the IUGS Subcom m ission on the System atics of Igneous
Rocks: Geotimes, v. 18, no. 10, p. 26-30.
W illiams, H., Turner, F. J., and Gilbert, C. M., 1982, Petrography: an introduction to
the study o f rocks in thin section, 2nd edition: San Francisco, W. H. Freeman
and Co., 626 p.
Wise, D. U., and seven others, 1984, Fault-related rocks: suggestions for term in-
ology: Geology, v. 12, p. 391-394.

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112
Use of Aerial Photographs and Other Remote Imagery 113
GLIIHUHQFHVLQYHJHWDWLRQRUVRLOcolor. The maps make excellent bases for

geologic mapping in areas of low relief where vegetative pattern is variable, as
in marshland and complexly cultivated areas. They do not have the
sharp detail and subtle tonal images of individual contact prints, but
geologic mapping can be transferred from prints to an orthophotomap
more easily than to a topographic map.
Photomosaics are made from contact prints by cutting away all but the
central part of each print and gluing the central parts onto a controlled
base, thus producing a nearly map-true image of a large area. Mosaics
show all the details of contact prints and provide a view of large structures
and topographic features that would be difficult to see and impossible to
measure by superimposing a set of contact prints. A disadvantage of
mosaics is in not showing a stereoscopic view of the terrain. They are used
mainly for compiling data from contact prints and for interpreting large
features or extensive image patterns. Photomosaics are typically
prepared for local government agencies and private companies, and may be
available from them.
Stereoscopic viewing.Vertical photographs are taken in parallel strips
(flight lines) spaced so that the photographs of adjoining lines overlap side-
ways, and at intervals that result in an overlap of about 60% between
adjoin-ing photographs of one line (Fig. 7-1). Any two consecutive
photographs of a flight line are called stereo pairs because they can be used to
see stereoscopic views of images in the overlap area. This is generally done
with a stereoscope, a simple optical instrument that directs one eye toward
one photograph and the other eye toward the other photograph. Because
the two photographs were taken from different positions, their images are
melded in the viewer’s brain as a three-dimensional view, as in normal vision
of nearby objects.
The foldingSocket stereoscope(Fig. 7-2) is used in field studiesbecause it is
compact, inexpensive, and gives a moderately magnified view of the terrain.
- Flight line
! Side lap of
adjoining photo
Overlap of two strips
adjoining photos
)LJ Parts of two adjoining flight lines of aerial photographs, showing typical
overlaps.
In order to avoid eye strain, it should be used as follows:

1. Adjust the stereoscope so that the centers of the lenses are the same
distance apart as the pupils.
2. Place a stereo pair on a smooth surface and in the same order as in their
flight line (Fig. 7-1).
3. Select a distinctive feature lying near the center of the overlap area.
4. Place one photograph over the other so that images are superimposed;
then shift one photograph in the direction of the flight line until the features
selected are as far apart as the distance between the centers of the lenses.
5. Place the stereoscope over the photographs so that the two images lie
under the centers of the two lenses.
6. By looking into the stereoscope, the viewer should be able to see a three-
dimensional image; if not, the two two-dimensional images can be brought
together by shifting one photograph in the direction of the flight line or by
rotating one of the photographs slightly. The latter adjustment is typically
required for images with great relief, only small parts of which can be viewed
stereoscopically at one time.
7. To view the concealed part of the overlap area, bend back the upper
photograph, but not so sharply as to crease it.
Relief in the stereo view is exaggerated because of the geometric relation

between the altitude of the camera and the focal length of the lens. Slopes
and dips up to 60° appear twice as steep as they are, and those between
about 70° and 75° times as steep.
Two additional kinds of stereoscopes used by geologists are the m irror
stereoscope and the single-prism stereoscope. The mirror stereoscope (Fig. 7-2)
is a table-top instrument that permits viewing an entire stereo-overlap area
at one time. The image, however, is transmitted by two sets of mirrors and
by optical eyepieces, and thus minor amounts of moisture or dirt on these
)LJ Folding pocket stereoscope (left) and mirror stereoscope, with photographs in
position for stereo viewing.
surfaces reduce the crispness of the image. The single-prism stereoscope

consists of two backboards that carry the photographs. The prism directs
one eye to one image, whereas the other eye views the other image directly.
The instrument can be carried in the field, shows the entire overlap area at
once, and does not require finding a flat surface on which to place the photo-
graphs. A drawback is its rather high price. It is currently available from
Mechanical Technology Co., Inc., 5530 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, VA 22141.
A three-dimensional image can be seen without a stereoscope, although
this normally requires experimentation and practice. If one looks fixedly for a
minute at the point midway between the two dots in Fig. 7-3 and then
relaxes the eyes (as in day-dreaming), the eyes will turn gradually to the
position of rest, and as they do so the images of the two dots will move
toward one another and merge. The single dot will be blurred at first but will
shortly come into sharp focus, and the set of figures beneath the dot will
appear as a three-dimensional form. To get this effect with aerial photo-
graphs, it is necessary at first to select distinct images, as a road-crossing
that contrasts with its surroundings. The photographs must be placed so
that the two images are no farther apart than the two pupils and are at a
comfortable reading distance. With practice, the entire overlap area of two
photographs can be examined quickly and easily — a skill worth developing
because it saves a large amount of time and eliminates the need to carry a
stereoscope in the field. Nonetheless, the magnifying power of the pocket
stereoscope may be necessary to locate points based on details, as single
trees or shrubs.
Data printed on aerial photographs include the date of photography and a
unique number, as DGW-10-23, which is composed of: (1) a designation for
the project (here, DGW) (2) the number of the film roll (10); and (3) the
number of the photograph on that roll (23) (Fig. 7-4A). The average scale, the
altitude of the aircraft, the focal length of the lens, and the full project
designation are in some cases stamped on the back of prints and in other
cases given on the photo index of the project. If only the focal length of the
lens and the average altitude above the ground are given, the average scale
can be calculated from the relation shown in Figure 7-4B. Because L a LE
the ratio between the focal length and the altitude is the same as the ratio
o o
)LJ Dots and a pair of simple images

that can be viewed stereoscopically.
10-3-78 ^ DWG -10-23 Film -

\- ^ y ' I / = focal length of lens
! Number
Date
Lens ----J
T
7 '\ H = altitude above ground
! ^ Center Scale = i/g = f / H
t .............. + - ............. ... i

^-Collimation
mark
Ground
)LJ A. Aerial photograph with typical data and construction lines for locating
its center. B. Relations between camera and photographed terrain, with formula for
calcu-lating scale.
between any image dimension, i, and its ground dimension, The latter
ratio is equal to the photograph scale. For example, if the focal length of the
lens is 6 in. (0.5 ft) and the altitude is 10,000 ft, the scale is 0.5:10,000,
or
Each print also includes four black figures called collimation marks at the
center of each margin. These marks can be used to locate the center of a
photograph by aligning a straightedge between each opposite pair of marks
and drawing two short lines to form a cross (Fig. 7-4$). This center point,
often called the principal point (abbreviated P.P.), is where the optic axis of
the camera intersected the earth’s surface. If the camera was not tilted, the
)LJ Displacements of the tops of two pyramids (D and b) from their map-true posi-
tions D
DQGE

point represents a ray of light arriving vertically from the ground. All other
light rays that produced the photo image were inclined obliquely upward
from the ground, increasingly so as their image points are distant from the
principal point (Fig. 7-5).
Image displacements are caused partly by the obliquity j ust described and
partly by differences in elevation of points on the ground surface. In Fig. 7-5,
for example, the tops of the pyramids are displaced radially away from the
center of the photograph compared with their actual map positions. The
amounts of the displacements are proportional to (1) horizontal distance
from the principal point and (2) vertical distance between the image point
and the general level of the area photographed.
The displacements result in untrue bearings between image points at
different elevations. The bearing from point x in Fig. 7-5 to the top of the
pyramid next to it is thus distorted from N 30° W to N 15° W. The example is
not exaggerated and is typical of the outlying parts of large-scale photo-
graphs taken where relief is large compared to the altitude of the aircraft.
Such displacements can be reduced by using the central parts of photo-
graphs in measuring and transferring bearings. They can be eliminated
entirely by taking bearings between points at the same elevation, or by
sighting lines that are radial with respect to the principal point. The bearing
from point jy to the top of the upper right pyramid is close to radial and thus
nearly the same as a true bearing. The bearings between the tops of the
pyramids remain true because the two points are at the same elevation.
Another result of image displacement is a noticeable difference in shape
or width of features in adjoining photographs (Fig. 7-6). These differences
are the basis of the stereoscopic image, and a stereo view will help the eye to
compensate for the differences. Contacts and other geologic data w ill be
easiest to compile or transfer accurately, however, if plotted on the image
closest to the center of a photograph.
6FDOH YDULDWLRQV The camera lens is designed so that all features at one
1 2 1 2
)LJ Geometric relations (left) and two consecutive photographs right) of a deep
V-shaped canyon.
elevation w ill be shown at the same scale in all parts of a photograph. The
scale varies directly, however, with the distance from the ground to the
camera (Fig. 7-7). The actual variations in scale can be calculated by
substi-tuting the difference in elevation for + in the relation: scale = f/ H
(Fig. 7-4B). If, for example, the scale in one part of a photograph taken with a
0.5 ft lens has been determined to be 1:17,500 (Section 7-5), another
area lying 200 ft lower would have a scale of 1:17,500 + (0.5/200) or
1:17,900, and an area 100 ft higher would have a scale of 1:17,500 -
(0.5/100) or 1:17,300.
Tilt of the camera from vertical at the instant a photograph is taken
results in systematic distortion of scale and of most directions. If the
camera is tilted to the left of vertical, the scale will increase systematically
from the left side of the photograph to the right side, and lines that are
parallel on the ground will converge from right to left in the image. Camera
mountings are designed to compensate for aircraft motion, and therefore
photographs are rarely tilted more than a degree from vertical. T ilt
distortions are removed in rectified images, as orthophotos. The
photographs generally used for geologic mapping may have tilt distortions
that would shift bearings by 1° and introduce small changes in scale.
These distortions must generally be ignored during mapping. They w ill
be removed when the mapped data are transferred to a topographic map or
compiled by controlled photogrammetric methods.
2WKHU.LQGVRI5HPRWHVHQVHG,PDJHU\
Remote-sensed imagery other than aerial photographs may be available in
photographic black and white prints, in color prints, and as negative trans-
parencies. The brief descriptions given here can be supplemented by refer-
ence to Sabins (1978), Lillesand and Kiefer (1979), or Colwell (1983). Current
literature should be checked in any case, because additional kinds of imagery

)LJ Scale variation due to elevation: The craters of the two volcanoes have the same
diameter but their images in one photograph differ greatly in size.
or products will certainly be developed. Information on obtaining federal

imagery is available from the EROS Data Center (U.S. Geological Survey,
Sioux Falls, SD 57198). Inquiries should include an exact description of
the area and the kind of imagery needed. Aerial survey companies may be
able to supply additional coverage.
Daytime photographic infrared imagery is available in color and black
and white, and is best suited for delineation of vegetation. Tones and
colors are thus suggestive of certain soils, surficial deposits, rock
formations, and faults or fracture systems defined by vegetation. The most
useful coverage is generally taken in the spring or fall, the seasons when
major vegetative changes take place. A variety of scales may be available.
Landsat muitispectrai scanning (MSS) is imagery transmitted from
orbiting satellites. Green, red, and two infrared wavelength bands are
composed on 70 mm film (scale of 1:3,369,000) from which enlargements
are made on paper or film in black and white or color. Each frame covers
185 x 185 km, with resolution that makes enlargements with scales of
1:1,000,000 to 1:100,000 most usable. Many frames are spoiled by
clouds or mechanical defects, but each frame has been repeated enough
times so that good to excellent images are available of almost all areas.
The better frames can be viewed at U.S. Geological Survey regional offices.
The images are used for study of major topographic units, geologic
structures, waterways (especially on infrared bands), and vegetation
differences. Frames recorded over periods of several years can be used to
interpret on-going processes. The special value of the infrared imagery is
similar to that noted above.
Thermal infrared scanning (IR) senses day or night radiation in the
thermal range, and the data may be processed to black and white
prints. Scales range from very large to very small, depending on the project.
The imagery is generally flown for specific purposes, as studies of forest
cover or wet ground, and much of it is not generally available. Because
thermal emissions from certain surfaces and substances are distinctive,
the imagery may show the distribution of certain kinds of rocks,
vegetation, and surficial deposits. It is invaluable for locating areas of
hot rocks and hot water, as in regions of potential volcanic activity.
Radar sensing by side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) records continuous
strips that cover large tracts of land at intermediate to small scales
(original image-scales are 1:100,000 and less). Because radar
penetrates clouds, images are complete and may be flown at any time.
Topographic forms are more enhanced than in ordinary
photographic images, and topographically expressed fault lines and
other lineaments are unusually distinct. The surface textures of the
actual terrain correlate with brightness of the images, so that images
may be used in reconnaissance mapping after field studies have
identified specific kinds of surfaces. The imagery is available for much of
the United States.
3KRWRJHRORJLF6WXGLHV
Aerial photographs and other remote imagery provide the only direct view
of an area short of being there, and thus they are an invaluable introduction
to its geography and geology. In addition, photogeologic study in the field is
of great value because the scale and orientation of aerial views permit seeing
features that are invisible on the ground. Once field study has established
the causes of certain photograph tones, patterns, or lines, they can be used
to interpret other parts of an area. A compelling concern is failure to notice
these features on photographs until after the field season. The purpose of
this section is to give a brief description of photogeologic interpretation based
on a set of photographs, or other imagery, and a stereoscope. More thorough
accounts and additional methods have been given by Ray (1960), von Bandat
(1962), Miller and Miller (1961), and Smith and Anson (1968). Terrain prop-
erties of interest to engineering geologists were included by Way (1978).
Photogeologic studies should be based on stereo pairs and also on single
photographs. Stereo views are used to determine the relief, shape, and
orientation of landforms, which are commonly controlled by the kinds of
rocks, the shapes of rock bodies, and the foliations and fractures within
them, as w ill be described shortly. Stream densities and patterns may be
especially expressive of certain rocks or deposits, and streams are typically
oriented by the structural grain of a given area. Uncontrolled but useful
drainage maps can be made by tracing streams on a transparent overlay
after assembling photographs by carefully superimposing details along their
flight lines.
Viewing single photographs is essential because tonal differences and
patterns may go unnoticed in a stereo image due to its dramatic three-
dimensional quality. It is important to examine tonal areas closely, even
though their significance is totally unknown at the outset. Some are
smooth-toned darker or lighter areas, and others are textured by dots, lines,
or perhaps a fuzzy appearance. The separate areas may have elongate or
other distinctive shapes, and they may be joined along straight or evenly
curving lines and may be repeated in patterns. Straight alignments are
clearest when the photograph is tilted away from the eye, so that the view is
along the linear feature. Subdued patterns sometimes can be seen by first
looking closely at parts of the photograph and then looking toward the photo
center while relaxing the eyes to see the entire photograph at once (using
ones peripheral vision, as when driving in heavy traffic).
The causes of the tonal and textured areas may relate directly to: (1) rocks,
deposits, or soils developed on them; (2) natural vegetation, which is com-
monly controlled to some extent by the geology; or (3) burned areas, agricul-
ture, or other human activities. Tonal and textured areas in arid regions
and areas at altitudes above the tree line generally translate directly to cer-
tain rocks or deposits, and stereo viewing may reveal structural orientations
of contacts or strike and dip of bedding or foliation. In semiarid regions,
photo images are generally caused by some combination of plants and
underlying materials. Areas covered by grass and brush tend to develop
geologically related patterns or contrasts early in the growing season. Trees
in these areas occur only locally and may be controlled by geologic features
or by topography, in the latter case often being on the cooler or moister sides
of ridges. In contrast, geological features under temperate forests or tropical
jungles are likely to be expressed topographically, but not by distinct tonal
or textural patterns.
Identifying rocks from photographic imagesrequires careful study of tex-
turing and of topographic expression. Subparallel elongate patterns, which
may be clear only locally, suggest bedded or strongly foliated rocks. Distinct
vegetative bands suggest sedimentary rather than metamorphic
rocks, because the latter rarely have large contrasts in permeability. Bands
underlain by sedimentary rocks with low permeability, such as clay-rich
rocks in general, are typified by small forms of vegetation and by closely
spaced small-scale drainage networks. These bands may be marked by
landslides in recently uplifted regions and by subdued, smooth topographic
forms in stable regions. Except for areas of pale-toned tuff, soil tones tend to
be dark because of retained moisture.
Bands underlain by permeable rocks, especially sandstone and conglom-
erate, tend to be lighter in tone, to have coarser drainage networks, and to
support large trees where precipitation is adequate. Their high permeability
leads to rapid drying in the summer, thus causing lighter tones than in
adjoining impermeable (moist) materials. Thick-bedded, widely jointed
sandstone units are likely to form ridges in relatively stable areas and to
crop out boldly in recently uplifted areas. Thick-bedded horizontal sandstone
may also show parallel lines of vegetation along master joints.
Limestone commonly supports abundant vegetation and may be recog-
nized by solution sinkholes, discontinuous drainage lines, and steep-sided
hills (karst) in regions with ample rainfall. Limestone is likely to underlie
valleys in humid regions, whereas in arid and semiarid regions it commonly
forms ridges, steep slopes, and light-toned areas. Gypsum and rock salt also
lead to sinkhole topography but not typically to the other features just men-
tioned.
Recent volcanic deposits are usually obvious from their association with
eruptive landforms and flow forms (Chapter 13). Basaltic lava accumulations
of Tertiary age may be characterized by extensive parallel layer-patterns, by
occasional steep bluffs of dark-toned rock with talus aprons, by large upland
areas with sparse drainage lines, by major springs issuing from deeply cut
valley slopes, and by long lines of vegetation marking vertical feeder dikes
and associated vertical fractures. Eroded terrains of intermediate to silicic
lavas are suggested by pale tones; by scattered hills and linear ridges based
on volcanic necks, pipes, and dikes; by curving patterns of flow structures
(Section 13-4); and by closely spaced variations in vegetation and landforms.
Volcanic rocks older than Cretaceous are likely to be altered, relatively
impermeable, and closely jointed, thus appearing like any unit of layered
hard rock.
Intrusive igneous bodies are suggested by uniformity of tone, texture,
and drainage networks. Silicic and intermediate plutons are noticeably light
in tone and often associated with light-toned dikes. Curving trellis drainage
systems may parallel foliation in marginal facies, and crisscross drainage
lines and tree lines suggest prominent joints within plutons (Section 14-7).
Gabbro and ultramafic rocks show dark tones, and serpentinized peridotite
is likely to support only sparse vegetation.
Aureoles of hornfels around intrusions commonly stand higher than either
the intrusions or the metamorphic rocks outside the aureoles. Metamorphic
rocks otherwise may be recognized by widespread foliation and layering that
impart a parallel linear grain to the topography and drainage. Pronounced,
closely spaced joints approximately perpendicular to ridges and linear pat-
terns suggest folded metamorphic rocks. Terrains of high-grade schist and
gneiss are suggested by overall dark tones interrupted here and there by
pale bands of quartzite and pale-toned small plutons and dikes. In arid and
semiarid regions, marble may also stand out as pale-toned ridges. Complexly
curving landforms based on folded units are common in many metamorphic
areas.
6XUILFLDO GHSRVLWV of late Pleistocene age generally can be recognized
by landforms and other features associated with them. Some examples are
end moraines, drumlins, eskers, and pitted outwash glacial deposits;
patterned ground and thermokarst in a present or past periglacial
environment; alluvial terraces along river valleys; sets of beach ridges and
associated dune fields; coastal terraces with former stacks and subdued
sea-cliff faces at their landward margins; and extensive flat plains once
covered by shallow Pleistocene lakes. Many of these deposits and features
are described briefly in Chapter 10 and more fully in the references given
there. Their photogeology is illustrated by superb stereo pairs collected and
described by Mollard (1973?).
6WUXFWXUHV RI large size must be viewed on small-scale imagery, and
SLAR imagery is typically ideal, as described in Section 7-2. Topographic
forms, drainage patterns, and tonal patterns are used in conjunction to
recognize large plutons, homoclinal sequences of strata, large folds,
foliated metamorphic terrains, block-faulted areas, and major faults.
On intermediate to large-scale imagery, actual linear outcrops and detailed
tonal or textural bands are indicators of stratiform sequences and therefore
of folds, foliations, and faults. Direction of dip is indicated by the directions
in which lines or bands cross topographic forms, exactly as with units

mapped on topographic maps (Fig. 6-4). Where such lines are not visible,
sets of asymmetric ridges suggest homoclines dipping in the direction oppo-
site the steeper set of slopes; however, asymmetric ridges may be caused
solely by moisture or temperature regimes. Amounts of dip are exaggerated
by the stereo image but can be estimated approximately as noted in Section
7-1. Dips can be determined more accurately by measuring vertical distances
on topographic maps of the same area or by photogrammetric instruments
(von Bandat, 1962).
Faults are expressed by offset tonal or textured bands, by isolated lines of
springs or trees, by abrupt breaks in slope, by abrupt changes in drainage
patterns, and by streams with anomalously straight or smoothly curving
courses. Features typical of recently active faults may be visible (Section
12-5).
Major joints are commonly widened by weathering and erosion and are
thus visible as vegetative or other tonal lines. They do not offset other linear
units, and they may form parallel systems or sets crossing at characteristic
angles. Joint spacings commonly depend on the thickness of rock layers and
on lithology, and are thus of great value in determining the extent of certain
rock units. Their patterns in plutons and folded metamorphic rocks have
been mentioned above. Joint sets should help to distinguish between surficial
deposits and solid rocks; however, individual lineaments in bedrock may
show through thin surficial deposits.
(TXLSPHQWDQG3UHSDUDWLRQVIRUD)LHOG 3URMHFW

Chapter 1 describes the organization of a field project and some typical
preparations before the field season. Kinds of aerial photographs and sug-
gestions for obtaining them are described in Section 7-1. Even if enlargements
will be used for plotting geology, a full set of contact prints will be needed for
photogeologic reconnaissance (Section 7-3) as well as for stereo viewing in
the field. Viewing will be easier if the two margins perpendicular to the
flight line are trimmed from the prints. If photo indexes are not available,
the geographic coverage of prints should be outlined and numbered on a
map, as a 1:62,500-scale topographic map.
In addition to the usual field equipment (Chapter 2), a pocket or prism
stereoscope will be needed for viewing in the field, and a mirror stereoscope
may be useful in the office (Section 7-1). The map case that will be used in the
field must be somewhat larger than the photographs and should close tightly
enough to keep them clean and dry. For prolonged wet weather, a sheet of
matte-surfaced drafting plastic (as Mylar) can be fitted to the base of the
carrying case and taped on three margins to form a transparent envelope
and drawing surface for each print. Fine-tip ink-flow pens (Section 2-1) can
be used to mark all photograph surfaces and are required for plastic-base
photographs. Paper-base photographs can be marked by pens or soft pencils,
which should be tested before the field season. The photograph emulsion is
softened by moisture and must then be marked gently.
If possible, mapped geology should be transferred from aerial photographs
to a topographic base map as the mapping progresses. If the area is not
covered by a map with a scale of approximately 1:24,000, an enlargement of a
1:62,500-scale map or a remotely sensed image that covers the entire area
can be used.
'HWHUPLQLQJ3KRWRJUDSK6FDOHVDQG2ULHQWDWLRQV
Several photograph scales may be needed during field projects: (1) an
approximate average scale for groups of photographs; (2) an average or typi-
cal scale for one photograph; and (3) scales for specific parts of one photo-
graph. The first of these is given on photograph indexes and descriptions of
photography, and can be calculated from the elevation of the aircraft and the
focal length of the camera lens (see the subsection Data printed on aerial
photographs, Section 7-1). In areas of low to moderate relief, the average scale
of an aerial photograph will be nearly the same as the average scale deter-
mined from a flight line including that photograph, which is determined as
follows:
1. Find two points on a map that can be identified exactly on two photo-
graphs within one flight line (Fig. 7-1).
2. Fix one of these photographs to a smooth surface, using paper drafting
tape.
3. Lay the adjoining photograph over it by carefully superimposing images
that are at about the same elevation and near the flight line; tape the photo-
graph in place.
4. Continue similarly with successive photographs until the one with the
second point is in place.
5. Measure the distances between the two points on the photographs and
on the map, and calculate the scale by the relation
photo scale = map scale X distance scaled on the photos

distance scaled on the map
Scales in specific parts of single photographs can be determined in several

ways: (1) by measuring the distance between two photo points that can be
located precisely on a map of the same area, scaling the map distance, and
calculating the scale by the relation given above; (2) by comparing any scaled
distance or dimension on the photograph with the actual distance measured
in the field; (3) by scaling photo-image distances along roads or crop bound-
aries marking the north-south and east-west lines of the township-section
cadastral system (Appendix 5); (4) by determining the difference in elevation

between a part of the photograph where the scale is unknown with a part
where it has been determined (see the subsection Scale Variations, Section
7-1); and (5) if the scale in one photograph is known and that in an adjoining
one is not, by scaling distances between two points in the overlap area and
using the ratio of the distances to compute the scale from one photograph to
the next.
North arrowsare drawn on photographs to serve as a basis for plotting
bearings and structure symbols. Roads and field boundaries of the Bureau
of Land Management survey system (Appendix 5) can commonly be used as
north-south lines; however some are out of alignment. Any straight stretch
of a more or less level road or waterway can be used to transfer an orientation
from a large-scale map to a single photograph by reading the bearing of the
line on the map with a protractor. Lacking such a feature, the bearing mea-
sured between any two points can be used similarly, provided the points are
at the same elevation or the line between them is about radial to the center of
the photograph (Section 7-1).
Once a north arrow has been drawn on one photograph, it can be trans-
ferred to an adjoining photograph by referring to the bearing between any
two points on or near the flight line (which is a radial line) or any two points
that have the same elevation.
If a north arrow has not been drawn on a photograph before mapping is
started, it can be plotted in the field by: (1) selecting two points at about the
same elevation; (2) measuring the compass bearing between them; (3) align-
ing a protractor between the two points on the photograph; and (4) using the
measured bearing to lay off a north-south line. Data can usually be plotted
anywhere on the photograph if the line is approximately 6 cm long and is
inked near the center.
/RFDWLQJ 3KRWR3RLQWVLQWKH)LHOG

The great detail of imagery on aerial photographs with scales of 1:20,000
or larger makes it possible to pinpoint most field locations by inspection
alone and often without stereo viewing. Individual trees and large shrubs,
minor roads and trails, gullies, clearings, and buildings are examples of
small distinctive features that can be recognized directly. The date of photo-
graphy must be noted in order to allow for seasonal changes in vegetation,
growth of vegetation, and changes due to fires or construction. The general
procedure for making locations is to start by orienting the photograph paral-
lel with the actual terrain, as by pointing the north arrow in the direction of
north determined with the compass. Large and distinct features in the sur-
roundings are then identified on the photograph so that the point occupied
can be approximated. Finally, details in the immediate surroundings are
used to pinpoint the location.
If the point is on a ridge or any other distinct break in slope, a stereoscope

should be used at once to help in making the location. The magnifying lenses
of the pocket stereoscope will disclose features too small to see otherwise,
and the vertical exaggeration of the image will make large trees and subdued
landforms obvious.
&RPSDVVEHDULQJV can be used to make locations on aerial photographs
by the methods described in Section 6-3 if the limitations explained in
Section 7-1 are taken into account. In brief, a compass bearing read
between two points on an aerial photograph will correspond exactly to one
read with a compass or from a map under any of three conditions:
1. The area being mapped is a level plain.
2. The elevations of the two points are the same.
3. The two points fall on a line radiating from the center (the principal
point) of the photograph (Fig. 7-5).
Situations similar to one of these conditions will give accurate locations in
the central part of a photograph.
0HDVXUHG GLVWDQFHV can be used to make locations on aerial
photographs exactly as on maps if the photograph scale is known along
each line. In general, differences in elevation greater than 30 m will result
in measurable differences in scale. Section 7-1 describes the calculation of
photograph scales at different elevations, and Section 7-5 describes how
local photograph scales can be determined in the office or in the field.
*HRORJLF 0DSSLQJLQWKH)LHOG
Geologic aspects of mapping on aerial photographs are described in Chap-
ters 1,3, and 5. Photogeologic methods (Section 7-3) provide a powerful means
of planning mapping as well as of predicting the position of rocks, contacts,
and faults during the course of field work. Some contacts show far more
clearly on aerial photographs than on the ground, and photographs are thus
an ideal base for rapid (reconnaissance) mapping (Section 5-5).
Contacts and faults are drawn as thin pen or pencil lines that are true to
the local photograph imagery. For example, a contact that lies along a tonal
boundary on a photograph is drawn exactly along that boundary, even
though this line might slope so steeply that its image is oriented 5° or more
off its actual bearing (Section 7-1). Such lines are corrected later when map-
ping is transferred to a topographic base or to a planimetric map compiled
from the photographs.
Strike lines, on the other hand, are plotted map-true and must therefore
be based on a true-north arrow (see Section 7-5). Strike lines can be plotted
over a large part of a photograph by using one north line, a transparent
protractor, and, if necessary, a transparent scale to extend the line (Fig.
6-$). Structural data must also be recorded in the notes, or perhaps on

the back of the photograph if large areas are being mapped rapidly and
points are spaced widely. The recorded data are used later to plot all
structuresaccurately on a topographic map or a compiled planimetric map.
Field locations are generally marked by pricking a small hole through the
photograph with a needle, which can be mounted as in Fig. 2-1%. The note
number is written on the back of the photograph. The needle holes on the
image surface can be located by holding the photograph up to the light or by
inserting a needle in the hole from the back of the photograph. Another
method is that of marking and numbering points on the photograph; how-
ever, the marks obstruct the photo image and plotted geology and may dam-
age the surface more than a needle hole.
Where a large number of photographs are being used, it may be helpful to
record on the back of each photograph each date when it was used and the
location numbers added for each day. These data can be used at any time to
locate the field note applying to any location on any photograph. Geologic
lines and symbols should be plotted as mapping progresses in order to point
up errors and discover structural relations immediately. If a soft pencil is
being used, the lines should be inked every day or so because they rub off
easily. Ink work should be as fine as possible. Faults may be inked in a color
rather than as broad black lines, and red and green lines are generally more
legible than blue ones. Each part of the area should be mapped and inked on
only one photograph. This system preserves as much of the photo imagery
as possible and makes the geologic lines appear clearer in stereo images.
The central part of a photograph provides the most nearly map-true image
and therefore is generally the preferred part to use in mapping. If relief is
low to moderate, however, no part of a photograph will be seriously distorted,
and there are several advantages in using entire photographs for map-
ping: (1) larger areas can be examined synoptically; (2) photographs can be
laid out in overlapping sequences without covering most of the mapped rela-
tions; and (3) a set of alternate photographs can be left completely unmarked,
which is desirable for photogeologic studies.
&RPSLOLQJ 'DWDIURP$HULDO 3KRWRJUDSKV

Geologic data should be transferred to a base map or smaller-scale photo
image from time to time during the mapping season. Important relations
might otherwise be missed and some parts of the area might well go
unmapped. Compilations are most valuable when made on a topographic
map because geometric relations are shown clearly and cross sections can
be constructed easily. If only a small-scale topographic map is available,
enlarging it to approximately the same scale as the photographs will make
transferring much easier.
Photograph imagery is so nearly map-true in areas of low to moderate

relief that transferring can be based on any geographic features shown on
both the map and the photographs. Many of the transfers can be made by
inspection; for example, where a structure symbol is located at a distinct
bend in a creek or road. For points that cannot be transferred by inspection,
a pair of proportional dividers can be set so as to convert the local
photograph-scale to the map scale. The dividers are then used to obtain
distances between recognizable points along streams or other geographic
features and the points where contacts or faults cross such features. Lacking
proportional dividers, triangles can be drawn among points that can be
located on both a photograph and the map, and distances scaled along trian-
gle legs can be used to control contacts and other data (Fig. 7-8).
In areas of high relief, transferring may be done largely by comparing the
stereo image of the photographs with the contoured topography of the map.
Points where contacts and faults cross ridges and irregular hill forms can
usually be estimated closely. Data along streams or other areas that are
more or less at one elevation can be transferred with proportional dividers as
just described. Distortions due to differences in elevation are corrected by
drawing from the stereo image. If slopes are so steep that only parts of the
stereo image are clear at one time, the transferring must be done patiently,
completing one small area at a time.
A planimetric map may also be used for a base if it shows drainage and
cultural features in detail. If no suitable map is available, small-scale aerial
photographs or other remote-sensed imagery can be used (Section 7-2).
Small-scale images are far less distorted by relief than those of large-scale

)LJ Transferring geologic data from an aerial photograph (left) to a map by

drawing a triangle (dashed) among three distinct points and using proportions
along these lines, and along bisectrix lines, to make locations.
photographs, so that data can generally be transferred by inspection, as

described above. Once geologic features are transferred from a set of large-
scale photographs to a few small-scale photographs, the latter can be taped
down so that their images are superimposed and the geology traced on a
transparent overlay. This planimetric compilation can be completed by
adding streams and cultural features.
&URVV6HFWLRQVIURP$HULDO 3KRWRJUDSKV

Structural relations on aerial photographs can be viewed only one stereo
pair at a time, so that broader relations must be checked by constructing
cross sections across groups of photographs. If the geology can be transferred
to a topographic base map, cross sections are constructed as described in
Section 6-5. Otherwise, partially controlled cross sections can be constructed
from the photographs and a planimetric base map by the following steps:
(1) select a line of section and prepare a cross-section strip as described in
Section 6-5; (2) transfer from map to strip the points where the section line
crosses streams and ridge lines; (3) use elevations given on the planimetric
map to plot positions of those points on the cross section; (4) transfer the line
of section from the map to the photographs by comparing geographic fea-
tures in the central parts of the photographs; (5) add topographic detail and
geology from the aerial photographs as described in steps (4) through (8) in
the following paragraph.
If no base map is available, approximate cross sections can be prepared
from photographs as follows: (1) select the photographs through which the
section passes and tape them down so that photo images near the flight line
are superimposed and the north arrows are parallel; (2) draw a line of section
across the assembly and prepare a strip of tracing paper or plastic drafting
iilm for the section; (3) lay the strip along the line of section and mark on the
strip the points where the line crosses streams or other distinct geographic
features; mark at least two points per photograph; (4) disassemble the pho-
tographs and examine them stereoscopically in order to locate the topo-
graphically lower points (typically the main stream valleys) and the higher
ridges in the terrain; estimate their elevations and plot their positions on the
section strip; (5) using these points as a general control, estimate the vertical
positions of intermediate streams and ridges and plot them on the section
strip; (6) complete the profile by noting the shapes of slopes between these
various points, allowing for exaggeration of slopes (Section 7-1), and adjusting
the stream and ridge elevations as necessary; (7) transfer all geologic features
at or near the section line, using a stereoscope as needed, and project struc-
tures into the section line as described in Section 6-5; and (8) complete the
sections as described in Section 6-5.
If the vertical positions of points must be controlled more exactly than by
the methods just described, any number of elevations can be measured by

walking the line of section and using the methods of Sections 2-6 or 2-7. If
still greater control is needed, as for the final cross sections of an area of
gently dipping units or structures, a survey along the section line can be
made with a plane table and alidade (Chapter 8).
&RPSLOLQJD0DSE\WKH5DGLDO /LQH0HWKRG

If neither a base map nor small-scale photographs are available for compil-
ing geologic data, a planimetric map can be constructed from the photo-
graphs by a method that corrects for distortions due to relief. This is the
radial line method, based on the fact that the true position of any image in an
untilted photograph lies along the radial line passing from the center of the
photograph through the image (Section 7-1). Equipment and materials that
are desirable but not essential are a drop-circle (spinner) compass with an
ink tip, and two or three colored inks into which a small amount of water-
tempera paint or china-white pigment are mixed so that the ink will be
visible on dark photo images.
The instructions for the full procedure that follows are based in part on a
variation of the method kindly provided by Herbert E. Hendriks:
1. Locate the center (principal point) of each photograph (Fig. 7-44).
2. Place the pivot pin of a drop-circle compass exactly at each center point
and spin a circle approximately 4 mm in diameter, using colored ink.
3. Select several points that should become located accurately (as
stream intersections, points where contacts cross ridges, hilltops with
structure data, etc.) and spin color circles around each; these pass points
should lie in the central band of a given photograph and at least one
should be in each sidelap area (Fig. 7-9A).
c
V \ /
^ \ /
jr \
y * \ \
)LJ Preparations for a radial-line plot. A. Locations of pass points,

showing central band (lined) and areas of sidelap with adjoining flight strips.
B. Points and lines traced from photograph to overlay. C. Overlay with radial
lines added.
4.Transfer each center and pass point to the adjoining two photographs
by inspection of the photo image, and spin circles over each. If the image is
not distinctive enough to do this, view the photographs stereoscopically and
place the drop-circle compass on the unmarked photograph exactly at the
pinhole that seems to be in this photograph; spin a circle the same size as the
initial circle. If the location is correct, the two circles will merge into one in
the stereo image and it will seem to lie exactly at the level of the pinhole. If it
lies above or below the pinhole, wipe the ink off quickly and try again.
5.Cut sheets of plastic drawing film that are slightly smaller than the
photographs and fasten a sheet to each photograph, matte side up, using
several small pieces of drafting tape.
6.Write the photograph number on each overlay and trace all pass points
and center points appearing on that photograph.
7. Draw lines (flight lines) on each overlay from the center point through
each transferred center point and somewhat beyond (Fig. 7-9B).
8.Add lines that radiate from the center point through each pass point,
drawing only a 3-cm segment centered on the pass point (Fig. 7-9C).
9.Remove the overlays from the photographs and lay both sets out in the
order of the flight lines.
10.Select two adjoining photographs from one flight line that have their
centers at about the same elevation and preferably in an area where the local
photograph scale has been determined (Section 7-5). Superimpose the two
overlays of these photographs by bringing their flight lines into exact coin-
cidence. If one flight line is longer than the other, the scales of the two photo-
graphs differ. Either length (or any length) can be used; however, it will set
the scale fo r the entire compilation.
11. Add the next consecutive overlay to the first two by superimposing
flight lines and moving the overlay until the pass points in the overlap area
* X ^ /
' \
*
X
*
A X * *
/ / * \
* * \
)LJ Three adjoining overlays with flight lines superimposed and radial
lines forming three-line intersections.
of the three photographs form 3-line intersections (Fig. 7-10). Tape the three
overlays down lightly.
12. Repeat step 11 with the next overlay and continue similarly throughout
that flight line. If small triangles result at some intersections, check the
accuracy of the radial lines by placing the overlay on its photograph. If all
intersections on one overlay are off consistently, they can sometimes be
improved by shifting the overlay laterally or by rotating it slightly, suggest-
ing that the photograph was tilted.
13. When the overlays of the first flight line are assembled as satisfactorily
as possible, select three overlays in an adjacent flight line, preferably in an
area of relatively low relief. There will be an advantage if the photograph
scales along the flight lines are about the same as those used in step 10.
Tentatively assemble the three overlays as in steps 10 and 11.
14. Place this tentative assembly over the first assembly and bring all
pass-point intersections in the sidelap area as nearly as possible into coinci-
dence. The scales of the two assemblies will typically differ somewhat, so
that the new assembly of three overlays may have to be expanded or con-
tracted parallel to its flight lines to achieve a fit.
15. Continue by adding overlays to the second flight line and adjusting
them as necessary to the pass points located in the first assembly of overlays.
Tape them together lightly so that small readjustments can be made easily.
The final result will typically include intersection triangles that cannot be
resolved and will have to be accepted.
16. When all flight lines have been assembled and joined laterally as in
steps 13,14, and 15, place a sheet of drawing film over the entire assembly of
overlays and trace all center points and pass points with colored ink.
17. Place this master sheet over one of the photographs, preferably starting
in an area of low relief and where the scales of the photograph and the
compilation are about the same.
18. Bring the traced center into coincidence with the actual photograph
center and align the overlay by means of the flight lines and the various pass
points. Using a pencil, draw all geologic lines, drainage lines, and cultural
features around the center. Then shift the overlay sheet so that the closest
)LJ Tracing detail in a small

area by first positioning pass points
of overlay (outer circles) proportional
to pass points of photograph (inner
circles.)
traced pass point lies over the corresponding point on the photograph and
draw the features around it. Continue similarly with all neighboring pass
points.
19.To complete lines between these areas, shift the sheet so that its pass-
point marks are positioned symmetrically with respect to two or three pass
points on the photograph and draw the lines in that area (Fig. 7-11). This
procedure changes the scale of the photograph images to the scale of the
compilation, and in areas of high relief it may be necessary to view the
stereo image or to locate additional pass points.
20. When the data from all the photographs have been penciled onto the
compilation, a second sheet is placed over it and the lines and other features
are traced in ink. The map can then be completed to whatever stage is desir-
able, as by the suggestions given in Section 16-2.
&RQWUROOHGUDGLDOOLQHSORWV can be compiled more firmly and are more
accu-rate, but may or may not be worth the effort spent in surveying
control stations or assembling existing survey data (Section 8-7). The
control sta-tions are plotted on a single sheet at the scale most suitable for
the photograph compilation (generally close to the average scale of the
photographs), and the stations are also located exactly on all photographs
on which they appear. The compilation will be simpler mechanically if the
appropriate control stations are transferred to elongate plastic sheets, which
just cover each of the assembled flight lines of photographs. When the radial
line assembly is started for any one flight line (as described in step 10
above), radial lines through the control points are used to hold each
photograph in position and thus to set the scale of the assembly. This is
done by placing the plastic strip with control points traced on it over the
three-overlay assembly of step 10, and expanding or contracting the
assembly until the three-line intersections fit the corresponding control
points of the overlay. Two or so control points per photograph, located in
side-lap areas, are an ideal number; however, even a few points for the
entire map will help control the compilation.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
C olw ell, R. N ., editor, 1983, Manual o f remote sensing (in 2 volum es) , 2nd edition:
Falls Church, VA, Am erican Society of Photogram m etry, 2440 p.
Ellis, M. Y., editor, 1978, Coastal mapping handbook: U.S. Geological Survey and
National Ocean Survey, Washington, Governm ent P rin tin g O ffice, 200 p.
Lillesand, T. M., and Kiefer, R. W., 1979, Remote sensing and image interpretation:
N ew York, John Wile y & Sons, 612 p.
M iller, V. C., and M iller, C. F., 1961, Photogeology: N ew York, M cG raw -H ill Book Co.,
248 p.
M ollard, J. D., 1973?, Landforms and surface materials o f Canada, a stereoscopic a ir-
photo atlas and glossary, 3rd edition: Regina, Sask., J. D. M ollard, 56 p. and 336 p.
of stereo views.
Ray, R. G., 1960, A erial photographs in geologic interpretation and mapping'. U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 373, 230 p.
Sabins, F. F., Jr., 1978, Remote sensing:principles and interpretation: San Francisco,
W. H. Freeman and Co., 426 p.
Sm ith, J. T., and Anson, A., editors, 1968, Manual o f color aerial photography: Falls
Church, VA, Am erican Society of Photogram m etry, 550 p.
von Bandat, H. F., 1962, Aerogeology: Houston, G u lf Publishing Co., 350 p.
Way, D. S., 1978, Terrain analysis: a guide to site selection using aerial photographic
interpretation, 2nd edition: Stroudsburg, PA, Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross,
438 p.
5REHUW5&RPSWRQ
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7KH$OLGDGH
Mapping with the plane table and alidade is traditional for geologists
because the map is constructed directly as measurements are made in the
field. Geologic features can be related precisely to topography, and relations
among complex geologic data can be compared and checked immediately.
Projects requiring map-scales greater than 1:10,000 typically employ this
method, especially where exact vertical measurements are required.
A variety of modern alidades are obtainable, including exceptionally com-
pact ones with optical devices for making rapid readings, self-indexing level-
units, and extending rulers for plotting lines of sight (see a supplier’s catalog,
Section 2-1). These instruments and their use are described in literature
available from manufacturers. The descriptions and instructions in this
chapter apply specifically to the standard alidade manufactured by several
companies; the instructions may be applied in principle to other instru-
ments.
The standard alidade(Fig. 8-1) consists of a basal blade (1) aligned parallel
to a telescope (2) by means of a rigidly mounted pedestal (3) and a horizontal
axis and bearing (4) on which the telescope may be elevated and depressed in
the vertical plane of the instrument. This movement can be constrained by
setting the axis clamp screw (5), after which a gradual motion is effected by
turning the tangent screw (6). The telescope can be rotated on its axis through
180° when the retaining rin g(7) is loosened; during ordinary measurements,
Vertical cross h air-

Sunshade 2 7
® o c a
Lens cap
)LJ Standard alidade, with insert showing view of a stadia rod as seen through
the telescope. Numbered parts are identified in the text.

the telescope should be turned firmly against a stop, such that the focusing
knob is on the right side (and thus out of sight in the figure). The telescope is

brought to a horizontal sight by referring to the striding level (8), which lies
loosely on two bearing surfaces of the telescope and may be removed after
opening a spring clamp or, in some models, by loosening a screw.

Vertical angles are read from a calibrated arc (9) that is adjusted by means

of a vernier tangent screw (10) and a vernier level (11). Most arcs are also
calibrated with the Beaman arc scale, which is used for correcting stadia

readings (Section 8-4). Stadia hairs and adjustable cross hairs (12) are
mounted in front of the eyepiece (13), which is focused by turning a ring (14).

The blades fiducial edge (15) is parallel to the axis of the telescope, and the
blade has a level (16) for leveling the plane table, a compass (17) for alignments
to magnetic north, and two small knobs (18) for moving the alidade on the
plane table.
&DUHDQG$GMXVWPHQWVLQWKH)LHOG
If cleaned and adjusted before the field season, an alidade will generally
stay in good working order if:
1. It is lifted by the pedestal, never the telescope.
2. It is placed in its carrying box when not in use and not left on the plane
table unattended.
3. The lenses are cleaned when necessary with a soft (camel s hair) brush.
4. The shield of the striding level is turned up and the level is removed
before placing the alidade in its case.
5. The magnetic needle is lifted off its bearing when not in use.
6. The case is cushioned when being transported in a vehicle.
The adjustments that follow are made routinely in the field.
Parallax correction.If a sighted point shifts slightly in relation to the cross
hairs when the eye is moved, the cross hairs must be focused precisely by
the eyepiece ring after pointing the telescope to the sky. The telescope is
then depressed to the original sight and is refocused as necessary.
Striding level.To adjust the level so that it is parallel with the telescope
axis; (1) center the bubble by moving the tangent screw; (2) reverse the level
end for end; (3) if the bubble moves off center, turn the capstan screws on the
level to bring the bubble halfway back to center; (4) center it again with the
tangent screw; and (5) reverse the level, repeating the procedure until the
bubble stays on center when the level is reversed.
Magnetic needle. If the compass needle dips so much that it touches the
window of the compass box, slide the balancing weight along the needle
until it remains level.
If an alidade has been dropped, the set of the cross hairs should, be checked
by: (1) placing the alidade on a solid level surface; (2) releasing the retaining
Mapping with the Plane Table and Alidade 137
ring and rotating the telescope firmly against its stop; (3) sighting on a distant
point and adjusting for parallax; and (4) elevating and depressing the telescope
with the tangent screw to see if the point sighted stays on the vertical cross
hair. If it does not, the cross hairs are rotated by loosening the four capstan
screws of the cross hair mount and rotating the mount by very light taps. The
line of collimation (the axial line through the telescope) is then checked by
releasing the retaining ring and rotating the telescope through 180° to deter-
mine if the cross hairs stay on the point sighted. If they do not, each pair of
capstan screws is turned until the cross hairs stay on the point sighted when
the telescope is rotated.
7KH3ODQH7DEOH0DSSLQJ6KHHWVDQG7ULSRG
The plane table is a firmly constructed drawing board with a baseplate for
attaching it to the tripod. The standard board is small enough (18 X 24 in.) to
permit steep downhill sights from most parts of its surface.
Plane table sheets can be purchased ready-made or can be made easily
from a variety of materials. Factors in selecting materials are durability,
smoothness, resistance to moisture (especially with respect to dimensional
changes), thermal coefficient of expansion, and reflectance (sun-glare from
white or metal sheets may be a problem). An inexpensive sheet may be made
from medium-gauge matte-faced clear plastic (as Mylar) mounted over a
separate sheet of light-brown paper. Expansion and contraction should not
change the map scale seriously, except possibly during triangulation over

)LJ A. Johnson head and upper part of plane table tripod. The cup shape of
the head permits tilting the plane table moderately in any direction when the set
screws are loose. B. Leveling the plane table by observing the level on the blade of
the alidade.
long distances (Section 8-7). The sheet may be kept clean by an overlay of
brown paper that is cut away as the mapping progresses.
Plane table tripods have a Johnson head that is attached to wooden legs by
bolts and wing nuts (Fig. 8-2A). The wing nuts should be set just firmly
enough to hold the tripod leg unsupported at an angle of about 45°. The
Johnson head is designed so that the plane table can be leveled and oriented
easily, as by the steps that follow:
1. Set the tripod up, with its legs inclined about 30° from vertical; loosen
both set screws of the Johnson head, and move the upper (main) part of the
head until it is evenly upright.
2.Tighten both set screws and screw the plane table down so that it fits
firmly against the head.
3. Place the assembly over the station occupied such that the map is
oriented approximately and the ground marker of the station lies under the
corresponding point on the map.
4.Level the board approximately by moving the tripod legs; on steep slopes,
place two of the legs downhill.
5.Press the tripod feet into the ground or brace them with chunks of rock
so that they will stay solidly in place.
6.Place the alidade without its striding level in the center of the board,
parallel to the board’s length.
7. G rip the far side of the board with one hand, hold the blade down under
that arm, and press the near edge of the board firmly against the waist
(Fig. 8-2B).
8.Loosen both set screws of the Johnson head with the free hand and level
the board by referring to the level on the blade. Tighten the upper set screw
of the Johnson head.
The board can be rotated on what is now the vertical axis of the Johnson
head, and it is oriented for mapping by the following steps:
1.Place the fiducial edge so that it bisects the map point of the station
occupied and also the map point of the station that will be sighted.
2.Rotate the board on its vertical axis until the alidade is pointing at the
station to be sighted; look through the telescope in order to bring the station
sighted exactly on the vertical cross hair.
3.Tighten the lower set screw of the Johnson head, making sure that the
cross hair remains on the station sighted.
4.Check for parallax, and make sure the board and tripod are set firmly
enough so that they will not be disoriented during mapping.
The board can also be oriented by reference to magnetic north; however,
small local variations in the magnetic field tend to make this method less
accurate (see Magnetic anomalies, Section 2-5).
6WDGLD0HDVXUHPHQWV
The stadia hairs of the eyepiece are spaced so that their intercept on a
graduated rod viewed through the alidade is l/100th of the distance from
the alidade to the rod. Thus if the intercept on the rod is 1.23 (m or ft) (Fig.
8-1), the sighted distance is 123 (m or ft). If the line of sight is not level,
however, the sighted distance must be corrected to a horizontal (map) dis-
tance. The sighted distance must also be converted to a vertical distance in
order to map contours or plot elevations. These conversions can be made by
using the Beaman arc attached to most alidades, as described in principle
below and in detail in a subsection that follows. The conversions may also
be made by measuring the vertical angle to the point sighted and using
trigonometric functions to calculate the horizontal and vertical distances, a
method that will be described after the Beaman arc procedure. Finally, stadia
(slope) distances can be converted to horizontal and vertical distances by
using a stadia slide rule, or the stadia reduction tables included in some
surveying books.
The Beaman arc has two scales scribed next to the vertical-angle arc and
read by a separate index (Fig. 8-3). The H scale is used for the horizontal
conversion and is read by visually projecting the index line across the V scale.
The H reading is multiplied by the stadia intercept to obtain the horizontal
correction. If, for example, the stadia intercept is 3.53 and the H reading is 3.2,
their product, 11.3, is subtracted from the stadia distance, 353, to give the
horizontal distance, 342.
As shown in Fig. 8-3, the V scale reads 50 for a horizontal sight. This number
is subtracted from the V reading in order to obtain the vertical correction
H scale V scale ^-Vertical angle scale
20 u .
Zt— Vernier for
.
~ reading vertical )LJ Central part of a Beaman arc

|Q angles
and vertical-angle arc, with indexes
indicating a horizontal line of sight. The
arcs illustrated are edge-mounted and
read from the rear of the alidade; those
on the alidade in Fig. 8-1 are side-
- Index for reading
-E Beaman arc
mounted and read from the left side of
the instrument.
factor, giving negative factors for inclined sights and positive factors for
depressed sights. The vertical correction factor is then multiplied by the stadia
intercept to give the vertical distance above or below the alidade. For example,
a V reading of 47 and a stadia intercept of 3.53 would give a vertical distance of
(47 - 50) X 3.53, or -10.6.
The vertical distance from the alidade to the point read on the rod must
then be modified to obtain the elevation on the ground where the rod is held
(Fig. 8-4). The height of the alidade above the ground (the H.l.) is first added to
the elevation of the station occupied to obtain an elevation of the instrument
(sometimes abbreviated E.I.). The cross-hair reading on the rod is then given a
- sign and added algebraically to the vertical distance computed from the
stadia distance, as just described. For example, if the vertical distance is -10.5
and the cross-hair reading is 6.5, the elevation difference is -10.5 - 6.5 or -17.
The elevation on the ground where the rod is held is thus the elevation of the
instrument less 17.
5RGV IRUVWDGLD VXUYH\LQJ A standard leveling rod (Philadelphia rod)
is suitable for large-scale mapping by sights of 100 m or less, and a stadia
rod graduated in feet and tenths, or meters and tenths, for surveys
requiring longer sights. Stadia rods are typically 10 to 15 ft (3 to 5 m) long,
the longer ones being hinged or separable at the center. The brightness and
distinctness of the graduated patterns affect the accuracy of instrument-
readings, so that rods should be handled carefully, cleaned occasionally,
and touched up with paint as necessary. When making stadia sights, the
rod should be held so that its marked face is in the sunlight if possible,
which may require turning it somewhat from the line of sight.
The person holding the rod can keep it plumb (vertical) by balancing it
between his or her fingertips or, in winds, holding a clinometer against it.
The person with the rod also describes each station in a notebook, number-
)LJ Relations of the vertical adia distance to the H.I., the cross-hair reading, and the
vertical distance between two points.
ing the entries consecutively so that they can be matched with the consecu-
tive numbers recorded in the instrument notebook and on the map.
7KH%HDPDQDUFSURFHGXUH described here is designed for mapping at
scales larger than 1:10,000 and for stadia distances less than 250 m (800 ft).
Persons who have gained even moderate experience in plane table
surveying can easily modify the steps to suit special needs. If a calculator
is not available, the lower part of each notebook page (Fig. 8-5) should be

reserved for computations. The brief remarks help key the stations to
the corresponding numbers and descriptions in the notebook kept at the
rod. In the procedure described here, the person with the rod records the
main geologic observations.
After the plane table has been set up and oriented (Section 8-3), the height
of the instrument is measured with the stadia rod and added to the elevation
of the station to give the elevation of the instrument. This can be recorded as
in Fig. 8-5. Mapping then commences as follows:
1. Point the alidade at the rod by sighting along the top of the telescope,
making sure that the point marking the station occupied is next to the fidu-
cial edge. Using reasonable care, the rod should be visible through the tele-
scope, so that the alidade need be moved only slightly to bring the vertical
cross hair onto the rod. As this is done, the fiducial edge must be positioned a
pencil-line away from the point occupied.
2. Draw a ray with a sharp 8H or 9H pencil, stopping it short of the point
occupied in order not to obscure the needle hole.
3. Tighten the axis clamp screw, then move the telescope with the tangent
screw until either stadia hair is exactly on a whole foot or meter division.
Check for parallax (Section 8-2) and correct the focus as necessary,
because this w ill be the most important reading taken. Count the full
units and tenths, and estimate the hundredths, to the other stadia hair—a
procedure that prevents errors that might result from subtracting. Check
the focus and the count, and record the intercept at once. If too little of
the rod is visible to read a full intercept, count the intercept between a
stadia hair and the horizontal cross hair and double this number before
recording it.
4. Level the telescope by referring to the striding level and use a 2X or 3X
magnifyingglass to bring the Beaman arc index to 50 on the V scale. Do this by

turning the vernier tangent screw (10 in Fig. 8-1). This adjustment cor-rects
for any tilt of the board caused by moving the alidade from one position to
another.
5. Look through the telescope to see if the horizontal cross hair is on the
rod or is close enough to it so that a cross-hair reading can be estimated to the
nearest 0.2 m (0.5 ft). If so, H is 0, V is 50, and all that is needed to
complete the sight is to record the cross-hair reading (see step 7).
6. If the sight is inclined (and thus step 5 cannot be completed), unclamp
and tilt the telescope until the cross hair is near the center of the rod. Then
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)LJ (and see opposite page) Two facing pages of notebook used for stadia
surveying with a Beaman arc. Products are rounded for typical precision when
mapping at a scale of approximately 1:2400.
clamp the telescope and turn the tangent screw (no. 6 in Fig. 8-1) until the V
scale graduation closest to the Beaman arc index is exactly at the index. Use
a magnifyingglass to check this setting. The whole number is used because
it can be read precisely from the V scale and simplifies computations. Read
the V and H scales and record the numbers.
7. Observe where the horizontal cross hair crosses the rod. This number,
the cross-hair reading, generally need be no more exact than the nearest 0.2
m (0.5 ft). It is recorded with a minus sign.
8. Signal the person with the rod to move to the next point.
9. Find the product of the stadia intercept and the H reading and record it
(Fig. 8-5). Subtract this number from the stadia distance (stadia intercept x
100) to obtain the horizontal distance. Record the distance and scale it along
the pencil ray. Mark the point with a small needle hole and number it.
10. Subtract 50 from the V reading and record the resulting Vfactor, then
multiply it by the stadia intercept and record the product. If a calculator is
not available, do the multiplication on the lower part of the notebook page so
that it can be checked.
11. Add this number algebraically to the cross-hair reading and record the
result (the Net diff. in elev. in Fig. 8-5).
12. Add the latter number algebraically to the elevation of the instrument
to obtain the elevation of the point sighted. Record this elevation in the note-
book and next to the point on the map.
In surveys where the person with the rod is moving rapidly through a
series of closely spaced points, the procedure will be more efficient if a third
person records stadia data at the instrument and computes results as the
work proceeds. If only one person is at the instrument, he or she should look
up occasionally while computing, because the person with the rod may be
difficult to spot when standing still at a new point. A pair of field glasses
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will be helpful, especially in brushy country.

A vertical-angle proceduremust be used if the instrument has no Beaman
arc. If a hand calculator with tangent and cosine functions is available, this
procedure may be preferable to the Beaman arc method. The procedure is
based on the vertical-angle arc and its vernier scale, which will therefore be
described first.
The vertical-angle arc encompasses only 60°, because standard alidades
can be inclined or depressed only a little more than 30°. The scale is marked
at 30' intervals, and its “ 0” or horizontal mark has been given the number
30 in order to eliminate mistakes caused by reading and recording the sign
of angles close to 0 (Fig. 8-3). Thus, the number 30 is subtracted from the
number read on the vertical-angle scale, giving + signs for inclined angles
and - signs for depressed angles.
The vernier scale is marked in 1' divisions that are somewhat smaller
than the marks on the vertical-angle scale (30 vernier marks is exactly
equal to 29 vertical-angle marks). The vernier is read by noting which of its
marks exactly matches a mark on the vertical-angle scale. In Fig. 8-3, for
example, the 0 mark of the vernier exactly matches the 30 mark on the
vertical-angle scale, giving a reading of 30 (and no minutes) and thus an
angle of 30 - 30, or 0. If the telescope were inclined 4°12', the vernier mark
would lie somewhat above the 34 mark on the vertical-angle scale, and the
vernier 12' mark (and only that mark) would match a mark on the vertical-
angle scale. Vertical angles are thus read in these steps: (1) note where the
0 mark of the vernier scale meets the vertical-angle arc, which w ill give a
reading to the nearest 30'; (2) using a 2X or 3X magnifying glass, find which
of the vernier marks exactly matches a mark on the vertical-angle scale;
and (3) add the latter vernier reading, which will be in minutes, to the
number observed in step (1). As an example, if the vernier 0 mark lies
between the 20° 30' and 21° marks of the vertical-angle scale, and the 22'
mark on the vernier exactly matches a vertical-angle mark, the reading is
20° 52' and the angle is 20° 52'- 30°, or -9° 08'. Finally, in cases where no one
vernier mark exactly matches a vertical-angle mark, the positions of the
two vernier marks closest to two vertical-angle marks can be used to esti-
mate the nearest 30", or perhaps 20", of arc. The latter degree of precision is
usually unnecessary in stadia mapping but may be required in control sur-
veys (Section 8-7).
Most of the steps in the vertical-angle stadia procedure are the same, or
similar, to those in the Beaman-arc procedure. The instrument notebook
may be like that in Fig. 8-5, except that the columns for recording and
calculating Beaman-arc data must be replaced by columns for recording (1)
the vertical angle, (2) the horizontal distance, and (3) the vertical distance.
The first three steps in the stadia procedure are exactly the same as
those given above for the Beaman-arc procedure. Step 4 is the same except
that the vernier 0 mark is brought to the 30 mark on the vertical-angle
scale. Step 5 is the same except that the vertical angle is recorded as 0, and
in step 6 the vertical angle is read (as just described) and recorded. Steps 7
and 8 are identical in the two procedures, but the steps involving stadia
calculations (9 and 10) are replaced by these three steps:
1. Multiply the stadia intercept by 100 to obtain the stadia distance.

2. If the sight is not horizontal, multiply the stadia distance by the square
of the cosine of the vertical angle, thus obtaining (and recording) the hori-
zontal distance to the rod (the derivation of this calculation is given in most
surveying texts).
3. Multiply the horizontal distance by the tangent of the vertical angle to
obtain (and record) the vertical distance.
The procedure is then completed by steps 11 and 12 of the Beaman-arc
procedure.
The stadia constant and stadia interval.The point of origin for a stadia mea-
surement is not at the axis (pedestal) of external-focus alidades but generally
about 1 ft in front of it. This short distance, called the stadia constant, is
inscribed in the instrument box by the manufacturer. The constant need be
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)LJ Notebook and set of data for obtaining horizontal distance from
gradienter readings.
applied only in very large-scale mapping, as 1:1000 or more. It must be used,
however, in determining the stadia interval factor.
The stadia hairs in many alidades are not set to give a stadia ratio of
exactly 1:100. The difference is typically so small that it can be ignored, but
it may be large enough in some alidades to affect large-scale mapping that
must be unusually precise. The actual stadia interval can be determined by
observing a graduated scale held exactly at right angles to the line of sight
and at a distance of 100 ft (or 100 m), as measured exactly with a tape. The
proximal end of the tape must be held at the point prescribed by the stadia
constant just described. If the stadia interval proves to be significantly dif-
ferent from a ratio of 1:100, it is used in all computations of stadia distances.
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In cases where sights are so long or brush and trees so thick that even a
half-stadia interval cannot be read directly, the methods that follow will
generally give adequate results.
*UDGLHQWHURU6WHELQJHUPHWKRG The tangent screw on most alidades
is calibrated so that one complete turn moves the telescope through one
stadia interval. A gradienter or Stebinger drum attached to the tangent
screw is graduated into 100 divisions; one division is thus equal to l/100th
of a stadia interval. The calibrated drum is used to make measurements as
follows:
1. Turn the tangent screw in a clockwise direction (the telescope may not
move smoothly in the opposite direction) until the horizontal cross hair is on
the lowest visible division on the rod.
2. Record this number and also the gradienter reading (opposite the index
by the gradienter drum) (Fig. 8-6).
3. Elevate the telescope by the tangent screw until the horizontal cross
hair is on the highest division on the rod; record that number and the gra-
dienter reading.
4. Calculate and record the difference between the two cross-hair readings
and the difference between the two gradienter readings (Fig. 8-6). Divide the
former by the latter and multiply the quotient by 100; the product is the
stadia (slope) distance.
5. For sights shorter than 300 m, read the Beaman H scale and use that
number to correct the stadia distance to a horizontal distance (Fig. 8-6).
Read the V scale and corresponding cross-hair reading; obtain the V
factor as described in Section 8-4 and multiply it by l/100th of the stadia
distance. This result is the vertical distance between the alidade and the
point of the cross hair on the rod. Finally, add the cross-hair reading
algebraically to obtain the net difference in elevation to the point on the
ground where the rod was held.
6. For sights longer than 300 m, Beaman arc methods (see the preceding
step) will not be precise enough. If the sight is at a low angle, use the method
described in the following subsection. If the angle is too steep for that method,
read a vertical angle and calculate the horizontal and vertical distances trigo-
nometrically as described in Section 8-4.
9HUWLFDOGLVWDQFHVE\VWDGLDVWHSSLQJ is an especially useful method
for long sights, because they tend to be more nearly horizontal than short
sights. In addition, the vertical-angle arcs of alidades can be read only to
the nearest 1 or minute, introducing a low precision in long sights.
The stepping method proceeds as follows:
1. Level the telescope by reference to the striding level.
2. Look in the telescope and select a distinct object that is just at the level
of the upper stadia hair, if the rod is above the elevation of the alidade, or the
lower stadia hair if it is below the alidade (Fig. 8-7$).
3. Elevate or depress the telescope with the tangent screw until the other
stadia hair lies on the object selected (Fig. 8-7B).
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 after selecting another object in the view, and
continue similarly until either the upper stadia hair (if the rod is above the
alidade) or the lower one (if it is below the alidade) is on the rod (Fig. 8-7C).
5. Record the rod reading for the stadia hair just noted, giving it a - sign;
also record the number of steps used in moving the stadia hair onto the rod.
6. Bring the horizontal cross hair to the nearest even division on the rod
and read the half-stadia intercept.
7. Multiply the stadia intercept (twice the half stadia intercept) by the
number of steps, and to this product algebraically add the rod reading
recorded in step 5. The result is the difference in elevation between the
alidade and the point on the ground where the rod was held. This difference
in elevation is then added to the elevation of the instrument to obtain the
elevation at the point sighted.
(~ .
[ ""'-.....
' .. -.
\
)LJ Measuring vertical distance from instrument to rod by successive steps of

the upper stadia hair, keyed here to the numbered points.
3UHSDUDWLRQVIRUD3ODQH7DEOH3URMHFW
Compared to geologic mapping on a topographic base or on aerial photo-
graphs, plane table mapping requires expensive equipment, extra personnel,
and routines that are time-consuming and can be tedious. The purpose of
the project should therefore be considered thoroughly. Is an accurate, large-
scale, geologic and topographic map actually needed?
If so, a field reconnaissance is essential (Section 1-4). Particulars to
determine include: (1) the degree to which exposures permit detailed map-
ping of rocks and structures; (2) the effect of trees, brush, and steep slopes
on visibility from typical instrument stations; (3) the degree of vehicle access
within the area; (4) local wind and weather conditions during the field sea-
son; and (5) the locations of preexisting survey data that can be used for
control points.
The map scale may be selected during the reconnaissance, and it is
determined by the smallest features that must be mapped accurately and
shown routinely to scale. It is generally difficult to work with map points
spaced more closely than 4 mm (0.16 in.), and geologic features smaller than
that are tedious to represent to scale. Thus if the smallest features to be
7DEOH Equipm ent for Plane Table M apping, Including a Control Survey
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
A erial photographs Pencils, 2H to 9H
Alidade, w ith pins and screw driver Pencil pointer (file or sandpaper)
for adjustments Pens, fine, medium, for inking map
A ltim eter Pen, ruling
Beam compass Plane table, in case
Brush, sable, for dusting lenses Plane table sheets
Calculator, pocket Pliers w ith w ire cutters
Colored cloth for station signals Plum b bobs for taping
Colored tape for m arking stadia points Reading glass, about 3X
Color pencils Rod, Philadelphia
Crayons (keel) for m arking points Rod, stadia
Dark glasses Scale, precise, for plotting points
Ephemeris, solar Stereoscope
Erasers Straightedge, steel, 24 in. or more
Field glasses Su rveying text
Hatchet Tables, m athematical
Ink, black, green, blue, red, brown Tape, 6 -ft roll-up
Lum ber for signals and stakes Tape, precise, 100-300 ft
M anufacturer s instruction books Taping pins
Nails Taping scale for judging pull
Needles for pricking points T racin g m aterial
Notebooks Triangulation and level survey data
Paper, brown, for covering map sheet Tripod, Johnson, w ith cap
Paper pads for computations W ire for gu yin g station signals
mapped accurately are 10 m across on the ground, the map scale should be
about 1:2500 (1 cm = 25 m or 1 in. = 200 ft).
The main factor in selecting the contour interval is the vertical control
required by the geologic purpose of the project. Additional factors are steep-
ness of slopes, scale of the map, and spacing of stadia points permitted in the
time available for the survey. For typical areas that will be mapped at scales
of 1:1000 to 1:4000, intervals of 5 or 10 m (20,25, or 40 ft) are typical; however,
contour intervals of 2 or 3 m (5 or 10 ft) may be needed where low topographic
forms must be defined or in cases where the map will be used to determine
vertical dimensions in many places, as in construction or quarrying opera-
tions.
A checklist of equipment for plane table mapping is given in Table 8-1.
Sections 8-1, 8-3, and 8-4 include suggestions for selecting and preparing
equipment. Enlarged aerial photographs might be considered as plane table
sheets if the area has low relief (Section 8-9).
+RUL]RQWDODQG9HUWLFDO &RQWURO

Accurate maps of areas more than a kilometer or so across typically
require a system of control points that must be surveyed two or three times
more precisely than the other points used to make the map. The control
points keep the scale, orientations, and elevations of the map acceptably
accurate and consistent throughout. Systems of map control should be con-
sidered before field reconnaissance and planned specifically during the
reconnaissance.
Days of field time can be gained by basing a control system on existing
triangulation stations and bench marks. If, for example, two or three trian-
gulation stations lie within the area to be mapped, there will be no need to
measure a base line and the stations can be plotted on a plane table sheet
before the field season. Inquiries for control data should be started a month
or so before the field reconnaissance. The National Cartographic Information
Center of the U.S. Geological Survey can supply some control data and sug-
gest sources for data held by other federal agencies (see Section 6-1 for
addresses). Control data may also be available from state geodetic and land
survey offices, state highway departments, and county surveyors’ offices.
Triangulation data generally include geographic positions (precise lati-
tudes and longitudes) of stations, azimuths and distances between pairs of
stations, elevations and descriptions of stations, and state plane coordinates
of stations. Level data consist of elevations and positions of bench marks
and maps showing survey lines of leveling stations. Inquiries must cite the
boundaries of the area of interest, and an index map showing latitude and
longitude lines should be submitted, if possible.
Nongeodetic data that may be available include highway route surveys,
railroad surveys, and plats of property lines and corners. Most surveyors
blueprint maps are not accurate enough for direct scaling of distances or
azimuths, but the survey coordinates can be used to compute distances and
bearings between any two survey points, as described in surveying texts.
*HQHUDO VFKHPH RI WULDQJXODWLRQ A triangulation survey locates
preselected stations by lines of sight that are treated as sides of joined
triangles (Fig.8-8). If the angles at each apex are measured with a transit
or theodolite, the accuracy of the work can be checked as the survey
progresses, because the internal angles of each triangle must sum to 180°.
Triangulation with a plane table and alidade consists of drawing a ray from
any station occupied to each nearby station and thus locating stations
by line intersections. Accuracy in this procedure is checked by reverse
sights and by sights to and from additional stations, for example the sights

BD and DB in the two triangles A B C and ACD (Fig. 8-8).
If the locations of two or more of the stations have been obtained from a
government agency, the length and azimuth of at least one of the triangle
legs will be known; if not, one side w ill have to be taped in the field as des-

cribed in Selecting and measuring a base line. If a transit or theodolite are
used for triangulation, lengths of triangle sides are computed trigonometri-
cally from the known side (base line) and the measured angles. In plane table
triangulation, the base line is plotted to scale at the outset and all other
triangle sides are measured from the plane table map when intersection is
completed. Vertical distances between stations are generally determined in
both kinds of surveys by measuring the vertical angles among stations and
computing trigonometrically from the horizontal distances.
6HOHFWLQJ DQG PDUNLQJ VWDWLRQV. Control stations can be planned
tentatively by examining aerial photographs and are selected during the
field reconnaissance and during the early part of the field season. The
stations must be visible at instrument height (about 1.3 m) from
surrounding stations and must give a clear view of the surrounding
terrain for stadia surveying. Although government triangulation stations
are commonly on high peaks, control stations for mapping may be more
usefully located on low ground or on low hills or spurs. Convenience to
roads is a consideration because a full
)LJ Triangulation network

expanded from a baseline (AC) to a
quadrilateral (ABCD) and thence to
adjoining triangles.
set of plane table equipment is heavy to carry. The spacing of stations should
be such that at least two will fall on each plane table sheet used for stadia
mapping. Internal angles of the triangulation network should be between
about 40° and 90° if the stations will be intersected with a plane table and
alidade.
As locations are selected, they are marked with a signal that can be seen
from all nearby stations. A flag of brightly colored cloth 0.5 m long can be
seen with field glasses of an alidade for several kilometers. The pole can be
mounted over a permanent stake by driving a finishing nail partway into
the stake and drilling a hole in the base of the pole, to fit over the nail. The
pole may be guyed by three pieces of baling wire attached to heavy stones or
vegetation. The signal can thus be taken down and reset easily during tri-
angulation. Computations of vertical distances will be simplified by making
all flagpoles the same height.
6HOHFWLQJDQGPHDVXULQJD EDVHOLQH An ideal base line is located on
reason-ably level and open ground. The two ends must be visible from all
points along the line, and all nearby triangulation stations must be visible
from both ends. If the control system will be intersected with a plane table
and alidade, the base line should be at least half as long as the other triangle
sides in the system. The precision of measuring the base line need be no
greater than the precision with which it can be plotted on a plane table
sheet. The latter is determined by the thickness of graduation lines on
scales of good quality, which permit reading lengths of lines to
approximately the nearest0.05 mm (0.002 in.). A plotted base line 12.5 cm
(5 in.) long can thus be scaled with a precision of 1 part in about 2500.
This same degree of precision would require that a base line 500 m long
must be measured to the nearest 0.2 m, which should not be difficult by
using a steel tape of good quality. Additional equipment needed are two
plumb bobs, a set of chaining pins (or long nails flagged with brightly colored
tape), and a hand level or Brunton compass. The precision just noted will
not require that a temperature correction be applied, but the manufacturer s
description of the tape should be checked to determine whether it was stan-
dardized fully supported or for being held unsupported at a 10-lb pull. If it is
standardized fully supported, sag is likely to introduce a systematic error of
approximately 1 part in 1000, and the actual sag factor can be measured by
laying the tape on a floor, marking its length, and then comparing its length
when held at both ends under a 10-lb pull.
The taping is done by three persons and will be easiest going downslope,
as by the steps that follow:
1. Examine the markings at the two ends of the tape (some tapes are
graduated beyond their end measures).
2. One person carries the 0 end of the tape ahead for the first full measure
or to the point that the tape is level when held at chest height. The second
person (the recorder) sights along the tape with a hand level, thus helping
the person holding the 0 end to keep the tape level within 0.2 m or so. The
third person sits over the end of the base line and sights along it to guide the
others into line with the marker at the far end (Fig. 8-9).
3. The person holding the 0 end places the string of the plumb bob against
the 0 graduation and lets the plumb bob hang just above the ground (Fig.
8-9). The tape is pulled with a force of 10 lb.
4. The person at the other end of the tape holds an even division over the
station marker and calls out the measure to the recorder who sticks a pin
into the ground at right angles to the taped line and under the end of the
plumb bob.
5. The recorder records the measure and the procedure is checked by
repetition.
6. As the tape is moved ahead for the second measure, the person holding
the measure-end of the tape uses the pin as the marker and collects it when
the second measure is completed. The total number of pins thus collected
serves to check the number of measures that should have been recorded at
any stage of the taping.
7. Measures are taken and recorded similarly until the other end of the
base line is reached. The entire measurement should then be repeated as a
check of major mistakes and as a means of ascertaining the precision of the
total measurement.
If the control system will be surveyed with a transit or theodolite, a shorter
base line can be used if it is taped with greater precision, as by taping over
stakes set on slope, described in surveying texts.
Intersecting stations. Although triangulation with an alidade is less precise
than with a transit or theodolite, it takes less time and is precise enough for
<>
)LJ Taping downhill with tape held level.

most plane table projects (see Horizontal precision, below). The plane table
sheet should be smooth, matte-surfaced, and waterproof (Section 8-3). Sta-
tions for which geodetic data have been obtained may be plotted in the office
before the field season. The stations are plotted by their latitudes and longi-
tudes after a polyconic grid is constructed on the control-survey sheet. The
methods are described in surveying texts, and the linear distances subtended
by arcs of latitude and longitude are given in feet in Birdseye (1929) and in
meters by the Coast and Geodetic Survey (1935). A steel straightedge, a
beam compass, and an accurate scale are needed for the construction.
If a base line is being used as a starting reference for the survey, it is
plotted on the control-survey sheet by using a steel straightedge, an accurate
scale, and a fine needle to prick the station points at each end. The plotted
base line should be remeasured occasionally over a period of several days to
see how expansion and contraction of the sheet will affect the scale. The
survey can then be planned for times of day when changes in scale are accept-
ably small (generally less than 1 part in 1000).
The survey is started at one end of the base line. The alidade is placed on
the sheet so that the fiducial edge bisects the two needle holes marking the
base line stations, and the plane table is oriented by sighting on the other
end of the base line (Section 8-3). The alidade is then moved so as to sight a
control station signal, and a thin pencil ray is drawn from close to the point
occupied to the full length of the fiducial edge (so that the plane table can be
oriented accurately by a backsight). The vertical distance is determined by
the stepping method, if possible (Section 8-5), or from a vertical angle (see
Measuring vertical angles, below). The pencil ray is lettered lightly with the
letter of the station sighted, and the alidade is turned to sight on the next
station signal. The far end of the base line should be sighted after every two
or three stations to be sure that the plane table has remained correctly
oriented.
When all visible stations have been surveyed, the plane table is moved to
the other end of the base line and the procedures are repeated, resulting in a
pencil-line intersection for each station. The intersected stations are then
occupied in turn, and the plane table is oriented by backsights to either base
line station. The vertical distance is determined again by stepping or mea-
surement of a vertical angle, and rays are drawn to all other visible stations.
The order of occupying the triangulation stations should be based on the
probable accuracy of the initial intersection, which w ill decrease with
horizontal distance, vertical distance, and difference between the intersected
angle and 90°.
Horizontal precisionof such surveying varies with the factors just men-
tioned and also with plotting precision. As each person may determine for
him or herself, a thin line can be measured to about the nearest 0.05 mm
(0.002 in.), but it is difficult to prick a needle hole with that degree of precision
(the size of the hole is not so much a problem as its placement). Plotting
precision is thus approximately 0.08 mm (0.003 in), equivalent to 0.5 m on
the ground at a map-scale of 1:6000 (1 cm = 60 m or 1 in. = 500 ft.). The pencil
ray itself, however, cannot generally be drawn along the fiducial edge with
more than half that precision. The lines can usually be improved by: (1)
using a hard, sharp pencil; (2) holding it at right angles to the fiducial edge,
with the upper end tilted slightly in the direction in which the line will be
drawn; and (3) drawing the line in one steady stroke. In spite of care, however,
errors perpendicular to plotted lines are likely to be 0.1 mm in many cases.
An average plotting error for locations made by plane table intersection is
thus likely to be between 0.05 and 0.1 mm on the map. For a triangle side 10
cm (4 in.) long this gives a precision of approximately 1 part in 1500. Although
this precision is considerably less than can be obtained by surveying the
control stations with a transit or theodolite, it is acceptable for controlling
subsequent stadia locations, which can be located, at best, about half that
precisely.
Measuring vertical angleswith the alidade requires particular care because
the vertical-angle arc cannot be read as precisely as the arc on a transit, and
sideways tilt of the plane table cannot be detected during the measurement.
Use of the vertical-angle arc and its vernier are described in Section 8-4 (in
the first part of A vertical-angle procedure). Vertical angles are measured as
follows:
1. Level the plane table as exactly as possible and make sure the tripod is
set firmly.
2. Record the vertical distance from the station marker to the horizontal
axis of the alidade (the H.I.) and enter the height of the station signal being
sighted (H.F. in Fig. 8-10).
Statcim _ Station R e a d in g s ' i^. e a d i n js Ve r t-ic a i

oc.c-uf>iec! St'efhfed le v e l fo s naf Q n q /es
AM ** 3S* ' OD"

3o° 2 / ' o o " \ 3o° S t ' f ? " ........
30° x r 3 T 0- J 8 ° 04'
4/ ° 25* oo"
3 5 ° Zo' oo" \ 3 3 ° Zo ' to"
.......- .... : ---------- --
33° Zo ' Z o “ J 8° 04 * S o "
I
)LJ Notebook record and calculation of a vertical angle based on two
sets of readings.
154 Geology In the Field
3. For maximum stability, place the alidade in the center of the plane table.
4. Align the telescope on the station and bring the horizontal cross hair
onto the top of the signal. Make the final adjustment by turning the tangent
screw (No. 6 in Fig. 8-1) clockwise. Check to be sure that the cross hair rather
than a stadia hair has been used in the sighting. Do not touch the plane table
or walk around it until the measurement has been completed.
5. Read the vertical-angle vernier with the help of a magnifying glass;
estimate the reading to the nearest half or quarter minute if possible, and
record it.
6. Level the telescope, again by making the final movement with a clock-
wise turn of the tangent screw.
7. Read the vertical-angle vernier and record the reading; then reverse the
striding level, center the bubble again by turning the tangent screw, and
take a second reading. Averaging the two readings (Fig. 8-10) compensates
for an unadjusted striding level.
8. To catch mistakes, repeat steps 4 through 7 after shifting the vernier a
few degrees by turning the vernier tangent screw (No. 10 in Fig. 8-1).
9. Subtract each set of readings, and repeat the entire procedure if the
results do not agree within acceptable limits.
The difference in elevation is computed from the trigonometric relation:
vert. dist. = horiz. dist. X tan vert angle
and the + or - sign of the angle is carried throughout the computation. The
H.I. is always given a + sign, the height of the signal (H.F.) a - sign, and the
net difference in elevation is found by adding algebraically (Fig. 8-4). Sights
over horizontal distances greater than 1 km can be corrected for curvature
of the earth and for refraction of light by the atmosphere by multiplying the
square of the distance in kilometers by 0.175, the result being in meters.
The elevation of each station should be determined by sights to or from all
nearby stations. The final elevation is then taken as an average of these
determinations and may be weighted according to the estimated reliability
of each.
Elevation controlcan generally be brought to the control network by refer-
ence to a bench mark or other established station within the area. If eleva-
tions cannot be obtained locally, they can usually be surveyed from a
neighboring area by a plane table traverse (see Control traverses, below). An
approximate elevation can be introduced with an altimeter, allowing for the
variations described in Section 6-3.
A north arrowcan be based on any azimuth supplied for triangulation sur-
veys or other prior surveys of the area. It can also be obtained directly by a
sight on Polaris, as described in surveying textbooks; however, the star is
too high in the sky at some seasons and in some areas to be observed with an
alidade. An approximate north arrow can be transferred from a topographic

map covering the same area or can be based on the magnetic needle of the
alidade, corrected for local declination (Section 2-4).
Control traversesmay have to be used to survey a control network where
trees or brush preclude triangulation. The traverse should be started at a
geodetic station or other well-controlled point and must be closed on that
point or completed at another well-controlled point. Traverse legs should be
measured with a somewhat greater precision than can generally be obtained
in plotting the legs, such as 1 part in 2000 for lines longer than 200 m. Careful
stadia measurements are adequate for measuring legs shorter than 200 m.
Longer legs must be taped as described in the subsection Selecting and
measuring a base line, above. The legs should also slope as little as possible so
that horizontal distances can be measured more precisely and vertical dis-
tances can be measured by the stepping method (Section 8-5).
A traverse is started at a point of known location (as a geodetic station) by
orienting the plane table on another known station or by using the magnetic
needle to orient on north. The first traverse station is then selected and
marked clearly so that it can be found and used again during stadia mapping.
A ray is drawn to it and the vertical distance is determined by stepping (if
possible) or by measuring a vertical angle. The distance is then measured by
taping or stadia, and the plane table is moved to the station, where it is
oriented by a backsight. The vertical distance is measured in a backsight to
serve as a check. A second traverse station is then selected, and the procedure
is repeated similarly until the traverse is closed. Errors of closure too large
to be plotting errors must be corrected by resurveying all or part of the
traverse (see Fig. 6-2 and related text).
/RFDWLQJ6WDWLRQVIRU6WDGLD0DSSLQJ
If the area is to be mapped on several plane table sheets and the control
stations were surveyed on one sheet, control stations must first be plotted on
each sheet. The plotting is based on distances and bearings from the control
survey, and is done by: (1) drawing a triangle side on a new plane table
sheet (as A B in Fig. 8-11 A) (2) setting a compass for an adjoining triangle
side, as AC; (3) striking an arc in the general location of C; and (4) doing
the same with BC, so that C is plotted by intersection.
Additional stations will be needed for stadia mapping, and they should be
spaced no farther apart than twice the longest stadia sight acceptable for the
project. A typical spacing for mapping at scales of 1:2000 to 1:6000 is 600 to
700 m. Other factors in selecting stadia stations are visibility of the terrain
and control signals, steepness of slopes, and weather (especially wind, which
may decrease the precision of long stadia sights greatly).
In relatively open areas, the stations should be selected and surveyed onto
the plane table sheets before stadia mapping is started, using either inter-
section or traverse methods (Section 8-7). Where visibility is limited or
accessibility difficult, the stations can usually be surveyed more efficiently
during stadia mapping. For example, when visibility is such that control
stations are being surveyed by traverses, stadia mapping around each tra-
verse station might be completed as the survey proceeds. The two subsec-
tions that follow describe additional methods for locating stations during the
course of stadia mapping.
Resection is a method of selecting and surveying a new station after stadia
work at an occupied station has been completed. Generally, the person with
the rod selects the new station and holds the rod on it, while the person at
the alidade draws a ray toward it and determines the vertical distance by
stepping or by measuring a vertical angle. The plane table is then set up at
the new site and oriented by a backsight on the station just occupied. The
alidade is placed with the fiducial edge next to the point of any other station
that will provide a strong intersection with the ray just drawn. That station
is sighted, and a line is drawn back along the fiducial edge to intersect the
station occupied. When other stations have been sighted as a check, stadia
mapping can commence from the new station.
Three-point methods must be used when the plane table has been moved to
a new site to which no rays have been drawn but from which at least three
control stations can be seen. The quickest method requires a piece of tracing
paper (or tracing film) and some drafting tape, and proceeds as follows:
1. Prick a needle hole near the center of the tracing paper and tape it
anywhere on the plane table sheet.
2. Lay the fiducial against the hole and sight each of three (preferably four)
signals, drawing pencil rays from near the hole toward each station.
3. Untape the tracing paper and shift it until each pencil ray passes over
the corresponding point on the plane table sheet (Fig. 8-11B).
)LJ A. Plotting control stations on a plane table sheet by intersection. B.

Using tracing paper to locate an unmapped instrument station. The lines represent
pencil rays on the tracing paper, and the circles are stations plotted on the plane
table sheet.
4. Insert a needle through the hole in the tracing paper to prick a point in
the sheet.
5. Remove the tracing paper and place the alidade edge so that the fiducial
bisects the new hole and that of the farthest station sighted.
6. Loosen the lower screw of the Johnson head and orient the plane table on
the corresponding signal; tighten the head and check the orientation by
sights to other signals.
The only points that cannot be located by three rays are those lying on or
near the circle that passes through the three points to be sighted (the great
circle of Fig. 8-12). These cases become apparent during step 3, and either a
fourth point must be used or the plane table must be moved to a new location.
Lacking tracing paper, the plane table is first oriented by the magnetic
needle or by estimation. Three signals are then sighted and a ray from each
is drawn back along the fiducial edge. The resulting intersection will typi-
cally form a small triangle, and the following rules from Birdseye (1928, p.
203) will help in estimating the true position of the point relative to the
small triangle (Fig. 8-12).
1. If the small triangle is within the great triangle, the true position of the
point is within the small triangle.
2. If the small triangle falls between the great triangle and the great circle,
the true position of the point is outside the small triangle and opposite the
side formed by the ray from the middle station sighted.
3. If the small triangle lies outside the great circle, the point lies outside
)LJ Three stations sighted (A, B and C) used for orienting the plane table
by estimation, and the small triangles that might result upon drawing rays to
intersect the station occupied. The actual positions of the point occupied are
shown by the small circles. The use of the great circle and great triangle are
explained in the text. After Birdseye (1928, p. 203).
the small triangle and on the same side of the ray from the most distant
station sighted as does the intersection of the other two rays.
In addition, the distances between the true position of the point and the
three rays drawn are proportional to the distances from the point occupied
to the three stations sighted. After a new position is estimated and marked,
the plane table is reoriented by sighting on the farthest station, and rays are
drawn back from each station point as before. If this does not resolve the
location, the procedure is repeated until it does, typically once or twice more.
6WDGLD0DSSLQJ
Stadia mapping of geology and topography may be started at any conve-
nient station and should be completed there before being extended to an
adjoining station. Mapping complex areas will generally be more efficient if
the survey party walks out the geologic features first in order to plan the
mapping. Contacts, faults, and key outcrops may be flagged with strips of
colored tape where relations are crucial or complex. Sketch maps of such
areas, made by pace and compass methods, may also be helpful.
As the stadia mapping starts, the person with the rod should describe the
first series of points to be visited so that the person at the plane table can
concentrate on computing and plotting points and still know approximately
where the person with the rod will be. The person with the rod examines
the geology and makes notes that will be used in drawing the map. The notes
may include large-scale sketch-maps of features that have been paced or
measured with the rod, with the stadia points providing a framework for
these details (Fig. 8-13). Most stadia points are marked by writing the point
number on a smooth stone, outcrop, or piece of colored tape. They can thus
be found again when the map is being checked or refined.
After about 10 to 20 points are mapped, the person with the rod should
return to the plane table to help plot geology and topography. Corresponding
notes in the two notebooks are compared, and the terrain is studied visually.
Drainage lines, roads, and buildings are drawn first; then geologic features;
and finally contours. Drawing is done lightly in pencil in order to permit
adjustments. The first step in drawing contours is to interpolate short con-
tour segments between pairs of stadia points on more-or-less even slopes.
The segments are then connected by using other points or by visual estima-
tion (Fig. 8-14). Where geologic features are spaced so widely that stadia
points are taken solely for contours, the person with the rod can use a hand
level to follow a given contour. After this has been done for every fourth
contour or so, the other contours can be interpolated.
In an efficient survey, neither the person at the plane table nor the one
with the rod has to wait long while the other person completes his or her
part of the work. Small-scale mapping of large geologic features may thus
3Avg.84 A/ i dac/ e. Sta- fron ^ St ar f - ee/ a f- ' S / • nc/fess,
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)LJ Notes taken per stadia point by the person at the rod.
require two or three persons with rods, and detailed large-scale mapping of
complex relations may require two persons at one rod.
0DSSLQJEDVHGRQDHULDOSKRWRJUDSKV is well-suited to areas of low relief
and may save a good deal of time. An enlarged photograph can be used as a
)LJ Drawing contours by (1) interpolating evenly spaced contours between
two points on an even slope (A); (2) using points (as 14 and 18) to extend the
contours; (3) interpolating again along a stream of even gradient (B) and along a
ridge (C), with local variations keyed to points such as 20 and 21 by visual
estimation.
plane table sheet after control stations have been transferred to it by inter-
section or by inspection of the photograph image. Stadia mapping from such
points is the same as that on a plane table sheet. Many lines and points may
be located by inspection of the photograph image, so that the principal sur-
veying procedure is determining elevations. Contours may be drawn more
easily on the photograph by using a stereo image than by visualization in the
field, and thus fewer elevations are needed for contouring.
Data can also be transferred from photographs to a plane table sheet by
the method described in Fig. 8-15.
0RYLQJ WKH SODQH WDEOH LQVWHDG RI WKH URG is a stadia method by
which one person can map alone. Mapping is based on a rod made from
square lumber (as 2 X 2 in.) painted with graduations on all sides and fixed
with guy wires at any station that has been located on the plane table
sheet. Such a rod station is equivalent to one of the instrument stations
of Section 8-8. The geologist carries the plane table to an outcrop or other
point of value, orients the table by using the magnetic needle of the
alidade, sights on the rod, and makes the usual stadia readings and
computations. A ray is drawn back from the point representing the rod
station, and the place occupied is plotted with a scale. After geology and
topography around the plane table are mapped by direct observation,
the plane table is moved to the next point of interest.
2IILFH ZRUN RQ WKH PDS Stadia stations may be inked with very
small numbers from time to time, and structure symbols and any resolved
contacts or faults should also be inked. All lettering should read from the
south edge of the map. Elevation numbers, contours, and any geologic
features that remain questionable should be left in pencil until the final
field check of the map. They can be protected in the meantime by an
overlay of brown paper. Additional routine office work is described in
Section 1-6.
Aerial
photograph
Transparent
overlay
Plane table sheet
)LJ A point can be transferred from an aerial photograph to a map by these

steps:
(1) on a transparent overlay, draw rays from any three located stations through
the point (left); (2) place the overlay on the map so that the rays pass over the
corresponding station points (the circles on the diagram to the right); and (3)
prick a needle hole through theintersection and into the map.
Completing a plane table maprequires a field check, during which ques-

tionable relations are reexamined and additional data plotted. The data are
located by means of the topography, by the stadia point markers already
described, and by additional measurements made with a tape or by pacing.
The sheet is carried into the field on the plane table but without the tripod or
the alidade. Rock units might first be colored lightly to clarify their distribu-
tion. Samples may be collected systematically during the field check, and
section lines should be selected and walked out to be sure that geology and
topography along them are as complete as possible. The cross sections should
be completed in pencil before leaving the field (Section 6-5).
At the close of the mapping project, the map should be inked, traditionally
with geology in black, contours in brown, and drainage in blue. An explana-
tion is required so that outcrop areas of rock units can be identified by their
colors or map symbols (Section 16-2). Each sheet must be labeled with a
geographic title, the location of the sheet, the party members, and the dates
of the survey. A north arrow and bar scale must be added.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Birdseye, C. H., 1928, Topographic instructions o f the United States Geological Sur-
vey: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 788, 432 p.
Birdseye, C. H., 1929, Formulas and tablesfo r the construction of polyconic projections:
U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 809,126 p.
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1935, Tables fo r a poly conic projection o f maps and
lengths o f terrestrial arcs o f meridian and parallels based upon Clark's reference
spheroid o f 1896, 6th edition: Special Publication 8,101 p.
5REHUW5&RPSWRQ
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Sections 9-1 through 9-6 describe sedimentary structures, many of which
may be either marine or nonmarine. The remainder of the chapter presents
structures and rock associations typical of certain marine environments,
and Chapter 10 describes associations in nonmarine environments. The
descriptions are brief and might well be supplemented by other sources,
such as the exceptionally clear introductory book by Leeder (1982) or the
more specific ones by Reineck and Singh (1980), Harms and others (1982),
Scholle and Spearing (1982), and Scholle, Bebout, and Moore (1983).
The basic structure in all environments is the sedimentary EHG stratum),
which is a distinct layer of sediment or rock that may differ in a variety of
ways from overlying and underlying layers. Genetically, the base of a bed
represents an abrupt change in depositional conditions or sediment supply;
the bed represents more or less uniform conditions; and the top represents
another abrupt change. The changes may include a period of erosion or a
pause in deposition, and thus some bed surfaces are minor unconformities
or omission surfaces (Section 9-6). When erosion surfaces between beds of
closely similar materials are so faint that the composite unit looks like a
single bed, the beds are said to be amalgamated. For example, a dense tur-
bidity current might sweep away all but the basal sand division of a preced-
ing turbidity-current deposit, so that two sand beds become amalgamated
into a single thick unit. Amalgamated deposits should be considered as
separate beds, no matter how obscure their internal contacts may be.
Beds are studied and described according to (1) how they differ from
adjoining beds (by grain size, fabric, composition, or primary color); (2) their
shape (Fig. 9-1); (3) their thickness (actual thickness is most useful); (4) their
lateral extent, noting the degree to which it can be determined; (5) their
)LJ Some bed shapes: A, tablet; B, wedge; C, trough; D, lunate trough; E,

lenticular spar; F, cylinder; and G, lens.

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internal structures; and (6) the nature of their contacts with adjacent beds.
The most common internal structure, lamination, consists of layering
within beds. In cross-bedding (cross-stratification), the laminations are
oblique to the bed containing them, a common relation in current-deposited
sediments. Cross-bedding is described according to the overall geometry of
the cross-bedded units, the shape of the inclined surfaces, and the angles
they make with the top and bottom of the bed (Fig. 9-2).
Grading in beds may be by grain size or by composition, and often is
noticeable due to a color gradation. Some size-graded beds have a matrix of
fine sediment throughout and some consist of relatively well-sorted coarse
and fine materials. Size grading is normally from coarser up to finer sizes,
but may be inverse, complex, or inconsistent.
Similar beds may be grouped in bedsets (Campbell, 1967), and
specific kinds of beds or bedsets may be repeated cyclically, as
ABCABC** , or rhythmically, as ABCBABCB . Cycles of beds that become
broadly coarser grained upward or finer grained upward are of particular
value in interpretLng cyclic changes in the energy of transporting
currents. Beds in coarsening-upward and fining-upward cycles tend also
to thicken upward and thin upward, respectively; however, cycles based
solely on changes in thickness may be due to other causes, such as
variation in sediment supply.
)LJ Cross-bedding, with arrows indicating current direction where appropriate.

A. Three tabular sets with (from top) angular, parabolic, and sinusoidal cross-
lamination. B. Wedge sets indicating variable current direction. C. Trough sets or
festoon cross-bedding. D. Hummocky cross-bedding, thought to be formed by storm
waves on the lowershoreface (Hunter and Clifton, 1982).
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Section Word&n alonaf 33 t'n. & in q w o o d Canyon Unit 7

Measured thickness 2.8 m A t titu d e ___ N i s w 65 w
Measured by 1-4 w r y Date 2. A p rs * Comments 9 w e u e x p o s e d . Be-hter
f o s s i / oo/Zections c a n m ade.
Rock or sediment name: 'S a n d s t o n e } s u b q u a rrfz o s e f f e id s p a t h ic
Color m oist: v‘ pq/e brn l0 Y * 7/3 Bedding: d is tin c t vague

dry: IQYR. 8 /3
beds:
Thicknesses P P . P FP PP
lam inations: ^ — v— ^
F o ssils: 0 - ^ Y O C 2 5 ^ < O > < * ( D ^ / O «Si <51 V
Primary stru c tu re s : P/pnar x -b e d d m ^ /oca/; /orê b u rr-o ^ s

q b u n d a n h ² u n i f - 6 o ^ J S ° 7 Q b / a /~u r b a t e d
range: R
Grain sizes I I I I I
median: 256 eh 16 k t mm 25 .0 6 -015
Degree o f s o rtin g : very well wel 1 moderate poor very poor
Grain shapes: very angular angular subangular subrounded rounded
Packing: loose moderate tig h t pressed
Fabric: f-o s s ils a n d s p a fr s e rrtt’c a a re lo c a lly p la n a r

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depth 100 m P P
Composition:
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Cement: cal dol qz opal clay Fe-oxide

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hyaloclastite that are overrun in due course by subaerial lava (Fig. 13-4,
lower right).
)ORZVDQG'RPHVRI9LVFRXV/DYD
A number of features can be used to determine: (1) the original extent of
eroded viscous lava flows, (2) the positions of the vents from which they
emerged, (3) the approximate stratigraphic position of a given outcrop
within a flow, and (4) something of the eruption itself. Viscous lavas range
in composition from andesite and trachyte to rhyolite; however, the viscos-
ity of any of them may vary greatly due to factors other than rock composi-
tion, so that each case must be treated without assumptions. For example,
although most siliceous flows are thick and stubby, Bailey and others (1976)
mapped a flow 16 m thick that extended for 6 km.
Next to mapping the distribution of the flow itself, the most valuable
features are its flow structures, which may consist of any or all of these
components: layering (banding); platy joints with surface lineation (but
not all platy jointing is parallel to flow layers); flattened and elongated vesi-
cles; folds; faults oriented at low angles to layering; oriented crystals and
inclusions; and extension cracks. The layers (bands) may be as thin as a
fraction of a millimeter and as thick as several meters. They are generally
discernible by color or tonal differences caused by differences in crystallinity or
vesicularity, by sheets of spherulites or lithophysae, or by alteration
along platy partings. Where the rock parts easily along the flow layers,
lineation and extension cracks may suggest the direction of flow (Fig. 13-7
A. Folds commonly form with hinges at right angles to the direction of
flow; however, their hinges may be parallel to the direction of transport
where a flow was constricted laterally (as in folding by extension, Section
12-3). Folds may also become rotated or superimposed where flow orienta-
tion varied with time. Folds with consistent vergence may be associated
with local thrust faults (Fig. 13-7B.
The bases and tops of flows are typically vesicular to pumiceous and
commonly brecciated. Intermediate lava flows, as those of andesite, may
consist largely of angular blocks, many larger than 1 m in diameter. Solid
spines and craggy ridges on the surface of silicic flows typically stand many
meters above crevasses or alongside piles of angular fragments (Fig. 13-7C).
Basal pumice breccias tend to mix with pyroclastic pumice erupted just
before the flow, so that the basal contact may be gradational, and the under-
lying pumice may be compacted and fused into dense obsidian. Vesicular
fragments from the top or base are often caught up in the main flow, where
they are compacted, fused, and drawn out parallel to other flow structures.
Where oxidized pumice is incorporated, the fused rock may be streaked
with red, yellow, or brown. Williams (1942) described low caves formed
where the base of a flow was arrested by obstacles and was arched upward
(Fig. 13-7C).
Some flows have inclined layers that reveal a sense of flow direction and
provide a means of charting the sequential spread of the flow as well as its
source (Fig. 13-7C). Steeply inclined flow structures that formed in an
entirely different way, however, were described by Fink (1983), who made
detailed studies of a number of flows in which a layer of light pumiceous
lava lies beneath dense obsidian. The resulting gravity instability led to
rhythmically spaced diapirs that rose and expanded so as to rotate originally
horizontal flow structures to vertical orientations.
The use of aerial photographs in interpreting patterns of flow structures
and vent positions is well illustrated by Koringa (1973, p. 3859) and by Fink
(1983). Vents in eroded flows may be indicated in the field by greater con-
centrations of phenocrysts or inclusions, by a greater degree of crystallinity
of the groundmass, by abundant tridymite, cristobalite, or hematite in cavi-
ties or along fractures, and by alteration to white, red, or varicolored rocks
consisting largely of clays, tridymite, opal, chalcedony, or zeolites. On
uneroded flows, the vent is generally under the highest part of the flow and
typically marked by a low dome.
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Domes result where lava is so viscous as to pile up over a vent, or to

intrude and balloon upward and laterally into sediments or previously
erupted volcanic deposits. The sides of many steep-sided domes are covered
by an apron of talus formed by disintegration of lava during eruption (Fig.
13-$) . Lava spines and craggy ridges on top of the dome may be pressed
upward or may result from subsidence ofthe surroundingparts of the dome.
Graben or extension fractures on domes may indicate orientations and perhaps
positions of underlying feeding systems (Rose, 1972; Fink, 1983). A
pumLceous carapaceJenerally covers more dense lava, which may be nearly
structureless or have systematically oriented flow structures. A common
structural configuration is an outward fanning o f flow surfaces (Fig. 13-8A).
Another common kind of dome consists of a pile of short flows (Fig. 13-8B).
Several other configurations were illustrated by Williams and McBirney
(1979, p. 190).
3\URFODVWLF'HSRVLWV3URGXFHG E\([SORVLRQV

Three genetic kinds of pyroclastic deposits may be formed by explo-
sions: (1) airfall (or fallout) deposits, consisting of materials fallen from high
eruption clouds, or projected outward by explosions; (2) base surge deposits,
accumulated from clouds that are initiated by strong explosions and sweep
outward along the ground at hurricane velocities; and (3) pyroclastic flow
deposits, formed from hot debris streams and the turbulent clouds that rise
above them. These three kinds of deposits may occur as isolated layers or as
genetically related sequences as will be described below. Components of
pyroclastic deposits are illustrated in Fig. 4-17, and a textural classification
is given in Fig. 4-16.
Airfall deposits blanket the topography quite evenly. They are typically
poorly to moderately sorted on the volcano and well to very well sorted at
increasing distances from it. They also become thinner and finer grained
away from the volcano. Repeated explosions of different strengths lead to
distinct stratification; however, it may be modified by creep and bioturba-
tion. The deposits are also easily eroded. Blocks and bombs produce com-
Ŷ1/^FeedW" /
Feeder.
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pactive dimples (“sags” ) in underlying strata near the volcano. Un-

commonly, the deposits are welded or agglutinated and can be distinguished
from welded pyroclastic flow deposits by distinct stratification, by rapid
vertical variation in degree of welding, by mantling the topography, and by
the fact that the degree of welding falls off rapidly away from the vent.
Walker (1973) noted that magnitude of an explosive eruption is indicated
by the volume of detritus produced, and eruptive violence by (1) the size of
the area covered by ejecta and (2) the abundance of fine tephra in it. He
developed a classification of explosive eruptions based on the percentage of
fine tephra and the thicknesses of deposits at a fixed distance from the vent,
and noted characteristics of airfall deposits that help in recognizing these
eruptive types. Briefly, deposits consisting largely of glassy fragments
shaped plastically during eruption (Fig. 4-17) suggest mild explosions or
fountaining of liquid basalt (Hawaiian-type activity). Abundant ragged sco-
ria and shaped scoria bombs accompanied by less than 25% of clasts finer
than 1 mm suggest somewhat more violent (Strombolian-type) activity. In
contrast, exceptionally widespread deposits consisting of irregular vesicular
fragments of basaltic glass mostly finer than 1 mm indicate violently explo-
sive (Surtseyan-type) activity, caused by mixing of water and basalt melt.
Tuffs produced by these subaqueous explosions are commonly vesicular,
and base surge deposits often accompany this type of airfall deposit.
Deposits consisting mainly of pumice lumps and colorless glass shards
are generally felsic or silicic in composition. Those produced by unusually
powerful but continuous gas blasts (Plinian-type activity) can be recognized
by a near-vent facies consisting of a thick unstratified pumice layer that
contains only moderate amounts of clasts finer than 1 mm, and in some
cases is graded coarser-upward (Lirer and others, 1973). Violent explosions
caused by mixing of water and abundant felsic magma (phreatoplinian-type
activity) have been interpreted by Self and Sparks (1978) as the cause of
deposits of blocky, sparsely vesicular glass fragments that: (1) are much
finer grained than Plinian-type tephra (median diameter of 0.2-0.1 mm); (2)
show little decrease in grain size away from the vent; (3) occur with base
surge deposits; and (4) commonly include accretionary lapilli.
%DVHVXUJHGHSRVLWV are characterized by laminae that are typically cast
into dune, antidune, and smaller sand-wave forms near the volcano, and
are planar at greater distances from the volcano (Fig. 13-9A, B , and C). In
addition to this spatial relation, Wohletz and Sheridan (1979) noted that
unlaminated deposits of poorly sorted clasts are abundant throughout the
deposits, commonly forming elongate lenses in the lee of antidunes (Fig.
13-9'). The antidunes indicate the direction of the blast and therefore of
the vent, as do deposits plastered against large blocks, tree trunks, or other
steeply inclined surfaces (Moore, 1967). Plastered-on deposits and locally
abundant accretionary lapilli indicate moist ash, and the moisture implies
mixing of water with magma. Some surge blasts, however, are so hot and
dry that they sear vegetation. Dry or moist, the blasts generally are so pow-
erful as to sweep away all vegetation near vents and to sandblast and topple
trees throughout large areas.
Typically, a base surge deposit extends about as far from its vent as the
diameter of the vent (Wohletz and Sheridan, 1979); however, exceptional
surges, as the one from Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980, are far more
extensive (Moore and Sisson, 1981).
3\URFODVWLF IORZ GHSRVLWV SURGXFHG E\ H[SORVLRQV LJQLPEULWHV
include several varieties classified by primary textures, and additional
secondary variants classified by degree of welding and alteration. Of the
primary kinds of deposits, ash flows are by far the most common and
voluminous, and have, by definition, a median grain size less than 2 mm.
Pumice fragments larger than 2 mm are common in ash flows and
predominate in pumice flows. Block flows are typically localized to the
vicinity of the volcano. Although mainly subaerial, pyroclastic flow deposits
may occur in sequences of marine rocks, some being erupted underwater
(Fiske and Matsuda, 1964) and some evidently flowing into the sea and
along the seafloor for many kilometers (Francis and Howells, 1973).
All pyroclastic flow deposits are characterized by: (1) very poor to moder-
ate sorting; (2) lack of bedding within a single flow unit; (3) thicknesses of
meters to tens of meters (in some cases hundreds of meters); (4) presence of
accessory or accidental lithic fragments; and (5) level or smoothly sloping
upper surfaces and uneven (topographic) lower surfaces. Many ash-flow
and pumice-flow deposits can also be recognized by their secondary features:
gradational layers or zones due to differing degrees of compaction and weld-
ing, patterns of columnar joints, and gradational zones due to vapor-induced

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alteration and crystallization. These secondary features are likely to vary

from one deposit to the next and thus are helpful in correlation, although
lateral variations are considerable (Smith, 1960). Zones of compaction and
welding may be distinctive enough to suggest approximate stratigraphic
position in a given flow and have been used to measure fault displacement
(Peterson, 1979). Differences in jointing and resistance of the secondary
layers give rise to consistent topographic steps that are useful in reconnoit-
ering large areas of pyroclastic flow deposits. These variations are described
more fully in the list that follows:
1. Depositional variations are inconspicuous in most flows but distinct

insome (Fig. 13-10A and B). Lithic fragments may accumulate at the base
of the flow near the volcano and decrease in amount upward, whereas
pumice increases upward (especially if the pumice is very light). In distal
parts of a flow, pumice commonly forms a coarse concentration on top of
each flow or flow pulse (Sparks, 1976). An upper ash layer, formed by settling
of particles from a turbulent cloud above the original flow, is greatly depleted
in crystals relative to the flow itself (Walker, 1972); this subunit, however, is
commonly eroded away.
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2. Compaction and post depositional flow are best shown by the

systematic strains of pumice fragments (Fig. 13-10C). Density of the
deposit increases and porosity decreases with depth, but these changes may
be nonsystematic because of the additional effects of crystallization and
transport of materials by vapor (see 4 below). Degree of compaction is
customarily estimated from the average width-to-height ratio of many
pumice fragments measured at a given locality. Ratios of about 6:1 have
been found to represent completely compacted pumice that was originally
highly vesicular (i.e., had a bulk density of 0.4-0.5 gr/cc) (Sheridan and
Ragan, 1976). Rocks in which flattened pumice lapilli (fiamme) have ratios
greater than 7:1 must have spread laterally under load, which indicates
exceptionally hot or thick deposits (Peterson, 1979). Compacted glass
shards and globules develop lenticular curving forms that drape markedly
over crystals and lit hie fragments, a fabric called eutaxitic (Fig. 13-11).
Pyroclastic flows are compacted approximately parallel to underlying
topography, and thus their compaction fabrics dip moderately to steeply
close to steep buried slopes. The lower parts of unusually hot or thick dep-
osits may flow by extension and simple shear (Fig. 13-12). Magmas rich in
alkalies and halogens have such low viscosities as to weld densely and flow
secondarily even if thin.
3. Zones due to welding (Fig. 13-10C) are intergradational and may vary
considerably in thickness from flow to flow and laterally within one flow
(Smith, 1960). The densely welded zone is often marked by distinct colum-
nar jointing and thus by a ledge or cliff. Densely welded rocks that are not
devitrified are visibly glassy throughout and have distinctly conchoidal
fracture. Pumice fragments have been compressed into obsidian fiamme
with maximum flattening ratios, and rock porosities are less than 10%.
Rocks in the lower third of the partially welded zone have a silky (some-
what porous) groundmass, break with a hackly fracture, and may contain

)LJ Axial eutaxitic fabric in crystal-rich (left) and crystal-poor welded vitric tuffs,
both showing compacted pumice lapilli (fiamme) and a few undeformed lithic lapilli.
some pumice fragments that are still slightly vesicular. Above them is a
complete gradation into more porous but still coherent material with dim-
inishing flattening ratios of pumice fragments. The average flattening ratio
is approximately 2:1 at the boundary between the partially welded zone and
the porous, friable rocks of the nonwelded zone.
4. Zones due to crystallization and vapor effects may be superimposed on
either welded or unwelded flow deposits (Fig. 13-10C). Densely welded rocks
in the devitrified zone become stony in appearance, pale colored, and may
have macroscopic spherulites and lithophysae. Their flattened glass pyro-
clasts consist of radiating (axiolitic) fibrous crystals that may be visible
through a hand lens. Rocks in the zone of vapor-phase alteration are pale
and variably colored from place to place, generally in tints of red or orange.
Most are noticeably porous, often with pumice fragments partially dis-
solved. Openings are typically coated with minute crystals of tridymite,
sanidine, cristobalite, hematite, or iron-rich silicates. T u ff above the zone
of vapor-phase alteration appears unaffected except where gases escaped
through what are now fossil fumaroles and altered the surrounding rocks
(Sheridan, 1970).
5. Cooling units are pyroclastic sequences that accumulated so rapidly as
to compact and cool as a single unit, as shown by a complete gradation of
compaction, welding, devitrification, and vapor-phase alteration. Cooling
units are generally the most obvious mapping units in areas of extensive
pyroclastic flow deposits. Many cooling units consist of more than one
pyroclastic flow, as indicated by repetitions of some or all of the depositional
subunits of Fig. 13-10$ and B , or by a parting surface or an abrupt change
in crystal content, rock color, or weathering characteristics. Flow contacts
in welded or altered parts of cooling units are generally obscure and difficult
to map except locally. Compound cooling units do not have a regular grada-
tion of compaction forms, welding, or alteration, and probably result when
)LJ Evidence of lateral flow in a welded ash-flow deposit: linear shard-fabric, linear
fiamme (commonly pulled apart on minute extension fractures), folds, a minor thrust
fault (ramp), and extension fractures (here, approximately vertical).
some flows were deposited after preceding flows had begun to cool but had
not cooled completely.
5HZRUNHGS\URFODVWLFPDWHULDOV are generally classified as pyroclastic
even though they were transported and deposited by streams, winds, or
waves. They are common as rocks because many pyroclastic deposits are
eroded easily. They can be recognized by the presence of nonpyroclastic
detritus or by sedimentary structures and associated rocks. It may be
helpful to name these rocks water-laid tuff, lacustrine tuff, and so on.
)UDJPHQWDO 5RFNV)RUPHG:LWKRXW([SORVLRQ

Several important kinds of fragmental volcanic rocks are formed by pro-
cesses other than volcanic explosions or continuous gas-blast eruptions.
One genetic group is composed of the hyaloclastites, described in Section
13-3, and other groups are described in this section.
/DKDUV are wet volcanic debris flows that form mainly where blocky lava
or pyroclastic flows enter streams or flow onto snow and ice; where erup-
tions take place through bodies of water; or where pyroclastic deposits are
eroded catastrophically during heavy rains (Williams and McBirney, 1979).
Lahars formed from recently emplaced pyroclastic flows typically travel
much farther than the hot flows. In some extensive accumulations, lahars
extend as far as hundreds of kilometers from their sources (Curtis, 1954,
Lydon, 1968).
Most lahar deposits are very poorly sorted breccias that are intercalated
with volcaniclastic conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone, and that grade
into these rocks laterally as well as vertically. Individual lahars are typically
a few meters to a few tens of meters thick. The layers in a lahar sequence
may be obscure except when viewed from a moderate distance. A sand-mud
matrix is the principal constituent of most lahars, distinguishing them
readily from blocky lava flows. Most of the larger clasts are within pebble
and cobble size-classes, although some are likely to be more than 1 m in
diameter. The larger clasts are typically angular near the source of a flow
and may become subangular tens of kilometers downstream. Sparse
rounded stream cobbles and wood fragments generally become included in
the flows; otherwise, most coarse lahars consist of several textural varieties
of a given volcanic rock, typically andesite.
Deposits of unusually hot lahars may be reddish and contain charred
wood; however, similar characteristics can result where loose pyroclastic
flow deposits have been reworked as cool lahars. Lahar deposits can be
distinguished from pyroclastic flow deposits by several characteristics
already mentioned, and also by their lesser proportion of pumice fragments
and glass shards, and their lack of welding, compaction, vapor alteration, or
ash-flow stratigraphy (Fig. 13-10).
Autobrecciated lava flows can be recognized by local unbrecciated lava at

their core or base. They are also composed of fragments that are texturally
and compositionally alike, except for glassy, reddened, or more vesicular
clasts that may be mixed in from the top or base during movement of the
flow. The upper parts of brecciated flows tend to consist of large blocks
between which are abundant open spaces that may eventually become filled
with tephra, soil, or other sediment. Finely-broken lava tends to be abundant
in the lower parts of blocky flows, where it may be pressed into a coherent
breccia with low porosity. Blocky flows may change laterally to lahars when
they enter streams or flow over snow and ice.
Volcanic block flows and avalanches are chiefly dry debris flows resulting
from the collapse of oversteepened volcanic slopes, as the sides of domes, or
recently formed walls of calderas or craters. Avalanches from hot domes
knock down and sear vegetation, and individual blocks develop radial sets
of columnar joints when they come to rest and cool, often disintegrating
along these fractures (Fig. 13-13). Hot avalanche deposits differ from
exploded pyroclastic flows in that they contain no freshly erupted pumice
or ash (Section 13-5). Blocky deposits around domes become interlayered
with talus deposits, which can be recognized by their monolithologic com-
position, their steeply inclined crude bedding, and the talus-sorting of large
fragments toward their base (Fig. 10-11).
Caldera-collapse breccias, described by Lipman (1976), form by rockfalls
and avalanches from caldera walls during and shortly after collapse of a
volcanic center. The deposits can be recognized by their intercalation with
pyroclastic flow deposits erupted into the caldera during its collapse, and by
containing fragments derived from nearby caldera walls. The deposits are
most abundant near the caldera walls, where they are associated with talus
deposits. They also tend to be most voluminous in the upper parts of the
sequence accumulated within the caldera. These deposits can thus be used
in locating caldera walls that have been eroded away.
Lipman also described megabreccias that contain blocks measuring many
meters across. The blocks occur in the lowest part of intracaldera sequences,
and thus appear to have formed by collapse of the volcanic center rather
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than secondarily from the caldera walls. Megabreccias may help in locating
and interpreting the lower parts of calderas in deeply eroded areas. They
may also lead to recognition of intracaldera pyroclastic flow deposits. Other
features that may help in recognizing calderas have been reviewed by
Christiansen (1979).
9ROFDQLF)HHGHUVDQG 5HODWHG ,QWUXVLRQV

Where a volcano is largely eroded away, the intrusions that fed it can be
used to determine much of the volcano’s history. Age relations are particu-
larly important, and are determined by mapping and examining: (1) cross-
cutting intrusive bodies; (2) inclusions of country rocks and of intrusive
rocks; (3) chilling of one intrusive body against another; (4) explosive shat-
tering of one rock and not another; and (5) metamorphism or alteration of
certain rocks and not others. Exceptional examples of mapping, outcrop
study, and petrography used to unravel histories of deeply eroded volcanic
centers have been described by Richey (1961), Fiske and others (1963), and
Verwoerd (1967). The descriptions in this section pertain mainly to the
upper parts of these systems, and some in Chapter 14 to deeper parts. As
noted in Section 5-3, volcanic intrusions should be treated as lithodemic
units.
Dikes are generally the most abundant minor intrusions in and beneath
volcanoes. Those at shallow depth typically have glassy margins, contain
fairly numerous vesicles, have distinct columnar joints, and have little or
no effects on their wall rocks. Exceptionally shallow intrusions mix with
breccias of volcanic cones or intrude weakly consolidated sediments, in
which they tend to splay out, to become invaded by mobilized clastic detri-
tus, and perhaps to form intimate mixtures (peperite) with fragmental rocks.
Dikes that fed pyroclastic eruptions may themselves be pyroclastic and
become welded with eutaxitic fabrics parallel to their walls. Some tuff-
breccias in lahar sequences are erupted from andesite-breccia feeders
(Lydon, 1968). Hyaloclastite dikes are mentioned in Section 13-3.
Several dikes are commonly emplaced along one original fracture, with
the later dikes intruding either along a contact or along the medial plane of
an earlier dike. In multiple dikes the intrusions are of one kind of magma,
and the internal intrusive contacts may be marked by a chilled margin or a
thin layer with strongly developed flow fabric, vesicles, inclusions, or flow-
differentiated phenocrysts. Columnar joints commonly develop at right
angles to dike walls, providing an additional means of recognizing multiple
dikes or dikes cutting sills or lava flows (Fig. 13-14$). In composite dikes the
separate intrusions have different compositions and are generally apparent.
If intruded in rapid succession, they may show: (1) broadly mixed grada-
tions; (2) mafic magma chilled against silicic magma, and (3) each rock
locally intruded and included by the other.

Dikes are most commonly radial to a volcanic pipe, or they may pass
through it or near it in more or less parallel sets. In some cases they are
tangential or describe concentric arcs or complete rings that dip toward the
volcanic center (cone sheets) or stand more or less vertically (ring dikes).
Cone sheets indicate episodes of forceful elevation caused by a magma body
whose depth can be estimated by the dip of the sheets. Ring dikes are typi-
cally thicker than cone sheets, have mylonitic margins produced during
subsidence of the central block, and are more likely to include explosion
pipes.
6LOOV in volcanic sequences may be distinguished from lava flows by locally
cutting across adjoining layers, by lack of oxidized scoria or breccia at their
base and top, and by coarser grain, less glass, fewer vesicles, and simpler
columnar jointing than in lavas (Fig. 13-14$). Very shallow sills tend to mix
with fragmental deposits. Thick sills are commonly multiple or composite,
and their internal contacts can be recognized as described above for dikes.
Early-formed mafic grains may accumulate in the lower parts of
sills. Because most sills are emplaced by magma lifting overlying strata,
they may be expected in or under sequences of relatively light rocks,
especially under light rocks that lie on heavier rocks along an
unconformity or an extensive low-angle fault. Fiske and others (1963, p.
48) described wides-pread multiple and composite sills intruded preferably
at and near a major unconformity.
Volcanic necks and pipes range from a few meters to several kilometers in
diameter and are typically circular or elliptical in horizontal section, but
may consist of an irregular plexus of dikes. The rocks composing them tend
to be coarser grained, less glassy, less vesicular, and to carry more inclusions
than flows once fed by the neck. Orientation of columnar joints may indicate
approximate depth of exposure (Fig. 13-14%). Pipes and associated dikes of
viscous magma generally have flow layering that is parallel to their contacts
)LJ A. Intrusive sequence, as numbered, for two dikes and a sill, as shown
by cutting relations, chilled margins (closely dotted), and columnar joints. B. Butte
developed on a cylindrical volcanic neck, showing changes in columnar joints with
depth.
and continuous with the outward-fanning flow layers of the flows or domes
they fed (Fig. 13-8).
The upper parts of volcanic necks are commonly mixed with fragmental
rocks that slid or fell from the crater walls, and these materials may become
emplaced to depths of hundreds of meters after powerful continuous gas
discharges have cleared the upper part of the feeding column. Breccia pipes
extending to still greater depths are diatremes, formed at depth by more or
less continuous gas discharges, explosions, and rock bursts caused by
release of confining pressure on the walls of a feeding pipe (Gates, 1959;
McCallum and others, 1975). Diatremes may be recognized by: (1) domi-
nance of country rock fragments; (2) attrition and rounding of the farthest
traveled clasts; (3) rounded and polished crystals; and (4) accretional pellets
consisting of crystal fragments mantled by fine volcanic matrix (Rust, 1937).
The proportions of nonpyroclastic igneous materials in diatremes increase
with depth, and some pipes extend to pluton cores (Gates, 1959; Richey,
1961).
$OWHUDWLRQ in and near volcanic feeders is common and in some
cases intense. Green rocks containing secondary epidote and chlorite and
pale-toned rocks converted to clays and other fine, hydrated silicates are
especially common. These alterations are typically produced by
geothermal systems related to underlying plutons, as described in
Sections 14-8 and 15-7. Except for the effects of vapor, however, volcanic
feeders have limited effects on wall rocks. Basalt magma may fuse a thin
skin of silicic walls and partially melt inclusions, but most magmas discolor
or alter wall rocks for only a meter or so from intrusive contacts.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
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and geochronology of Long Valley caldera, Mono County, California: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 81, p. 725-744.
Ballard, R. D., Holcomb, R. T., and van Andel, T . H., 1979, Th e Galapagos Rift at
86°W: 3. Sheet flows, collapse pits, and lava lakes of the rift valley: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 84, p. 5407-5422.
Carlisle, D., 1963, Pillow breccias and their aquagene tuffs, Quadra Island, British
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Christiansen, R. L., 1979, Cooling units and composite sheets in relation to caldera
structure, p. 29-42 in Chapin, C. E., and Elston, W. E., editors, Ash-flow tuffs:
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Curtis, G. H., 1954, Mode of origin of pyroclastic debris in the Mehrten Formation of
the Sierra Nevada: University of California Publications in Geological Sciences,
v. 29, no. 9, p. 453-502.
Fink. J. H., 1983, Structure and emplacement of a rhyolitic obsidian flow: Little
Glass Mountain, Medicine Lake Highland, northern California: Geological
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Fisher, R. V., and Schmincke, H.-U., 1984, Pyroclastic rocks: New York, Springer-
Verlag, 472 p.
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National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 444,93 p.
Fiske, R. S., and Matsuda, T., 1964, Submarine equivalents of ash flows in the
Tokiwa Formation, Japan: American Journal of Science, v. 262, p. 76-106.
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the Ordovician sediments of NE Snowdonia, N. Wales: Journal of the Geological
Society of London, v. 129, p. 621-641.
Gates, 0., 1959, Breccia pipes in the Shoshone Range, Nevada: Economic Geology,
v. 54, p. 790-815.
Grolier, M. J., and Bingham, J. W., 1978, Geology of parts of Grant, Adams, and
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the surficial lava flows: Stanford University, CA, PhD Dissertation, 321 p.
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logique, v. 39, p. 441-465.
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the Imnaha and Grande Ronde Basalts in the southeast part of the Columbia
Plateau: American Journal of Science, v. 279, p. 737-754.
Korringa, M. K., 1973, Linear vent area of the Soldier Meadow Tuff, an ash-flow
sheet in northwestern Nevada: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, p.
3849-3866.
Lipman, P. W., 1976, Caldera-collapse breccias in the western San Juan Mountains,
Colorado: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 87, p. 1397-1410.
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St. Helens, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1250,844 p.
Lirer, L., Pescatore, T., Booth, B., and Walker, G.P.L., 1973, T w o Plinian pumice-fall
deposits from Somma-Vesuvius, Italy: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v.
84, p. 759-772.
Lockwood, J. P. and Lipman, P. W., 1980, Recovery of datable charcoal beneath
young lavas: lessons from Hawaii: Bulletin Volcanologique, v. 43, p. 609-615.
Lydon, P. A., 1968, Geology and lahars of the Tuscan Formation, northern Califor-
nia, p. 441-475 in Coats, R. R., Hay, R. L., and Anderson, C. A., editors, Studies in
volcanology: a memoir in honor of Howel Williams'. Geological Society of America
Memoir 116.
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nism for subsidence of bedded tuffs in diatremes and related volcanic vents:
Bulletin Volcanologique, v. 39, p. 512-527.
Macdonald, G. A ., 1967, Forms and structures of extrusive basaltic rocks, p. 1-61 in
Hess, H. H., and Poldervaart, A ., editors, Basalts, the Poldervaart treatise on rocks
of basaltic composition, v. 1 : New York, Interscience.
Mahood, G. A., and Drake, R. E., 1982, K-Ar dating young rhyolitic rocks: a case
study of the Sierra La Primavera, Jalisco, Mexico: Geological Society of America
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Moore, J. G., 1965, Petrology of deep-sea basalt near Hawaii: American Journal of
Science, v. 263, p. 40-52.
Moore, J. G., 1967, Base surge in recent volcanic eruptions: Bulletin Volcanologique,
v. 30, p. 337-363.
Moore, J. G., Phillips, R. L., Grigg, R. W., Peterson, D. W., and Swanson, D. A., 1973,
Flow of lava into the sea, 1969-1971, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii: Geological Society
of America Bulletin , v. 84, p. 537-546.
Moore, J. G., and Schilling, J.-G., 1973, Vesicles, water, and sulfur in Reykjanes
Ridge basalts: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 41, p. 105-118.
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Peterson, D. W., 1979, Significance of the flattening of pumice fragments in ash-flow
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to aa, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii: field observations and key factors: Journal of
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Rose, W. I., Jr., 1972, Santiaguito volcanic dome, Guatemala: Geological Society of
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Rust, G. W., 1937, Preliminary notes on explosive volcanism in southeastern M is-
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flows in south-central Washington: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 78,
p. 1385-1422.
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formed by the interaction of silicic magma and water: Bulletin Volcanologique,
v. 41, p. 196-212.
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Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 81, p. 851-868.
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)LHOG 6WXGLHVRI3OXWRQV Ŷ
5RFN8QLWV$JHVDQG'HSWK 5HODWLRQV

The term pluton is used here in a general sense, implying only a subjacent
body large enough to map to scale, typically intrusive but not necessarily
so. Plutons may occur singly but typically are in groups, commonly forming
linear chains of separate plutons or belts of overlapping plutons. The great
batholiths that evidently formed beneath volcanic arcs, such as the Coastal
Batholith of the Peruvian Andes, are composed of hundreds of plutons
(Pitcher, 1978).
A pluton may consist of one rock unit or more than one, and nearby plu-
tons may consist of the same unit(s) or of different ones. The most crucial
step in mapping plutons is coming to know these rock units as exactly as
possible. Ideally, one should be able to recognize a specific unit whether it
recurs in another pluton tens of kilometers away or as a few inclusions in a
dike nearby. Rock units must therefore be based on all primary features
possible: (1) proportions among specific varieties of minerals; (2) all aspects
of texture (Sections 4-4 and 14-2); and (3) kinds, shapes, and sizes of inclu-
sions, layers, and schlieren (Sections 14-3,14-4, and 14-5). Associated dikes,
pipes, veins, and alterations may be helpful if they reflect the unit’s original
magmatic constitution; for example, its content of volatile substances or its
tendency to segregate late-stage melts (Sections 14-6 and 14-7).
These fundamental mapping units have commonly been called plutonic
units and are equivalent to formations in sedimentary rocks or to the litho-
demes of the stratigraphic code (Section 5-3). Lesser units might be local
textural or altered variants that are modifications of a given plutonic unit. A
plutonic unit might thus have a foliated faFLes near certain contacts or a
local sericitic zone due to superimposed alteration.
Plutonic units may be assembled into plutonic suites on the basis of
features or relations indicating a close genetic relation. Chief among these
indicators are geographic association, similar age, and minerals and
mineral reactions indicating chemical affinity. A close genetic relation can
be checked in the laboratory by determinations of numerical ages,
chemical compositions, and isotopic compositions.
Plutonic suites are important because they give a basis for judging the
source and history of magmatic sequences. For example, Shaw and Flood
(1981) were able to classify a series of plutonic suites into S-type suites
(thought to be derived mainly by melting of metasedimentary rocks) and
I-type suites (derived from igneous or metaigneous rocks). This particular
296
Field Studies of Plutons 297
distinction was based largely on isotopic compositions of Sr, 0, and S, but

S-type suites were also indicated by minerals reflecting a high A1 content
(presence of cordierite, Al-rich garnet, or an AOSiO polymorph), and I-type
suites by minerals indicating relatively low A1 content (hornblende with or
without augite). Pitcher (1984) has summarized the characteristics and
geologic environments of these two suites and two others, and has discussed
pertinent literature.
Contacts between plutons and country rocks are usually distinct and read-
ily mapped. Sharp contacts may be irregular due to blocky reentrants,
cuspate forms, or folds, and these features should be mapped to scale, if
possible, or recorded by suitable notes or by some design on the map. Where
the contact is a broad gradation, the line is generally placed at the center of
the gradation or where the plutonic rock forms a more or less continuous
matrix around inclusions of country rock. In some cases two adjoining zones
of mixed rocks can be mapped (Fig. 14-1). Pluton margins are likely to be
broadly schistose or mylonitic in plutons emplaced diapirically when the
body was more than 70% crystallized, and the contact may lie within this
broad zone of ductile shear (Soula, 1982).
Dikes near the contact generally are of great value in interpreting a plu-
ton’s evolution. They may belong to one of these age groups: (1) dikes asso-
ciated with the pluton but cut by it (Fig. 14-2A) these dikes may record the
composition of the first magma emplaced at the observed level; (2) apophyses
connected to the pluton, which, if porphyroaphanitic, will indicate the pro-
portion of crystals to melt at this margin; (3) dikes emplaced when the pluton
was still mobile and probably contained some melt (Fig. 14-25); (4) dikes
without chilled margins, emplaced in the pluton when it was still hot; and
(5) dikes with chilled margins, emplaced in the pluton after it had cooled.
Contacts between rock units within plutons may be obscure where two
rocks are almost identical or where they grade to one another. Such contacts
may be marked by: (1) small differences in color and texture; (2) inclusions,
schlieren, or layers in the younger rock, commonly forming a zone parallel
Zone of dikes Zone of inclusions Migmatite Nebulitic granite

Zone of dikes Zone of inclusions Migmatite
)LJ Diked (left) and migmatitic gradational margins of plutons.

)LJ A. Pluton emplaced into a radial array of somewhat older dikes. B. Dike
broken, intruded, and partly granitized within the rock it intruded.
to the contact; (3) features in the older rock (inclusions, fabric, schlieren,
layers, dikes) cut off by the younger rock; and (4) mild to moderate deforma-
tion of the grains in the older rock, which generally makes the rock darker
than usual. The latter criterion must be used with caution, because magmas
that are largely crystallized may develop a dark schistose or mylonitic con-
tact facies due to ductile shear against an older rock (V. R. Todd, personal
communication, 1984).
Relative ages can be determined from most of the features just listed.
Where none of these features can be found, the younger unit commonly
shows a broad gradation away from the contact, generally involving one or
more of color, grain size, mineral content, numbers of inclusions, and
abundance of schlieren (Moore, 1963, p. 43). Emplacement of the younger
unit will typically remove the original marginal facies of the older, which
will therefore be more uniform than the younger. Age relations are more
difficult to determine where a septum of country rock lies between two
intrusions; however, dikes of the younger may intrude the older, or dikes
associated with the older may be cut off, deformed, or metamorphosed by
the younger (Fig. 14-3).
Relative ages of emplacement are not necessarily resolved by cross-
cutting relations, especially in areas where the country rocks are broadly
metamorphosed. In a case described by Soula (1982), magmatic diapirs
Pluton 1 Septum Pluton 2
)LJ Dikes indicating age relation

between two plutons with a septum
(intervening sheet of country rock).
FXWting upward into nonmagmatic gneiss domes have the same

emplacement age as the domes but are discordant because they were less
viscous than the domes. Viscosity contrasts may affect intrusive relations
in other situations. Viscosity of magma can be predicted to decrease with
decreasing Si02 content, with increasing content of water and halogens, and
with decreasing proportions of suspended crystals and inclusions.
'DWLQJSOXWRQV is done most conveniently and least expensively by K-Ar
methods (Dalrymple and Lanphere, 1969). The data obtained give cooling
rather than emplacement ages, however, which may be a major problem in
areas heated broadly at a later time, or in cases where a pluton is heated by
a younger intrusion. Even for a single pluton, one or two K-Ar dates may
suggest an erroneously simple history. U-Pb dating of zircons from the
Tatoosh pluton in Washington, for example, indicated an emplacement
history lasting for approximately 12 m.y. (Mattinson, 1977).
U-Pb dating of zircons, however, requires large to very large whole-rock
samples and even they may not yield zircons that will give a useful age. The
Rb-Sr method will give a dependable emplacement age as long as the rocks
used are fresh, have all developed from one starting magma, and represent
a large range of rubidium concentrations, which generally increase between
the initial melt and the late residual melts of a pluton. Late potassium-rich
dike rocks, such as aplites, are typically rubidium-rich; however, they need
not necessarily have formed from the pluton in which they occur.
0DSSLQJWKHFRXQWU\URFNV for considerable distances around a pluton
is likely to be at least as informative as studying the pluton itself. This
mapping may provide the only firm evidence of mechanisms of
emplacement (Fig. 14-4) (Nelson and Sylvester, 1971; Pitcher and Berger,
1972). Studies of contact metamorphism will always be of unique value
(Chapter 15). The stratigraphy and detrital content of sedimentary and
volcanic rocks deposited during and after a pluton's emplacement may
provide the only clear evidence of uplift or subsidence of the rocks over the
pluton, of connected volcanic activity, and of the date at which the pluton
was unroofed by erosion (Fiske and others, 1963, pp. 59, 63).
)LJ Diagrammaticmapped relations of plutons andcountry rocks, indicating

(from left to right) diapirism, piecemeal stoping, and cauldron (block) subsidence.
'HSWK RI HPSODFHPHQW may be indicated approximately by

stratigraphic relations and by metamorphic minerals and zones (Section
15-3). Additional kinds of evidence for a shallow level of intrusion are: (1)
porphyroaphanitic marginal fades; (2) porphyroaphanitic dikes and sills
associated with the pluton; (3) inclusions of porphyroaphanitic rocks; (4)
breccia dikes or pipes containing porphyroaphanitic rocks; (5) nearby
volcanic rocks of the same composition as the pluton; (6) miarolytic
cavities; (7) granophyric rocks or patches of granophyre between larger
grains; (8) breccia with open cavities (Tabor, 1963); (9) quartz veins,
sulfides, and hydrothermal alteration widespread in the pluton or in the
surrounding rocks (Section 14-8); and (10) evidence of rapid heating and
cooling, such as patchy contact metamorphism and fine-grained alteration
products (Pitcher, 1978, p. 164). Fiske and others (1963, p. 39-63) described
most of these features in their study of the Tatoosh pluton.
Emplacement at unusually great depth is suggested by the following
relations and features: (1) occurrence in extensive terrains of high-grade
metamorphic rocks; (2) lack of a distinct contact metamorphic aureole,
although migmatites may be more abundant near the pluton; (3) plutons
more or less concordant and commonly phacolithic or broadly folded; (4)
textures commonly allotriomorphic granular; (5) rocks commonly gneissose;
(6) internal foliations and lineations parallel with those of surrounding
country rocks, and (7) quartzofeldspathic rocks with moderately to dis-
tinctly dark feldspar and anhydrous mafic minerals, especially pyroxene
and garnet. Many of these features, however, may be formed at moderate
depths when country-rock temperatures are unusually high and plutons
are synorogenic.
Plutons emplaced at intermediate levels tend to lack the two groups of
features just noted, and otherwise have no unique characters.
)DEULFVRI3OXWRQLF5RFNV
Preferred orientation of mineral grains, inclusions, and miarolytic cavi-
ties can be used to judge flow directions in many plutons. Fabrics may be
foliate, lineate, or both (Fig. 14-5). They are measured and plotted as
de-scribed in Sections 3-5,3-6, and 5-4. Lineations typically are parallel to
( “ lie in”) the plane of foliation, but they may be oblique to it and may have
more than one preferred orientation. Degrees of preferred orientation
(fabric strength) have not been standardized; however, strongly developed
fabrics are easily visible in hand specimens, moderately developed ones
are clear only on outcrop surfaces of 1 sq m or more, and weakly
developed ones require study of much larger outcrops. Oriented inclusions
are often the most obvious indicators of otherwise weak fabrics; however,
inclusions are not always parallel to grain fabrics. Where fabrics are
obscure they can be measured on oriented samples sawed and etched with
HF, which
DFFHQWXDWHV the feldspar forms (Duffield, 1968, p. 1363).

Mineral fabrics can form at any stage of crystallization of a magma. At an
early stage, crystals are so few that they can rotate freely in the melt, thus
producing a fabric that is sometimes preserved by oriented phenocrysts in
the finer groundmass of chilled apophyses or marginal facies (Drever and
Johnston, 1967; Compton, 1960, p. 1398). In nonporphyritic rocks, fabrics
formed at an early stage are characterized by unstrained crystals and by
orientation of only those grains that were distinctly shaped at the
time: elongate prisms of amphibole and tablets or flakes of biotite, plagio-
clase (especially in gabbros), and potassium feldspar (especially in syenites).
Also oriented but not nearly so obviously are stubby prisms (as pyroxenes)
and somewhat elongate plates (as both feldspars in quartzofeldspathic
rocks, and olivine). Quartz grains are equidimensional and thus not
oriented. Feldspar orientations are often the main component of the fabric
and can be recognized in hand specimens or large broken surfaces by
numerous reflections of light from (010) cleavages. Such surfaces are com-
mon because the aligned cleavages determine the freeway — the direction
in which the rock splits most readily.
Early-stage fabrics may be restricted to pluton margins, perhaps due to a
steep gradient of simple shear there, or to flattening of the marginal facies
by diapiric expansion of the pluton’s core. Analyses and experiments by
Willis (1977) indicate that inclusions or crystals free to rotate in a medium
undergoing simple shear should develop degrees of preferred orientation
dependent mainly on the ratio of their greatest to their least dimensions
(Fig. 14-6$). Early-stage fabrics may also form by accumulation of platy or
lineate grains on a substrate, and the grains may be aligned linearly if de-
posited from currents moving against the substrate (Morse, 1969, p. 63).
Morse also noted accentuation of these fabrics near inclusions. Elongate
)LJ Strongly developed fabrics in seriate rocks with the same mineral composition.
A. Fabric planar with respect to all elongate and tabular components. B. Fabric linear
with respect to all elongate components. C. Fabric linear with respect to elongate compo-
nents (here, hornblende prisms and some inclusions) and planar with respect to tabular
components (as tabular feldspar).
A B
)LJ A. Fabric typical of stage when inclusions (left) and crystals (right) can rotate
more or less freely. Note that fabrics of some inclusions are not parallel to pluton fabrics.
B. Strong fabric typical of late magmatic stage, with schistose zones parallel to inclusions
(left) and sample showing gradation from moderately to highly deformed (mylonitic) rock.
Mylonitic fabrics are shown at hand-lens magnification in Fig. 4-19G and H.
minerals oriented perpendicular to an interface suggest crystallization in

exceptionally fluid magma (see comb layers, Section 14-4).
At a late magmatic stage, crystals typically bear on one another and flow
of the magma will result in deformation of mineral grains. Ductile minerals
such as quartz and olivine become flattened or elongated, often recrystalliz-
ing into fine-grained aggregates. Relatively strong minerals, such as feld-
spars, hornblende, and pyroxene, may rotate against ductile grains or may
bend, break, or be pulled apart (Fig. 4-15$). Biotite and orthopyroxene may
be kinked and recrystallized. Crucial for recognizing late-magmatic as
opposed to postmagmatic flow are fillings of late-stage magmatic minerals
between pulled-apart fragments of grains or in fractures opened during
extension (Fig. 4-15B). Where deformation is unusually strong, the texture
may become mylonitic (Fig. 14-6%). Late-stage fabrics tend to pass with
little if any deflection into inclusions and wall rocks that were as ductile as
the magma at that stage (Fig. 14-7).
Fabrics formed when the magma is entirely crystallized but still hot are
similar to those just described except that the fabric will also pass through
)LJ Pluton fabric passing into

inclusions and country rocks without
deflection.
Field Studies o f Plutons 303
late-stage dikes, veins, and segregations. It will invariably pass through

inclusions and pluton contacts and, when mapped, may appear as an over-
print of parallel planes or lines over the entire pluton and its surroundings.
Such fabrics can be distinguished from later regional fabrics by being re-
stricted to the pluton and its aureole.
It must be emphasized that one pluton may have fabrics formed during
all of these stages, so that criteria must be sought repeatedly and consist-
ently from one place to the next. Age relations with respect to dikes emplaced
at various times are especially valuable. Pitcher and Berger (1972) described
studies of granitic rocks having late-stage to postmagmatic fabrics.
,QFOXVLRQVLQ3OXWRQV
The term inclusion is used here for any kind of rock body enclosed in
plutonic rock, regardless of the body’s origin. Most inclusions have the
aspect of fragments or lumps of rock, but they may grade to less distinct
clots or streaks called schlieren (Section 14-5). Typical sizes or abundances
of inclusions may characterize certain plutonic units (Moore, 1963, p. 118).
Specific kinds of inclusions of preexisting rocks (xenoliths) often provide
clues to an intrusion’s history; for example, metasedimentary xenoliths
identifiable with formations in the surrounding country rocks can be used
to measure net displacements since they were incorporated.
Igneous and meta-igneous xenoliths can sometimes be matched to older
plutons, dikes, or volcanic sequences. Others are cognate xenoliths, which
are composed of rocks formed during the intrusive history of the pluton
that contains them. Cognate xenoliths can sometimes be correlated with
earlier marginal or dike facies, and these correlations generally require
study of the entire pluton and its surroundings (Fiske and others, 1963).
Cognate xenoliths may also form if magma related to a pluton intrudes the
pluton when the latter is viscous enough to fracture yet is hot or fluid
enough to modify and incorporate the new magma (Fig. 14-25). Such mix-
tures sometimes result in inclusion swarms that can be walked to places
where a dike is still more or less intact. Cognate inclusion swarms may also
form by accumulation of inclusions at certain levels or against solidified
faces within a pluton.
Dark, igneous-appearing inclusions that cannot be matched to marginal
or internal sources may be so widespread and evenly distributed as to sug-
gest that they came up with the pluton magma from deeper sources (Moore,
1963, p. 120). Such inclusions may be restites, bodies residual to the partial
melting of rocks at depth. They might also be cognate xenoliths of mafic
igneous rocks emplaced at depth ahead of the ascending pluton. The term
autolith (an inclusion formed from the magma that contained it) has also
been applied to dark, granular inclusions in the belief that they have some-
how crystallized as mafic segregations. A case that seems reasonably valid
is that of orbicules, which are spherical or ellipsoidal bodies built up of one

or more shells that commonly have a core or a radial fabric, suggesting
growth outward from a core.
Finally, skialiths are inclusions remaining after the surrounding rock has
been converted metasomatically to plutonic rock. They may have either
sharp or gradational margins, and are suggested where country rock units
can be projected through the plutonic body (Fig. 15-3%) (however, see
Pitcher, 1970).
Inclusions are typically altered during and after their incorporation, in
many cases greatly so. Quartzofeldspathic xenoliths in mafic and interme-
diate rocks may be partially melted and thereby associated with patches or
schlieren of late-stage granophyre (Wager and Brown, 1967, p. 124). Silicic
and intermediate magmas commonly react with rocks included in them,
and Fig. 14-8 illustrates some common protoliths and reaction products.
Thoroughly altered inclusions imply a long period of immersion or reaction
with volatile-rich facies of the magma. Contact zones sometimes show all
stages in the alteration of included rocks.
Characteristics of inclusions that are useful in systematic studies are:
kinds of rock and their abundances; typical size and size-range; kinds and
degrees of alteration; sharpness or fuzziness of borders; angularity or
roundness, and degree to which borders are smooth or irregular. Additional
characteristics that can be used in conjunction with host-rock fabric to
Calcite, olivine
— Calcite,
And rad ite diopside
Hornblende,
feit sphene and
Biotiti Hornblende
-Hornblende piagioclase
)LJ Mineral and texture zones in and around inclusions that have reacted with
silicic and intermediate magmas. All are about fist size. A. Limestone in granodiorite.
B. Quartzite in granodiorite. C. Peridotite in granodiorite. D. Claystone in granite.
E. Limestone in potassic granite. F. Epidote nodule (from metabasaltic or meta-andesitic
tuff-breccia) in granodiorite. G. Gabbro in granodiorite. H. Dolomite in granodiorite.
determine the degree of late-stage deformation are: (1) degree of flattening

or elongation per kind of rock, which should vary with ductility; (2) orienta-
tion of inclusion fabric and its relation to inclusion form; and (3) degree of
preferred orientation of inclusions. Pitcher and Berger (1972) described a
study that utilized data from inclusions, and Didier (1973) reviewed the
nature of inclusions and their relations in a number of plutons.
/D\HULQJ %DQGLQJ LQ 3OXWRQV

Compositional and textural layers (bands) in silicic plutons have generally
been called schlieren, whereas all planar features in mafic plutons, no mat-
ter how streaked or indistinct, have commonly been called layering (or
banding). A consistent geometrical nomenclature should probably be used
in the field, irrespective of how or where the features may have formed, and
it is recommended that the term layers (or bands) be used for distinct bodies
that are typically tabular or lenticular, but may have other shapes (Fig. 9-1),
and that the term schlieren be used for discontinuous, streaky, or vague
bodies (Section 14-5).
A terminology for layered plutonic rocks was proposed by Jackson (1967,
p. 22) for supposedly cumulate rocks; however, it is essentially descriptive
and thus can be used for layered rocks that are not necessarily cumulates. A
layer is a sheetlike body of more or less uniform character, distinguishable
by its proportions of minerals or by mineral or grain-size proportions that
change gradually (as in graded layers). Laminae are the thinnest recogniza-
ble layers (generally less than 2 cm thick). A horizon (a single surface) is a
phase contact when set at an abrupt appearance or disappearance of a
(cumulus) mineral; it is a ratio contact when marked by the proportion of
two (cumulus) minerals, or a form contact when marked by a sharp change
in typical size or shape of a (cumulus) mineral. Layers forming cyclic sets,
such as the harzburgite-orthopyroxenite-wehrlite sequence described by
Irvine and Smith (1967), may be particularly informative.
The most-studied layers are those with sedimentary aspects such as
cross-bedding, grading by grain size or mineral proportions, cut-and-fill
structures, channels filled with lenticular layers, angular unconformities,
and a variety of soft-sediment folds, flame structures (Parsons, 1979), faults,
and slump-breccias, the latter reworked into size-graded conglomerate lay-
ers in some intrusions (Irvine, 1974, p. 63). These structures are not illus-
trated here because of their similarity to those shown in Chapters 9 and 10;
many photographs of them have been published (Wager and Brown, 1967;
Morse, 1969, Irvine, 1974; McBirney and Noyes, 1979).
Although many layer structures suggest sinking, transport, and accum-
ulation of crystals in melts, they have also been interpreted in other ways.
McBirney and Noyes (1979) suggested that the Skaergaard intrusion became
layered due to gravitational segregation of melt combined with oscillatory
crystal nucleation and growth. Komar (1972) described grain-sorting and

concentration caused by mechanical interactions among grains being car-
ried in melt, or by forces resulting from a rapid lateral variation in the rate
of simple shear, as near a contact. Jahns and Tuttle (1963) interpreted
layered pegmatite-aplite bodies as due to multiple intrusion followed by
segregation during crystallization (Section 14-6). Nonuniform magma pro-
duced by local contamination or by partial mixing of two magmas may
become swirled and drawn out into layered patterns during subsequent
flow. Thayer (1963) described flow layering interpreted to have formed dur-
ing emplacement of largely crystallized gabbro-peridotite bodies, the evi-
dence being: (1) disrupted chromitite layers thought to be of cumulate
origin; (2) lenticularity of the gabbro and peridotite layers; (3) interlayering,
in any order, of widely different monomineralic and polymineralic rocks; (4)
xenomorphic (allotriomorphic) textures; (5) foliation and lineation discor-
dant to layers; (6) thickening of layers at fold hinges, and (7) widespread
undeformed dikes of gabbro, including pegmatitic gabbro.
Comb layers consist of elongate crystals of plagioclase, pyroxene, or
hornblende that appear to have grown outward into a body of magma, either
from a pluton wall or from an inclusion (Fig. 14-9A). These structures may
be of great value in interpreting processes in plutons, for Moore and Lock-
wood (1973) found that the crystals tend to branch inward and to bend
upward, as though affected by fluids flowing upward along the contact
(Fig. 14-9%). They interpreted the fluids to be volatiles that were channeled
along inverted troughs in overhanging walls of plutons, and thus comb
layers may help in identifying volatile-rich parts of plutons. Distinct comb
layering has been described only from intermediate to moderately mafic
plutons. Some mafic gabbroic intrusions, however, have thick layers or
bodies of border-zone rocks with elongate plagioclase or olivine crystals
oriented approximately perpendicular to contacts (Wager and Brown, 1967).
Layering may also form when plutons that are largely crystallized are
j H
ivLT** :
1 III
^Contact , 10 cm , ^ Contact , 1 cm ,
)LJ A. Comb layers at contact of a pluton and forming an inclusion (orbicule) of

comb-layered rock. B. Part of a single comb layer, showing elongate plagioclase crystals
branching and curving upward and away from the contact.
injected by another magma that enters, sill-like, along foliation planes, or

along parallel extension fractures. The resulting layering can be identified
where the sills break across septa of the older rock or where the younger
rock includes fragments of the older. In addition, the younger rock will
commonly be finer grained than the older and often will lack the fabric of
the older rock. Pitcher and Berger (1972, p. 215) described banding (layering)
of this kind associated with extensive planar swarms of xenoliths in the
main granitic pluton of Donegal, Ireland.
Late-stage layering may also form where residual melt is segregated into
subparallel fractures, or where transient components, as K + ion, are carried
by fluids to fractures, to foliation partings, or to ductile faults. This kind of
layering may be recognized where fractures or faults locally cross, or by the
distribution of specific minerals, such as potassium feldspar (Pitcher and
Berger, 1972, p. 215). Segregated layers may also show locally diffuse con-
tacts, partially feldspathized inclusions, or other early-stage relics. Finally,
when all the melt has crystallized but the rock is still hot, it is susceptible to
all the processes of differentiation that produce layering in metamorphic
rocks, as described in Section 15-5.
Because all late-stage processes may be guided by earlier mineral fabrics
or layer structures, several kinds of layers may be parallel, and evidence of
their ages must be sorted out with care.
6FKOLHUHQDQG 5HODWHG6WUXFWXUHV
Schlieren (literally, streaks) are compositional or textural domains that
are typically lenticular, planar, or elongate but may be more or less equidi-
mensional. They differ from inclusions in being less distinctly circum-
scribed, especially at their ends, and from compositional layers in being less
tabular, and less likely to compose sets. We know little for certain about the
origin of schlieren, but they are useful physical characteristics of certain
plutons or pluton facies, and can be classified in a descriptive way. Some
schlieren grade into layered rocks or inclusion swarms, and in the latter
case appear to have formed by partial assimilation of the inclusions (Fig.
14-1$). In other cases, schlieren are deflected around inclusions as
sinuous flow streaks (Fig. 14-10%).
Schlieren may be classified into those darker and those lighter than their
host rock. The two may occur separately or together. Light schlieren, which
are far less obvious than dark ones, are commonly aplitic (Didier, 1973), but
they may be as coarse or coarser than their host, in some cases being peg-
matitic. Light schlieren that form sheets and patches in miarolytic facies
may be late-stage segregations, akin to pegmatite and aplite. Dark schlieren
in granitic rocks are commonly thin sheets and wisps that cut across one
another, in some cases so systematically as to suggest regular late-stage
displacements or cross-bedding (Fig. 14-10C). Others, however, have bizarre
shapes, appearing like parachutes, medusas, or segmented funnels

(Fig. 14-10'). Coarsely dioritic (pegmatitic) or granophyric schlieren
in the border zones or upper parts of gabbro intrusions may result
from partial assimilation of quartzofeldspathic or perhaps
micaceous xenoliths. Widespread streakiness and lenticular layers in
otherwise layered gabbros suggest late-stage flow or solid-state
deformation (Davies, 1971, p. 19).
Didier (1973) pointed out that schlieren occur throughout migmatitic
plutons, whereas they are usually restricted to the marginal zones of uni-
form plutons. Schlieren zones deep within uniform plutons may thus mark
internal intrusive contacts between succeeding plutonic units. Regardless
of their origin, schlieren are valuable indicators of late deformation; for
example, by showing folds or faults. It is therefore desirable to fix schlieren
in time sequence as much as possible. Their relations to inclusions and to
the various kinds of fabrics described in Section 14-2 may be helpful in
doing this.
3HJPDWLWHDQG2WKHU9RODWLOHUHODWHG 5RFNV

Concentration and action of volatiles in plutons are suggested by pegmat-
ite, aplite, miarolytic rock, orbicular rock, plumose structure, intruded
breccia, and lamprophyre. Additional effects of hydrothermal fluids are
described in Section 14-8. A principal value in mapping these variants is
that of discovering which parts of a pluton were relatively rich in volatiles.
Mapping should also include a large area around the pluton in order to
determine whether th£ volatile-rich materials are indigenous to the pluton
Fig. 14-10. Schlieren in plutons. See text for descriptions.

or whether they came from elsewhere, perhaps from another pluton. The
suggestions for mapping zones of hydrothermal alteration (Section 15-7)
and migmatites (Section 15-6) may be helpful.
Pegmatite is generally the most obvious of the volatile-related rocks. The
influence of volatiles in its crystallization is indicated by large grain-size,
euhedral feldspar, pronounced mineral segregation, alterations of early-
formed minerals to minerals containing volatile components, dissolution of
minerals, and filling of vugs by euhedral late-stage minerals. Pegmatite in
gabbro typically forms dikes, lenses, or schlieren of coarse piagioclase and
pyroxene, of piagioclase and hornblende, or of piagioclase, pyroxene, and
fayalitic olivine, all with fine-grained quartz or granophyre. These rocks
typically occur in the upper halves of differentiated sheets, or in their mar-
ginal facies, in the latter case commonly associated with partially assimi-
lated quartzofeldspathic inclusions. Pegmatite bodies in peridotites
described by Moores (1969) have margins of coarse pyroxene, with plagio-
clase locally in their cores. Pegmatites of intermediate and silicic plutons
B ,-pi Upper uniform facies
CORE ' / X .
)LJ A. Vertical face exposing gently inclining pegmatite-aplite dike with vertical
spiracles that cut across the dike’s aplitic margin (see detail, lower left) and are headed by
zoned pods of pegmatite (detail, lower right). From photographs by R. A. Osiecki (and see
Osiecki, 1981). B. Diagrammatic vertical section through granite pegmatite dike with
zoned lower facies. The aligned white crystals of the shell are K-feldspar euhedra, gra-
phically intergrown with quartz where they are stippled. The black elongate crystals in
the lower shell are beryl, topaz, or minerals containing Li or P. After Uebel (1977, p. 92).
©E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, copied with permission.
typically form tabular dikes or lens-shaped pods. Other structural varieties

range in size and complexity from single large potassium-feldspar crystals
laced with graphically intergrown quartz (Osiecki, 1981) to compositionally
zoned dikes and pods many meters across. In exceptional cases, structural
relations of zoned pods may indicate intrusion of pegmatite magma (Fig.
14-1$).
Mineral zones in most of the zoned granitic pegmatites described by
Cameron and others (1949) are, from outside inward: (1) plagioclase-
quartz-muscovite; (2) plagioclase-quartz; (3) quartz-perthite-plagioclase,
with or without muscovite and (or) biotite; (4) perthite-quartz; and (5)
quartz. Crystals tend to be oriented perpendicular to contacts. Grain size
and degree of segregation tend to increase inward. The zones in some peg-
matites appear symmetrical in most horizontal sections. Many are asym-
metric in vertical sections, in some cases strongly so (Fig. 14-11%). Sodium,
chiefly in albite, tends to be concentrated in the lower parts of pegmatites,
whereas potassium, chiefly in potassium feldspar, tends to be concentrated
in the upper parts and may form micas from aluminosilicates in the sur-
rounding rocks. Vugs dissolved by volatiles cut across earlier-stage minerals
or zone boundaries and have radial fabrics of volatile-deposited minerals.
$SOLWH is common in silicic and intermediate plutons and is occasionally
associated with gabbro. It commonly grades texturally to fine pegmatite
and may be porphyritic, carrying potassium-feldspar phenocrysts in a
groundmass that consists mainly of albite and quartz. Some aplite forms
separate bodies, but most occurs with pegmatite in composite dikes or pods.
Aplite is usually marginal or central to pegmatite, and textural relations at
the contacts may suggest continuity of crystallization (Fig. 14-12A). Layered
bodies may form by multiple injection of sheets that are differentiated into
albite-quartz aplite below and potassium-feldspar-quartz pegmatite above
(Fig. 14-12%). Compositional layering in the aplitic parts of large pegmatite-
aplite bodies is typically thin (1-10 mm) and marked by concentration of
garnet, tourmaline, or muscovite (Jahns and Tuttle, 1963). Aplites in com-
posite bodies may also show faint schlieren that are locally contorted near
projections of wall rocks or large crystals and are probably primary flow
structures (Jahns and Tuttle, 1963, p. 82).
According to the model of Jahns and Burnham (1969), aplite is typically
produced by pressure-quenching of a residual melt, caused either by sudden
opening of fractures or by rapid ascent of largely crystallized granitic
magma. A volatile-rich phase released during the quenching then crystal-
lizes to pegmatite, or the volatiles may form pegmatite where they stream
along fractures. The total amount of aplite and pegmatite thus gives a mea-
sure of the amount of residual melt extracted from the pluton, and the ratio
of aplite to pegmatite indicates the concentration of volatiles in the separated
residual melt.
Miarolytic structures are most common in silicic plutons. They may be

vesicles formed by volatiles exsolved from melt or may be dissolution cavi-
ties formed by volatiles. Vesicles tend to be pressed around already crystal-
lized grains, whereas grains are cut off at the margins of dissolution cavities.
Euhedral grains may line or fill both kinds of cavities, and they are presum-
ably deposited from the volatiles. The filling minerals are typically quartz,
alkali feldspars, carbonates, epidote, or chlorite. Unfilled miarolytic cavities
are not particularly obvious in hand specimens unless late-stage alteration
forms colored halos around them.
Orbicular rock and the comb-layered marginal facies often associated with
it are suggestive of transport in a volatile medium, as already mentioned
(Section 14-4).
Plumose structureconsists of groups of elongate crystals which radiate
from centers that may be closely or widely spaced. The crystals are com-
monly micas or tourmaline in silicic rocks and epidote, chlorite, or amphi-
bole in intermediate to mafic rocks. Because the structure is most common
in pegmatite, it probably results generally from the presence of volatiles.
Intrusions of breccia or conglomerate (pebble dikes) similarly suggest
deposition from a fluid phase, for the fragments may be moved large distan-
ces from their sources, may be rounded, or may be faceted and pitted as
though sand-blasted. Although these rocks are suggestive of explosive
activity associated with volcanoes (Section 13-7) or with the uppermost
parts of plutons (Section 14-8), Wright and Bowes (1968) and Pitcher and
)LJ A. Two aplite-pegmatite dikes, the marginal pegmatite of the upper one con-
sisting largely of elongate K-feldspar crystals that suggest inward growth, and the lower
with an irregular aplite margin (stippled) that grades inward to coarse pegmatite. B.
Four parallel dikes of pegmatite and layered aplite (stippled) composing a multiple intru-
sion. The base of each successive dike is indicated by partial screens of country rock
(dark).
Berger (1972, p. 156) documented and discussed cases that appear plutonic.
Lamprophyre is usually emplaced during or just after the late magmatic
stage of a pluton and is thought to be formed when basaltic or basanitic
magma mixes with the pluton’s residual melts or volatiles (Rock, 1977). A
point in evidence is the close age relation between lamprophyre and aplite
or pegmatite (Fig. 14-13). Indications of volatiles in lamprophyres include:
high degree of alteration; euhedral forms of most minerals; and, in alkaline
varieties, nodules (ocelli) of feldspathoids or carbonates.
In addition, lamprophyre often occurs with small stocks and thick dikes
of rocks characterized by long prisms of early, euhedral hornblende. These
gabbroic and dioritic rocks are commonly associated further with granular
diorite and may grade to hornblendite and hornblende-pyroxene-olivine
rocks. Many of the dark rocks are cut by networks of feldspathic veins that
intersect at pegmatitic nodes. Abundant volatiles are also suggested by bio-
titic facies and by hydrothermal alteration, especially to chlorite. This
association of dark hornblendic rocks is called the appinite suite in Britain,
and has been described and reviewed by Pitcher and Berger (1972, p.
143-168).
)UDFWXUH6\VWHPVLQ 3OXWRQV
Fractures form at a late magmatic or postmagmatic stage in most plutons
and are commonly filled by fine-grained phaneritic rocks similar in compo-
sition to those of the pluton, or by one or more of the volatile-related rocks
described in Section 14-6. A close age-relation to the pluton is indicated
where these minor bodies: (1) form hybrids with the pluton; (2) occur as
fragments in the pluton (Fig. 14-2%); (3) are locally intruded by the pluton;
(4) are offset along faults that are healed within the pluton (Fig. 14-14A); (5)
have a fabric continuous with that of the pluton (Fig. 14-14%); or (6) are
overgrown by megacrysts that are also in the pluton (Fig. 14-14C). Late
)LJ Lamprophyre dike (dark) in

granodiorite, with a pegmatite dike along
? the lower contact. Ptygmatic and pinch-and-
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<=UU>9U$?4@Q 5 0UC1U% KU(3'&
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swell shapes of aplite dikes suggest emplace-
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ment when the lamprophyre was still plastic.
magmatic fractures that are not filled with magma can be recognized by
coatings or drusy fillings of late magmatic to postmagmatic minerals:
quartz, potassium feldspar, albite, micas, epidote, actinolite, chlorite, mag-
netite, hematite, sulfides, carbonates, and so on (Section 14-8). These
mineralized fractures may cut late dikes as well as the pluton, thus affording
evidence of the late magmatic age of the dikes (Neff, 1973).
Fractures can often be classified genetically where they cut small-scale
structures of a pluton. Most fractures are due to simple extension, as
expressed by drusy fillings or by dilation of features cut by dikes (Fig. 14-
14D). Faults and zones of simple shear are indicated by displaced crystals,
inclusions, layers, dikes, schlieren, and so on, and locally by thin sheets of
schistose or mylonitic rock that may include folds or other lineations sug-
gesting a direction of displacement (Fig. 12-5). Dikes offset by faults soon
after emplacement may show distinctly plastic strains (Fig. 14-14(), or may
have sigmoidal fabrics in cross sections aligned parallel to the direction of
simple shear (Fig. 14-14F).
The different kinds of fractures and fracture fillings should be mapped
with different symbols as much as practicable; for example, by a small
letter placed by a strike-and-dip symbol, or by a color. Except for large or
otherwise unusual dikes, each symbol generally is used for localities where
several dikes or fractures are parallel or nearly so.
Maps of fracture systems and rock fabric may be interpreted in light of
the mapped shape of the pluton or one of its local phases. Steeply inclined

)LJ Geometric relations between dikes and the plutons they intruded. See text for
interpretations. Fis after Moore (1963, p. 126) and is of a dike approximately 1 in. across.
314 Geology In the Field
dike swarms in elongate groups of plutons commonly strike parallel to

the group (Pitcher, 1978, p. 171). Steeply inclined dilative fractures
perpendicular to foliation are often radial in more or less circular
plutons and suggest upward bulging, perhaps due to magma intruded at
a late stage (Fig. 14- 15A). Dilative fractures roughly perpendicular to
linear fabrics suggest extensional strain in the solid or near-solid
state. For example, radial fractures perpendicular to horizontal
lineations in the outer parts of a pluton suggest diapiric extension
when the marginal facies was nearly solid (Fig. 14-155). The sense
of displacement on faults may correlate with one of these patterns (Fig.
14-15A or may be younger and express some other strain system.
Balk (1937, p. 104) described systematic marginal reverse faults
(“ upthrusts” ) that indicate outward bulging of a pluton, and Bateman
and others (1963, p. 25) used the gash-fracture shapes of dikes at
pluton contacts to interpret the direction of movement along the contact
(Fig. 14-15C). In an unusually complete analysis, upward dilation of the
near-pluton edges of sills intruded from an early core of the Tatoosh
pluton could be related to doming of the country rocks (Fiske and others,
1963).
)UDFWXUHV LQ YRODWLOHULFK FXSRODV Complete three-
dimensional data on fracturing in the uppermost parts of volatile-
rich stocks have come from detailed surface and underground studies
of copper-bearing and molybdenum-bearing plutons, reviewed by
Beane and Titley (1981) and White and others (1981) . Myriads of
quartz-sulfide veins in these bodies suggest hydrofracturing due to
expansion of volatiles exsolved from melt at a late stage of crystallization
(Burnham, 1979). These fractures dip steeply in a variety of sets,
indicating outward expansion of the pluton under a vapor pressure
close to load pressure. In regions broadly under stress, the
B C
)LJ A. Simplified map showing radial fractures, foliate fabric, and reverse faults
suggesting upward bulging of an underlying core. B. Map of pluton with lineated margi-
nal zone broken along fractures suggesting extension parallel to the margin. C. Vertical
cross section through pluton margin and country rocks that have steeply inclined bed-
ding. Orientation of the dikes and their systemmatic dilation indicate upward movement
of the magma relative to the walls.
IUDFtures may have a preferred strike direction (Rehrig and Heidrick,

1972). The characteristics of the early veins are: (1) small size (generally
less than cm thick and 1 m or so long); (2) irregular shape and
generally nonparallel walls; (3) laterally discontinuous or segmented
forms; (4) lateral gradation to altered mineral grains; (5) lack of internal
symmetry of mineral fillings;(6) lack of distinct external halos; and (7)
association with high-temperature alteration minerals (typically
potassium feldspar or biotite).
The same plutons tend to be broken by a somewhat younger set of near-
horizontal fractures that carry simple tabular veins as thick as a meter or
so, a relation indicating extension parallel to the vertical axis of the stock.
Other late-formed sets may be radial with respect to some point within a
pluton. At El Salvador, Chile, fractures of a radial array were intruded by
latite porphyry, and pebble dikes formed when the latite magma intruded
rock saturated with groundwater at depths of a few kilometers (Gustafson
and Hunt, 1975, p. 875).
$XWRPHWDPRUSKLVPRI3OXWRQV
Most plutons are altered to some degree by magmatic volatiles during
late stages of crystallization. Many are also altered by geothermally circu-
lated groundwater. Detailed studies of copper-bearing and molybdenum-
bearing shallow plutons have provided a general model for these auto-meta-
morphic processes (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Burnham, 1979; White and
others, 1981). Expansion of magmatic volatiles exsolved at an early stage
result in either miarolytic cavities or, in more quenched facies, a myriad of
small irregular fractures, as described above under Fractures in volatile-rich
cupolas. Alterations at this stage produce minerals that are stable at high
temperatures and in the presence of abundant volatiles: quartz, potassium
feldspar, biotite, sodic plagioclase, and sulfides in silicic rocks, and quartz,
biotite, sodic plagioclase, and sulfides in intermediate ones. Mafic rocks
have not been studied in these associations but would probably be altered to
hornblende (possibly actinolite), epidote, sodic plagioclase, quartz, biotite,
and sulfides. In rocks of silicic composition, phenocrysts are easily recog-
nizable and groundmass is completely reconstituted to a sugary (aplitic)
mixture consisting mainly of quartz and alkali feldspar. Mapped as an
alteration zone, these rocks lie completely within the pluton or extend for
short distances beyond it. High volatile pressure at this stage keeps
groundwater out of the pluton, but geothermal circulation may form a
hydrothermal aureole outside it (Section 15-7).
As a pluton cools, the model predicts further fracturing, growth of larger
and more tabular veins, and alteration of potassium feldspar and plagioclase
to sericite, typically with quartz and sulfides and in some cases tourmaline,
topaz, or fluorite. Igneous textures in these rocks are fuzzy to obscure due to
the abundant sericite, which defines a broad zone of sericitic alteration.
Meteoric groundwater may form a major share of the altering fluid at this
stage and may become dominant in still later, lower temperature alterations
that produce clays and a variety of other fine-grained minerals (pyrophyllite,
diaspore, alunite, etc.). The latter rocks are pale, locally vuggy, and generally
without relict igneous texture. They are generally mapped as a zone of
argillic alteration.
The close spatial relation between the concentric alteration zones and a
given pluton, and the characteristics of the fractures and veins (Section
14-7), are the basic evidence for autometamorphism.
In plutons that are not so strongly nor so pervasively altered, or where
alterations are of other kinds, one or more of the following relations may
suggest autometamorphism by magmatic volatiles: (1) alteration is con-
fined to the pluton, perhaps not even affecting its marginal facies; (2) if
alteration is not confined to the pluton, it is most intense within it and is
concentric around it; (3) in composite plutons or closely grouped intrusions,
each intruded body has its associated alterations, a relation proven where
younger intrusions cut across veins or alteration zones of an older intrusion
(Gustafson and Hunt, 1975, p. 881); (4) alteration is widespread within any
one intrusive unit, is selective of the minerals altered, and is unrelated to
fracture-controlled alterations of regional extent; (5) alteration is confined
to, or centered around, miarolytic or pegmatite-bearing units or facies; (6)
alteration is concentrated in areas of small irregular veins that appear to
have formed at a late magmatic stage (Section 14-7, last part); and (7) altera-
tion minerals are those requiring temperatures higher than 550° to 600°C
and the presence of abundant volatiles.
Relations suggestingalteration of a pluton by geothermal (largely meteo-
ric) fluids are: (1) alteration is in wall rocks as well as in the pluton, and is
especially intense in the outer and upper parts of the pluton; (2) alteration is
concentrated near fracture systems; (3) minerals are dominantly OH-
bearing species and are commonly OH-rich (chlorite, sericite, clays, etc.);
and (4) successive alterations are overprinted on earlier ones (because
geothermal circulation is likely to continue throughout the cooling history
of the pluton).
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Balk, R., 1937, Structural behavior of igneous rocks: Geological Society of America
Memoir 5, 177 p.
Bateman, P. C., Clark, L. D., Huber, N. K., Moore, J. G., and Rinehart, C. D., 1963,
The Sierra Nevada batholith; a synthesis of recent work across the central part: U.S.
Geological Survey Professional Paper 414-D, 46 p.
Beane, R. E., and Titley, S. R., 1981, Porphyry copper deposits, Part II: hydrothermal
alteration and mineralization, p. 235-269 in Skinner, B. J., editor, Seventy-fifth
anniversary volume: El Paso, Economic Geology Publishing Co.
Burnham, C. W., 1979, Magmas and hydrothermal fluids, p. 71-136 in Barnes, H. L.,
editor, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits, 2nd edition: New York, John
W iley *& Sons.
Cameron, E. N., Jahns, R. H., McNair, A. H., and Page, L. R., 1949, Internal structure
of granitic pegmatites'. Economic Geology Monograph 2,115 p.
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techniques, and applications to geochronology: San Francisco, W. H. Freeman Co.,
258 p.
Davies, H. L., 1971, Peridotite-gabbro-basalt complex in eastern Papua: an overthrust
plate of oceanic mantle and crust: Bureau of Mineral Resources (Australia),
Geology and Geophysics Bulletin 128, 48 p.
Didier, J., 1973, Granites and their enclaves; the bearing of enclaves on the origin of
granites: Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 393 p.
Drever, H. I., and Johnston, R., 1967, Picritic minor intrusions, p. 71-82 in Wyllie, P.
J., editor, Ultramafic and related rocks: New York, John W iley & Sons.
Duffield, W. A., 1968, The petrology and structure of the El Pinal tonalite, Baja
California, Mexico: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 79, p. 1351-1374.
Fiske, R. S., Hopson, C. A., and Waters, A. C., 1963, Geology of Mount Ranier
National Park, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 444,93 p.
Gustafson, L. B., and Hunt, J. P., 1975, The porphyry copper deposit at El Salvador,
Chile: Economic Geology, v. 70, p. 857-912.
Irvine, T. N., 1974, Petrology of the Duke Island ultramafic complex, southeastern
Alaska: Geological Society of America Memoir 138, 240 p.
Irvine, T. N., and Smith, C. H., 1967, The ultramafic rocks of the Muskox intrusion,
Northwest Territories, Canada, p. 38-49 in W yllie, P. J., editor, Ultramafic and
related rocks: New York, John W iley & Sons.
Jackson, E. D., 1967, Ultramafic cumulates in the Stillwater, Great Dyke, and
Bushveld intrusions, p 20-38 in Wyllie, P .J., editor, Ultramafic and related rocks:
New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Jahns, R. H., and Burnham, C. W., 1969, Experimental studies of pegmatite gene-
sis: I. A model for the derivation and crystallization of granitic pegmatites: Eco-
nomic Geology, v. 64, p. 843-864.
Jahns,R. H .,andTuttle, 0. F., 1963,Layeredpegmatite-apliteintrusives: Minera-
logical Society of America Special Paper 1, p. 78-92.
Komar, P. D., 1972, Mechanical interactions of phenocrysts and flow differentiation
of igneous dikes and sills: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 973-988.
Mattinson, J. M., 1977, Emplacement history of the Tatoosh volcanic-plutonic
complex, Washington: ages of zircons: Geological Society of America Bulletin , v.
88, p. 1509-1514.
McBirney, A. R., and Noyes, R. M., 1979, Crystallization and layering of the Skaer-
gaard intrusion: Journal of Petrology, v. 20, p. 487-554.
Moore, J. G., 1963, Geology of the Mount Pinchot quadrangle, southern Sierra Nevada,
California: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1130, 152 p.
Moore, J. G., and Lockwood, J. P., 1973, Origin of comb layering and orbicular struc-
ture, Sierra Nevada batholith, California: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 84, p. 1-20.
Moores, E. M., 1969, Petrology and structure of the Vourinos ophiolitic complex of
northern Greece: Geological Society of America Special Paper 118, 74 p.
Morse, S. A., 1969, The Kiglapait layered intrusion, Labrador. Geological Society of
America Memoir 112, 204 p.
Neff, T. R., 1973, Emplacement of a dike swarm in the Buffalo Mountain pluton,
Nevada: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, p. 3689-3696.
Nelson, C. A., and Sylvester, A. G., 1971, Wall rock decarbonation and forcible
emplacement of Birch Creek pluton, southern White Mountains, California:
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 2891-2904.
Osiecki, R. A., 1981, Textural development of pegmatite, aplite, and associated rock
types in the Mason-Milford granite: Stanford University, CA, PhD Dissertation,
158 p.
Parsons, I., 1979, The Klokken gabbro-syenite complex, South Greenland: cryptic
variation and origin of inversely graded layering: Journal of Petrology, v. 20, p.
653-694.
Pitcher, W. S., 1970, Ghost stratigraphy in intrusive granites: a review, p. 123-140
in Newall, G., and Rast, N., editors, Mechanism of igneous intrusion: Geological
Journal Special Issue No. 2, Liverpool, Gallery Press.
Pitcher, W. S., 1978, The anatomy of a batholith: Journal of the Geological Society of
London, v. 135, p. 157-182.
Pitcher, W. S., 1984, Granite: typology, geological environment and melting rela-
tionships, p. 277-285 in Atherton, M. P., and Gribble, C. D., editors, Migmatites,
melting and metamorphism: Nantwich, England, Shiva Publishing, Ltd.
Pitcher, W. S., and Berger, A. R., 1972, The geology of Donegal: a study of granite
emplacement and unroofing: New York, Wiley-Interscience, 435 p.
Rehrig, W. A., and Heidrick, T . L., 1972, Regional fracturing in Laramide stocks of
Arizona and its relationship to porphyry copper mineralization: Economic
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Ŷ)LHOG6WXGLHVRI
0HWDPRUSKLF5RFNV
3URWROLWKVRI0HWDPRUSKLF 5RFNV

The classical genetic kinds of metamorphism—thermal, dynamic, high-
pressure, metasomatic— rarely affect rocks separately. They may act to-
gether; they may act in turn during one period of metamorphism; or they
may act in various combinations during widely separated periods. Age
relations are thus crucial in studies of metamorphic rocks, and they are
most easily resolved where specific minerals or textures can be related to
structures that give clear evidence of relative ages. Age relations are thus
described in most sections of this chapter and are brought together in the
last section in an abbreviated checklist. Structures and structural methods
are described in Chapter 12, and metamorphic rocks in Chapter 4.
A second major aspect of field studies entails mapping metamorphic
zones, igneous bodies, metasedimentary and metavolcanic stratigraphic
units, and relations of metamorphic rocks to major structures. Such map-
ping may identify geographic or broadly structural varieties of metamor-
phism: contact metamorphism, regional metamorphism, and so on.
In every type of study, interpretation depends partly on knowing the
protolith of each metamorphic rock. Highly metamorphosed or deformed
rocks may have to be mapped as lithodemic units (Section 5-3), but meta-
morphic rocks should, if possible, be treated as metamorphosed sedimentary
or volcanic formations or lesser units. In ideal cases, metamorphosed units
can be traced to other areas where they are unmetamorphosed or slightly
metamorphosed. Stratigraphic sequence may be unique enough to correlate
metamorphosed units positively with unmetamorphosed units.
If stratigraphic correlations are not possible, protoliths of undeformed or
moderately deformed rocks can usually be deduced from relict primary fea-
tures, such as those described in Chapters 4, 9,10,13, and 14. Growth of
metamorphic minerals typically blurs these features or obscures them by
darkening the entire rock, but relics can often be seen on smooth, clean,
weathered surfaces or on wet surfaces. Metamorphosed sedimentary beds
that were originally size-graded from sand or silt upward to clay may
become inversely size graded, from finer quartz-rich rock at the base to rock
with largH grains of aluminum-rich silicates at the top. Igneous intrusions
can usually be recognized by their cross-cutting relations and by moderately
affected igneous texture in their central or least-sheared parts. Feldspar
319
phenocrysts are especially likely to remain intact during both dynamic and
thermal metamorphism.
Fossils are often preserved in low-grade metasediments and even in high-
grade contact metamorphic aureoles. In phyllite and slate they can be found
by splitting the rock along the cleavage at places where it is parallel to
bedding, such as in the limbs of isoclinal folds. Fragments of echinoids in
limestone tend to resist recrystallization and deformation because each is a
large single crystal. Large corals and mollusks in sandstone may retain
their original shapes even though they recrystallize to calcite aggregates or
are replaced by wollastonite or garnet.
If metamorphism has destroyed all primary features, original lithology
can often be Estimated from the proportions of metamorphic minerals in
each rock, assuming the common situation of isochemical metamorphism
(Fig. 15-1). In addition, a high proportion of Fe to M g is indicated by the
presence of chloritoid, staurolite, and abundant black biotite in aluminous
rocks, which were originally iron-rich clay stone. Deep red rather than tan
to green garnet in calcsilicate rock suggests a ferruginous limestone proto-
lith or, more commonly, a metasomatized limestone (skarn). Protoliths rich
in potassium (illitic shale, micaceous siltstone, and igneous rock ranging in
composition from syenite to granite) are suggested by abundant muscovite,
biotite, or potassium feldspar; however, potassium is sometimes added
A A
Calcite, Dolomite, Actinolite, Olivine, Dotted area = clayey dolomite,

wollastonite diopside tremolite orthopyroxene dolomitic sandstone, andesite, etc.
)LJ Diagrams comparing compositions of some common metamorphic minerals

(left) with common rock compositions (right). Compositions are based only on the
three components AI͞O3 (A), CaO (C), and FeO + MgO (F). To use the diagrams,
estimate the proportions among the minerals shown; locate that proportion on the
mineral diagram; and find the same location on the rock diagram. For example, a
rock containing about equal amounts of andalusite, cordierite, and piagioclase
would plot near the center of the triangle among those three minerals, a point lying in
the field of dolomitic claystone in the rock diagram. Minerals with compositions not
represented on the diagrams, such as quartz, may also be present. Note, too, that
some rock compositions are not repre-sented on the right-hand diagram. Rules for
plotting mineral and rock compositions exactly have been given by Turner (1981,
chapt. 5) and Winkler (1979, chapt. 5)
Field Studies of Metamorphic Rocks 321
metasomatically (Section 15-7). Metamorphic rocks containing more than

about 40% quartz are likely to have been sandstone or silicic igneous rock,
two cases that can generally be differentiated by relict structures. Protoliths
deficient in silica, as dolomite and peridotite, are implied by olivine, spinel,
periclase, or brucite. Lateritic metaclaystone or metasomatically desilicated
metashale are suggested by corundum, by highly micaceous quartz-free
rocks, and by quartz-free rocks with abundant A l2SiO polymorphs or
abundant garnet.
When the protolith has been narrowed to a few possibilities, it may be
possible to interpret it further by lithologic association and by thickness
and shape of layers. A nearly pure quartzite, for example, might be inter-
preted as metamorphosed quartzose sandstone rather than metachert on
the basis of thick layers intercalated with aluminous schist. Primary asso-
ciations of rocks are described in Chapters 4, 9,10,13 and 14.
0HWDPRUSKLF0LQHUDO 5HDFWLRQV

Although laboratory studies are generally needed to identify minerals
and reaction relations completely (e.g., to assign rocks to metamorphic
facies), field study can locate scarce but crucial variants that would not be
sampled otherwise and can resolve age relations which would be obscure in
thin sections. This section suggests ways of recognizing minerals in fine-
grained rocks and describes relations that indicate mineral reactions.
Many of the more important metamorphic minerals in fine-grained rocks
occur at least locally as euhedral or subhedral porphyroblasts, many of
them being distinctively colored. Examples are garnet, kyanite, andalusite,
staurolite, chloritoid, ankerite, epidote, zoisite, lawsonite, glaucophane,
biotite, muscovite, and hornblende. These minerals are usually apparent in
local coarse segregations, if nowhere else, perhaps associated with veins
(Section 15-5).
Several other important minerals characteristically form anhedral por-
phyroblasts sieved by fine inclusions. Cordierite generally forms ellipsoidal
porphyroblasts in fine-grained rocks and coarse ellipsoidal aggregates in
gneiss. It can be recognized on weathered surfaces as etched-out pits coated
with limonite. Scapolite often forms anhedral porphyroblasts in fine-grained
rocks, and can be recognized by its two mutually perpendicular cleavages.
Geom etric relations among porphyroblasts, their inclusions, and
groundmass fabric may indicate whether the large grains grew before, dur-
ing, or after deformation (Fig. 15-2).
Changes in color or luster in fine-grained rocks may suggest specific
mineral reactions. Greenish-gray phyllite, presumably containing abundant
chlorite and muscovite, becomes slightly reddish-gray and darker in tone
when biotite forms abundantly. Reddish-gray color also suggests abundant
biotite in hornfels. Gray-green to yellow-green metabasalt turns dark gray
to black when chlorite (or actinolite) and epidote react to form abundant
hornblende.
Arrested mineral reactions that can often be recognized without a hand
lens are: (1) partial reaction of chert bodies and limestone to form wollas-
tonite; (2) partial reaction of chert in dolomite to form tremolite and calcite,
or diopside with or without wollastonite; (3) conversion of epidote-rich
nodules (which commonly develop during low-grade metamorphism of
basaltic or andesitic lavas and pyroclastic rocks) to deep red andradite and
quartz; (4) partial reaction of andraditic bodies to black hornblende; (5) cal-
citic concretions in metashales that may then be partly reacted to rocks rich
in plagioclase and biotite; (7) calcitic concretions in metashale reacted to
garnetiferous rocks that are partly reacted to hornblende-rich envelopes; (6)
dolomitic concretions that are first metamorphosed to rocks rich in tremolite
or actinolite and then partly to hornblende or pyroxene; (8) gneisses or other
siliceous metamorphic rocks containing fragments of ultramafic rocks
reacted to zoned bodies with hornblende-rich rims; and (9) metalimestone
and metashale that interact along contacts to a reaction skarn, presumably
in the presence of abundant pore fluid (Section 15-7). The zoned inclusions
of Fig. 14-8 illustrate some of these reaction relations.
Using a hand lens, arrested reactions can sometimes be recognized by
rims or relict cores of mineral grains, or by aggregates pseudomorphing
mineral grains that had distinctive shapes. Some common reactions are: (1)
garnet, staurolite, or cordierite to biotite; (2) garnet or clinopyroxene to
hornblende; (3) ilmenite to sphene; (4) garnet and clinopyroxene (together)
to glaucophane; (5) garnet, staurolite, or cordierite to chlorite; (6) alumino-
silicates to white mica; (7) plagioclase to epidote; (8) orthopyroxene or olivine
to serpentine, perhaps with talc or brucite; (9) quartz and calcite to wollas-
tonite; (10) quartz and dolomite to diopside; (11) clinopyroxene to actinolite;
and (12) actinolite to hornblende (as dark rims). Garnets may express com-
positional variations during metamorphism by color zoning. Garnets with
tan or greenish (grossularite) cores and dark red (andradite) rims reflect a
)LJ A. Inclusion of a fine early schistose fabric, indicating the porphyroblast grew
before coarser grains of the groundmass. B. Included sigmoidal fabric indicating por-
phyroblast grew during gradual rotation, presumably due to simple shear within the
groundmass. C. Partially replaced relics parallel to groundmass fabric, indicating
post-tectonic growth of the porphyroblast.
change in the oxidation state of iron. The cores of zoned garnets may also be
replaced preferentially, the rim surviving as a partial spherical layer
(atoll) around secondary minerals.
Finally, mineral reactions are implied where a rock believed to have been
originally uniform shows geographic variations in mineral content, as
where a uniform lithologic unit is traced toward an igneous body. Such
changes may be abrupt, gradual, or sporadic, and generally require mapping
specific mineralogic variations, as described in the section that follows.
0HWDPRUSKLF=RQHV%DVHGRQ 0LQHUDOVRU7H[WXUHV

Metamorphic zones mark the geographic extent of certain new minerals
or textures in rocks of specific original lithology. Their boundaries are
generally mapped at the first appearance of a metamorphic mineral or tex-
ture. Mapping thus entails locating all outcrops where this change is first
noted, and finally connecting the mapped points with a line. A progression
of mapped zones shows the extent of certain metamorphic conditions or
processes and is of great value in determining the cause of metamorphism;
for example, where the zones are concentric around an intrusion.
First appearances of metamorphic minerals or textures differ among var-
ious protoliths; therefore, zones must be based strictly on rocks of the same
original lithology. Ideally, the kind of rock chosen for mapping should be
easily recognizable, widely distributed in the area, and sensitive to changes
in metamorphic conditions. Zone-mapping will be most successful if strati-
graphic rock units are mapped throughout the area first, during which time
their metamorphic variations are studied in a general way. Thin sections
made after this first stratigraphic mapping will be very valuable in the
zone-mapping, but many of the kinds of zones described below can be
mapped at least approximately with a hand lens.
Mineral zones used widely in areas of schist are based on carbonate-free
metaclaystones mafic enough to develop garnet and staurolite at approp-
riate metamorphic grades. The progression of index minerals that forms in
many cases is: (1) chlorite and muscovite (formed from detrital clays); (2)
biotite; (3) almandine garnet; (4) staurolite; (5) kyanite; (6) sillimanite; and
(7) potassium feldspar (or disappearance of muscovite). Atherton (1965) has
noted that the first appearances of garnet and staurolite are particularly
valuable because they take place in spite of moderate variations in rock
composition, whereas the appearance of biotite depends appreciably on rock
composition. The change from clays to chlorite and muscovite may be
marked by a transition from gray slate to phyllite or to pale gray or green-
gray schist. Where biotite has formed abundantly, greenish rocks change to
dark gray schist with a reddish tone. Garnet, staurolite, and kyanite com-
monly form euhedral porphyroblasts that are easily visible in certain layers
or segregations. Sillimanite generally forms silky patches of fine needles
(fibrolite) in its first appearance or is associated with biotite as fine lineated

clusters approximately parallel to mica cleavage. Potassium feldspar is typ-
ically segregated into folia or patches with quartz, and can be distinguished
from untwinned plagioclase by its lesser degree of alteration or by staining
(Section 2-3). Disappearance of muscovite may be impractical to use as a
zone boundary because the mineral often develops during retrograde
metamorphism.
A somewhat different progression of minerals in schistose metaclaystone
has been interpreted to indicate lower metamorphic pressures than the one
just described (Miyashiro, 1973, p. 167). The lower-grade index minerals
are the same as those just described, but andalusite forms at about the
same position as staurolite; kyanite is scarce or absent; and cordierite
appears at higher grade. The highest grade zone is thus characterized by
association of cordierite, sillimanite, and potassium feldspar, locally with
andalusite.
Mafic igneous rocks associated with schists can be separated into low-
grade and intermediate-grade zones where hornblende first appears, and
into a high-grade zone at the first appearance of pyroxene. Garnet may or
may not form at intermediate grade. Epidote is usually consumed in the
reaction to form hornblende but in unusually calcareous rocks it may last
into a higher grade, or it may be retrograde. Mafic rocks formed from dolo-
mitic mudstone may develop diopside at low to moderate grades of metam-
orphism.
Calcareous rocks are often difficult to zone because of their compositional
variations; however, garnet and (or) hornblende typically appear in them at
positions approximately equivalent to the garnet zone of metaclaystones,
and clinopyroxene (diopside or salite) at positions equivalent to the silli-
manite zone (Tanner, 1976). Meionitic scapolite may develop from calcic
plagioclase in deep-seated high-grade rocks.
Siliceous dolomite, or dolomite with silica added metasomatically, is pro-
gressively metamorphosed to associations that might be mapped as
zones: (1) talc-calcite; (2) tremolite-calcite; (3) diopside-calcite; and (4)
forsterite-calcite.
Metaclaystones in contact aureoles commonly show this progression of
mineral appearances: (1) biotite, (2) andalusite, (3) cordierite, (4) sillimanite,
and (5) potassium feldspar. The first three appearances may be so closely
spaced as to appear superimposed at the outer boundary of some aureoles
(Compton, 1960). Staurolite may appear together with andalusite, and it
may disappear when cordierite develops. Kyanite forms in the inner parts
of some aureoles, typically but not necessarily before andalusite (Pitcher
and Berger, 1972, p. 325). Contact metamorphosed mafic rocks show mineral
appearances much like those described above for schists; however, garnet
is much less likely to form and hypersthene may appear in the innermost
zone of high-level aureoles. Contact metamorphism of impure calcareous

rocks may lead either to hornfels and schist with minerals much like those
already described for calcareous rocks, or to coarse calc-silicate rocks that
are zoned mainly due to metasomatism (see skarn, Section 15-7).
Textural zones can be defined by progressive coarsening (grain growth) of
metamorphic minerals. The progression in dynamothermally metamor-
phosed claystones and in fine-grained rocks of some other compositions
is: (1) slate; (2) phyllite; (3) schist; and (4) segregated coarse schist or gneiss
(Section 15-5). These textural changes are typically accompanied by mineral
changes like those just described; in some cases, however, the rocks can all
be in one mineral zone. Turner (1941) and Bishop (1972) mapped low-grade
(chlorite-zone) metagraywackes in four textural zones that might be adapted
to other kinds of rocks: (1) textures dominantly original and rock nonfol-
iated; relict grains fuzzy but obvious; (2) textural relics of original grains
somewhat flattened or elongated, and rock semischistose due to strain and
recrystallization in matrix; (3) rocks essentially fine schists with scarce
textural relics; and (4) rocks gneissose, or schistose with thin segregated
lenses and layers.
Contact aureoles can also be zoned on the basis of textural progressions.
The outer boundaries of aureoles in metaclaystones, for example, have been
mapped at the first appearance of tiny porphyroblasts (which may appear
only as small knots or dimples in foliation), and an inner zone has been
mapped where hornfels or schist are coarse enough for biotite grains to be
easily visible (Compton, 1960, p. 1401). In basic rocks, an outer zone has
been mapped at the first appearance of tough hornfels, and an inner zone
where hornblende is coarse enough to be easily visible (Compton, 1955, p.
37).
0HWDVRPDWLVP
Almost all rocks gain and lose substances during metamorphism,
although in most cases these changes involve only volatile components, as
+ 2, &O )&2 S, and organic compounds. Numerous cases of
moderate to extreme silicate metasomatism are known, however, and
such changes should be anticipated in rocks that have undergone
hydrothermal alteration (Section 15-7), or appear to be segregated (Section
15-5.Metasomatism may also be expected between adjacent rocks that
contain materials likely to react at metamorphic temperatures. T w o
examples are marble and aluminous metasediments that react to form
skarn along mutual contacts (Einaudi and others, 1981), and periodotite
that reacts with diabase or other sources of calcium to form rodingite
(Hietanen, 1981, p. 22).
Field relations indicating metasomatic origin for rock bodies include the
relations shown in Fig. 15-3 as well as the following: (1) broadly gradational
boundaries; (2) mineralogic changes in structure of known original com-

)LJ Structural relations indicating replacement. A. Layering and a thin dike
(black) can be projected through the dike in question (left) rather than being displaced in
a dilational sense (right). B. Irregular boundaries, septa crossing the body, included
relics (skialiths), and enlargements of the body where it crosses certain kinds of rocks or
permeable zones. C. Compositional variations contiguous with compositional layers
outside the body, or with contacts between contrasting rocks. D. Boundaries of body,
often consisting of crystal strings, extending outward along cleavage or fractures. E.
Progressive diminution of mineral grains (Oight) in a younger matrix.
position, as calcite ooliths now consisting of pyrite; (3) physical effects of

fluids, such as unusually coarse grain or numerous mineral segregations;
and (4) abundant minerals containing OH, F, Cl, CO2 S, or B, such
as micas, scapolite, topaz, idocrase, humites, tourmaline, and axinite.
The nature and amounts of substances exchanged during metasomatism
may be calculated if the original composition of the altered rocks can be
determined. In cases where the original rock is observably uniform and the
metasomatic bodies are small and distinct, a few carefully chosen samples
may give fairly reliable results (Fig. 15-4). It is difficult, on the other hand,
to test for metasomatism across entire metamorphic zones and thus typi-
cally over distances of kilometers. The original composition of a rock unit
may well have varied over such distances, and can thus be determined only
with some degree of uncertainty. This degree can be reduced in some cases
by sampling the original rock in several parts of a metamorphosed area,
and thus obtaining average compositions and degrees of variance for textu-
rally or mineralogically similar rocks (Compton, 1960, p. 1407). If
possible, the sampling should be planned after first studying the statistics of
variance
)LJ Uniform layer of cordierite hornfels (metashale) altered locally to
black corundum-bearing hornfels and muscovitized hornfels along a quartz vein.
Chemical analyses of samples from sites such as those indicated by the small
squares show an Si02 content of 65% in the uniform hornfels, 62.5% in the
muscovitized hornfels, and 41.5% in the black hornfels. In the same three rocks,
K2O
is 2.5%, 5%, and 6%. For the complete analyses, see Compton (1960, p. 1390,
nos. 5A, B, and C).
or by seeking help from geologists who have used statistics in devising

sampling strategies.
Calculations of gains and losses are generally based on the rule that
volume remains unchanged during metasomatism (see, e.g., Lindgren
1933, p. 92). This rule does not necessarily hold for every case, however,
and therefore should be checked in the field as completely as possible.
Expansion or contraction can in some cases be detected by measuring
thicknesses of rock units in the area affected and outside of it. Changes in
volume may also be indicated by patterns of fractures, by genetic varieties
of fractures, and by displacements on minor faults (Sections 12-5,12-6,
and 14-7). Open fractures and other cavities that have been filled
(indicating shrinkage) may be recognized by their mineral fabrics and
layering (Fig.
)LJ Features suggesting progressive filling of an opening fracture: symmetical

mineral zoning, geometric form of the vein, comb structure (fabric), and
encrusted mineral terminations in vugs right).

!B 1"234./056 7BB89:#BB$ ;%&'- B(<
B)*=5+>?5,@AB

)LJ Repeated dilation of wall rocks (black) indicated by geometic relations, by
septa, by cross-cutting relations, and by symmetrical mineral zones. Left, veins reopened
along one margin, emplaced in order of the numbers. Right, vein emplaced in medial
fracture of earlier vein.
15-5). Evidence of dilation (Fig. 15-3A) and of repeated dilation (Fig. 15-6)
may be helpful.
The actual sequence of alterations must be determined in order to
interpret metasomatism. The two zones illustrated in Figure 15-4, for
example, could have been formed simultaneously by a fluid that migrated
outward from a channel (now the vein) and became modified physically or
chemically as it penetrated the rocks. Possibly, however, the outer zone
formed first and then a different fluid formed the inner zone; or perhaps the
inner zone formed first and the outer zone was formed by a fluid that
moved deeper into the rock at a later time. The inner zone is so changed
texturally that it could well have gone through several states of alteration.
Such possibilities can be resolved only by finding enough examples to see
all stages in the formation of the zones. These examples must generally
include small veins as well as large ones, with some crossing others so that
an age sequence can be established. An example of a widely distributed and
thoroughly studied array of veins and alteration zones is that at Butte,
Montana, described and interpreted by Meyer and Hemley (1967, and in
references cited by them). These zones and structural relations are de-
scribed briefly in Section 15-7.
)LJ A. Feldspathic segregations in massive metasandstone {above) and along

foliation in mica schist. B. Epidote-rich segregations in metabasalt, partly as nodules
and web veins.
6HJUHJDWHG0HWDPRUSKLF5RFNV *QHLVVHV
The rocks described in this section may be of any metamorphic grade
but are similar in that all have been differentiated metamorphically into
two megascopic domains of contrasting composition. Rocks in which one
domain is of granitic or other igneous-appearing material are described
together with other migmatites in Section 15-6. In all segregated rocks, the
two contrasting domains may be more or less equal in volume but typically
one predominates. This domain contains lenses, layers, rods, veins, pods, or
irregular bodies of the less voluminous domain. Some domains are no more
than clusters or strings of porphyroblasts. In thoroughly segregated rocks,
the principal minerals in one set of domains are likely to number only two
or three species and to differ from an equally simple assemblage in the other
set. An important additional relation is that small numbers of grains of
each mineral assemblage occur in the other assemblage.
Segregation (metamorphic differentiation) may be caused by chemical
potentials arising without deformation, or may be due partly or entirely to
deformation. Segregation with little if any deformation is suggested by lack
of schistose texture and by the shapes of the segregated bodies (Fig. 15-7).
Features inherited from the original rocks or from an earlier metamorphic
stage are undeformed. In mafic metalavas, amygdular and brecciated zones
are commonly replaced by epidote and quartz or carbonates before the other
parts of the rock. Glassy rims of pillows tend to become differentiated from
the central parts of pillows (Vallance, 1965). Smith (1968) described meta-
lavas in which low-grade segregation without deformation was expressed
by yellow-green bodies, containing epidote and quartz, that crossed primary
igneous structures.
Segregation by penetrative deformation has been demonstrated in mylo-
nite and recrystallized mylonite that have developed compositional layering
)LJ A. Succession of deformed veins, the more folded being cut by
progressively less folded ones. B. Segregations black) at fold hinges, between
boudins, and at the ends of a concretion in metaclaystone, suggesting the extension
indicated by the arrows.
Wavy Crenulated (with second foliation) Folded
)LJ Structural varieties of gneiss. Gneisses are commonly migmatitic and may
thus show superimposed structural varieties such as those in Fig. 15-12.
in originally uniform rocks, the layers typically being 0.5 to 10 mm thick

(Fig. 4-19H). Prinz and Poldervaart (1964) described mafic dikes consisting
of pyroxene and plagioclase that were hydrated and segregated into thin
hornblende-rich and plagioclase-rich domains during mylonitization.
Segregation is common during dynamothermal metamorphism, and its
relative age may be indicated by degree of deformation (Fig. 15-8$) or by
segregated pods and rods formed at crests or troughs of folds, between
boudins, or next to bodies that remained intact during deformation (Fig.
15-8%). Small-scale segregation along appressed limbs of folds is
characteristic of crenulation cleavage (Fig. 12-17$). Quartz, epidote, and
carbonates are likely to be segregated into pore fluids during
dynamothermal metamorphism of schist, and may be deposited as veins
in nearby fractured (brittle) rock, such as quartzite or massive metalava.
Relations suggesting metamorphic differentiation rather than meta-
somatism include: (1) gradations from undifferentiated to differentiated
rocks (Turner, 1941); (2) two domains, each with a simple mineral assemb-
)LJ Textural varieties of gneiss. See text for interpretations.

lage, together making up the composition of the original rock; (3) small
numbers of mineral grains of one domain in the other domain; (4) domains
relatively small in size and more or less evenly distributed; (5) lack of altera-
tion envelopes in the wallrocks of veins (Section 15-7); and (6) age relations
showing that the two domains developed simultaneously.
Gneisses are foliated and (or) lineated rocks having uniformly distributed
domains which are so small as to impart a textural aspect when viewed
from a few meters away. Examined with a hand lens, however, the domains
can be seen to consist of groups of certain mineral grains. Most, or all, of the
rock is granoblastic and cleaves only crudely parallel to the foliation. Figure
15-9 illustrates some structural varieties.
Gneiss may form in the same ways as other foliated segregated rocks,
and criteria for recognizing a specific origin are similar to those already
noted. In addition, gneiss formed by deformation acting throughout grain
growth is characterized by strongly lineated and often plicated domains,
with micas, amphiboles, and other platy or linear grains lying parallel to
foliation and lineation (Fig. 15-1$) . In gneiss formed mainly by grain
growth after deformation, platy and elongate minerals are oriented more or
less randomly (Fig. 15-10%), or grains that are usually platy or prismatic
may be nearly equidimensional (Fig. 15-10C) . Protomylonite may have a
gneissose aspect (Fig. 15-1$), as may mylonite in which groundmass grains
have grown to visible sizes (Fig. 15-11%) . The progressive development of
gneiss from sheared ultramafic rocks and gabbro has been described by
Moore (1973).
Gneiss developed from igneous rock (orthogneiss) may be difficult to dis-
tinguish from gneissose metasedimentary rock (paragneiss) if the igneous
rock has been segregated into layers. A sedimentary protolith is indicated
by intercalated quartzite, marble, or other carbonate-bearing rocks, and
mapping or reconnaissance may disclose gradations or suggest correlation
)LJ . A. Gneissose protomylonite, the dark domains consisting of mylonitic

mate-rials. B. Mylonitic marble with bent phlogopite below) and deformed calcite
porphyro- clast crossed by trains of recrystallized (annealed) calcite, which also
forms a matrix to the larger relics.
Folded and swirled Sheeted; lenticular Nebulitic
)LJ Structural varieties of migmatite, with leucosome shown by the lighter
patterns.
with less metamorphosed strata. Mapping of orthogneiss may disclose

transgressive intrusive relations or lateral gradations into more uniform
rocks with relics of igneous texture. Many of the outcrop-size structures
described in Chapter 14 may be partially preserved in orthogneiss.
0LJPDWLWHV
These composite rocks consist of two domains: (1) metamorphic rock and
(2) igneous or igneous-appearing rock. The latter domain is most commonly
quartzofeldspathic but may be dioritic and even gabbroic. It is typically the
lighter colored of the two, and is thus called the leucosome. Structural varie-
)LJ Map symbols for structural

var-ieties of migmatite: (1) foliated; (2)
crenulated; (3) augen-bearing; (4) veins
and nodes; (5)agmatitic, and (6) folded,
showing orientation and typical
shapes in horizontalsection.
ties of migmatites are illustrated in Fig. 15-12. Migmatites differ from igne-
ous rocks with inclusions in that the metamorphic domain is dominant or is
the host domain. Exceptions are nebulites, which might also be called
schlieric granite except that they are contiguous with other migmatites.
Migmatites can often be interpreted genetically, although more than one
process is likely to have operated at a given site. Intruded leucosome will
show dilative relations (Fig. 15-3A and perhaps other features typical of
igneous rocks (Chapter 14). Criteria for replacive bodies are presented in
Section 15-4. Segregation is indicated by the relations described in Section
15-5 and by: (1) mafic or cordierite-rich haloes next to the leucosome; (2)
granitic leucosome most abundant in metashales and quartzofeldspathic
rocks; (3) lack of granitic leucosome in quartzite and marble; and (4) leuco-
some compositions that vary with the compositions of the host rocks; for
example, granite leucosome with abundant potassium feldspar in schists
containing abundant mica or potassium feldspar versus hornblende tonalite
leucosome in amphibolite. Segregated migmatite may also grade to other
segregated rocks (Section 15-5). Migmatites generated by circulation of
vapor or hydrothermal fluid are likely to be rich in OH-bearing minerals
relative to unaffected rocks, an example being the alteration of granulite
facies rocks during a second metamorphism in northwest Scotland (Sutton
and Watson, 1951). A number of papers describing the origin and interpre-
tation of migmatites are included in Atherton and Gribble (1983).
Migmatites often show structural relations implying relative ages of
events. Examples are folded bodies of leucosome cut by unfolded ones;
metasomatic migmatites consistently cut by intrusive leucosome; migmat-
ite cut by dilative basic dikes that are later migmatized; and migmatite cut
off at an unconformity that is later crossed by additional leucosome.
Mapping the distribution of migmatites provides a means of interpreting
them relative to major intrusions, folds, unconformities, and fracture
zones. Mapping is generally keyed to abundance of leucosome at each
locality, which can be plotted as an approximate percentage or by colored
lines, dots, or patches spaced to indicate proportion of leucosome. The
symbols may also show the structural type of migmatite at each locality
(Fig. 15-13).
+\GURWKHUPDO$OWHUDWLRQ
Hydrothermal metamorphism, or alteration, is caused by circulation of a
hot fluid through rocks. The fluid may be a gas, a liquid, or a mixture of the
two, and generally carries a variety of substances in solution. Metasomatic
changes are typical and may be dramatic; however, some compositional
changes are no more than moderate additions of volatile substances. The
fluid is related to nearby igneous intrusions in many cases, being either
magmatic water exsolved at a late magmatic stage or meteoric groundwater
that has been heated by the pluton and circulated geothermally (Section
14-8). In some cases the fluid is groundwater that has been heated because
of its deep position in the earth and mobilized by broad gravity-related
potentials (Hanor, 1979).
Hydrothermal fluids tend to alter rocks selectively, some of the more
susceptible rocks being limestone, dolomite, and mafic or glassy igneous
rocks. Alteration also tends to be most intense along permeable zones such
as open fractures, breccias, uncemented coarse clastic rocks, and rocks
that are readily hydrofractured. In rocks of moderate permeability, altera-
tion is likely to be strongest near contacts with less permeable rocks, or at
fault gouge that acted as a barrier to circulation. Because permeability is
increased by fracturing, the most brittle rocks in a given association are
often the most veined and altered.
Some hydrothermally altered rocks contain only one abundant new min-
eral, and they are classified and named accordingly: silicified, dolomitized,
chloritized, albitized, and so on. T w o distinctive kinds of hydrothermally
metamorphosed rocks named long ago by miners are skarn, which is des-
cribed later in this section, and greisen, a coarse muscovite-rich rock that
forms in and around granite plutons and generally also contains quartz,
alkali feldspars, and one or more of topaz, fluorite, and tourmaline. Some
additional kinds of alteration in and near plutons of silicic to intermediate
composition have been classified into the following general types (Meyer
and Hemley, 1967):
Potassic: plagioclase and mafic minerals altered to potassium feldspar

and(or) biotite; typically a late magmatic alteration (Section 14-8).
Propylitic: plagioclase and mafic minerals altered to epidote and chlorite;
these fine-grained green rocks are generally peripheral to rocks altered at
higher temperatures (e.g., by potassic alteration).
Sericitic: feldspars altered to sericite; generally later than potassic alter-
ation and typically of same age as principal ore sulfides; this alteration and
the two following are generally postmagmatic (Section 14-8).
Intermediate argillic: plagioclase largely altered to clay minerals; potas-
sium feldspar partly altered to clays; sericite may be present.
Advanced argillic. feldspars totally altered to clays and other fine-grained
aluminous minerals (alunite, diaspore, pyrophyllite, andalusite, etc.).
Varieties of altered rocks may vary from these ideal types, and the names
just listed are used somewhat loosely. Therefore textures, mineralogic rock
compositions, and the nature of rocks prior to alteration should be recorded
as fully as possible.
Alterations may be selective of original mineral species, as noted above,
or may be pervasive (as in most cases of advanced argillic alteration). Alter-
ations are sometimes restricted to the margins of veins, fractures, or igneous
bodies, and in these cases are commonly zoned, as will be described below.
$OWHUDWLRQV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK YHLQV Veins are deposited by
hydrothermal fluids moving along fractures. They are classified as dilative
or replacive (Figs. 15-3,15-5, and 15-6) and are described according to
their thickness and extent, their shape, the minerals in them, and the
textural and structur-al arrangements of these minerals.Important
structural details are breccia bodies, folds, faults, stylolites, and reopened
(multiple) vein fillings (Fig. 15-6). Age relations are determined at places
where veins cross or where their alteration envelopes overlap. Strikes and
dips taken over large areas may help in classifying veins by age and
perhaps point to the causes of fracturing (Sections 12-5, 12-6, and 14-7).
Unless alteration becomes pervasive in veined rock bodies, individual
veins are typically enveloped in symmetrical zones of wall-rock alteration.
These zones may be uniform and single or may be composite. Composite
zones must be studied carefully to determine whether or not the different
parts developed simultaneously or in an age sequence. Simultaneous com-
posite zoning, which is probably the most common type, was first proven at
Butte, Montana, where an initial phase of high-temperature potassic alter-
ation was followed by a protracted period of hydrothermal alteration during
which large numbers of veins that were opened at various times were all
enveloped by the same kinds of composite zones (Sales and Meyer, 1948;
Meyer and Hemley, 1967). The Butte study also documented progressive
spatial changes in vein thickness and mineralogic composition that are
coupled to changes in wall-rock alteration (Fig. 15-14). These distributions
point to the general source of hydrothermal fluid and its course through the
overlying rock.
jw >Ŷ^ c, cy xw .‘ A!--------- Unaltered '# '» N" / i ' , ' • * / '

Pervasive granodiorite------- y i ' / T ' v ' / ' / i ’
sericitic V‘w W '4*/»>/,—• •/'
zone ;~ 1-------Thin propylitic
— Vein zone — - __
Â d va n ced _____ Sericitic zone------
argillic zone ------- Vein Vein — «............ .
. ..
__ — Intermediate “''r
argillic zone N
,v Y 7 \ 'v * , ' Y'
Wjfc;,.. _
11.. V-*v i*
p * Local * 9* \ A* \ C- %- \
| silicitication ^ i t*
)LJ Alteration envelopes on quartz veins in the central (left), intermediate
(center), and peripheral parts of the main-stage ore zone at Butte, Montana. Ore minerals
in the veins are (left) pyrite, covellite, digenite, djurleite, and enargite, with or without
chalcocite and bornite; (center) pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, and
tennantite, with or without enargite; and (right) pyrite, with or without rhodochrosite,
rhodonite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and bornite. Based on p. 189 of Meyer and Hemley
(1967).
6NDUQ is calcsilicate rock of coarse and often uneven grain size and is
commonly zoned mineralogically. Both properties correlate with a hydro-
thermal origin. Studies of textures and stable isotopes (Taylor and O’Neil,
1977) indicate that skarn develops later than isochemical contact metam-
orphism. It is thought to form in two stages, first by high-temperature
metasomatism by magmatic fluids, and then by hydrolyzing reactions
between the early skarn and increasingly meteoric geothermal fluids.
Metasomatism is proven by skarn zones lying across original bedding or
metamorphic structures, or by calcsilicate rocks lying in pure marble.
Skarn is of particular value in field studies because of its coarse grain
and because certain varieties may suggest depth of metamorphism. Einaudi
and others (1981) noted that skarns alongside mesozonal (moderately deep-
seated) plutons tend to have a garnet-pyroxene zone near the igneous body
and a zone of wollastonite, often with idocrase, next to the marble. Scheelite
is a characteristic mineral, and the low oxidation states typical of these
deep-seated rocks cause garnet to be grossularitic (often pale colored) and
pyroxene to be hedenbergitic. These early stage minerals are commonly
altered in later stages to biotite, hornblende, actinolite, and epidote.
Skarns next to shallow plutons tend to be finer grained than mesozonal
skarn, to become more altered and veined in late stages, and to contain
abundant sulfides of Cu, Mo, Zn, and Pb. Garnet is more abundant in the
inner zone of shallow skarns, and a typically high oxidation state makes the
garnet more andraditic, clinopyroxene more diopsidic, and magnetite and
hematite common accessories (Einaudi and others, 1981). Garnet is gener-
ally greenish (often more grossularitic) away from the igneous body, and an
outermost zone is characterized by wollastonite with accessory garnet, ido-
crase, and clinopyroxene. When the pluton is sericitized and argillized, the
early skarn minerals are altered to abundant tremolite, actinolite, iron-rich
smectite, and lesser amounts of calcite, siderite, quartz, opal, iron oxides,
pyrite, talc, epidote, and chlorite. Shallow skarns are typically fractured
repeatedly, so that late-stage minerals may form alteration envelopes along
thin veins. In cases where fluids carry Zn and Pb, these metals are deposited
as sulfides in skarns formed in permeable zones far from the intrusion.
Early stage zones in these outer skarns contain garnet with magnetite and
calcopyrite near the fluid channel, and clinopyroxene with sphalerite next
to marble.
$JHRI0HWDPRUSKLVP6HTXHQFHRI0HWDPRUSKLF(YHQWV
A numerical age of metamorphism can be determined by dating igneous
bodies intruded during metamorphism, as indicated by fabrics and struc-
tures parallel to (and locally continuous with) those in the metamorphic
rocks. Dating metamorphic minerals will give a minimum age of metamor-
phism. A maximum geologic age is indicated by the youngest rock unit

affected by metamorphism, and a minimum geologic age by the oldest
sedimentary unit deposited on the metamorphic rocks or containing detri-
tus eroded from them.
Age of metamorphism relative to deformationis indicated by relations
among metamorphic minerals and deformational fabrics and structures.
Pretectonic metamorphic minerals may be recognized by: (1) being bent,
kinked, broken, pulled-apart, or sheared-out into fine aggregates; (2) being
replaced by younger minerals that take part in a planar or linear fabric; or
(3)growing parallel to cleavages that are deformed. Syntectonic metamor-
phism is indicated by: (1) platy minerals lying parallel to cleavage in folds;
(2)
2) neate minerals oriented parallel to hinges of folds; (3) platy or lineate
minerals oriented parallel to zones of simple shear; (4) porphyroblasts
(typically of staurolite, biotite, garnet, or chlorite) that include sigmoidal or
spiraled trains of small platy or lineate minerals that also are in the
groundmass (Fig. 15-2%); and (5) porphyroblasts that include fabrics folded
less intensely than in the adjoining groundmass. Posttectonic metamor-
phism is indicated by: (1) micas, amphiboles, or other platy or lineate
minerals lying across the rock fabric or cleavage (Fig. 15-2C); (2) large
grains that have included crenulations or have grown over small faults or
other dynamic features; and (3) aggregates of minerals with random orien-
tation that have replaced grains in schistose rocks.
Age relations among metamorphic events have been described or illus-
trated in this chapter and are brought together here in condensed lists. Age
relations are particularly visible and reliable where they can be observed in
structures, and these include: (1) folded or otherwise deformed veins or
foliations associated with unfolded metamorphic veins that have the same
general orientations; (2) metamorphic veins cut by later metamorphic
veins; (3) folded metamorphic foliations and lineations (Section 12-3); (4)
metamorphic features cut bydilative dikes that have been metamorphosed;
(5) alteration zones cutting across foliated rocks of regional extent; (6)
undeformed replacive rocks or strings of porphyroblasts guided by folia-
tions formed by penetrative deformation; (7) clasts of metamorphic rocks
in metamorphosed conglomerate or breccia; (8) shear zones of fine-grained
metamorphic rocks cutting coarser rocks; (9) relict slices of coarse-grained
metamorphic rocks in mylonite; (10) weakly foliated rocks cut by zones of
strongly foliated rocks; (11) shear zones displacing earlier shear zones; and
(12) Petamorphic veins with structures indicating two or more periods of
opening.
Metamorphic age relations seen within rock fabrics include: (1) porphy-
roblasts that have grown across schistosity; (2) diversely oriented sets of
lineate minerals; (3) diversely oriented sets of platy minerals; (4) porphy-
roclasts of metamorphic minerals in recrystallized mylonite; and (5) coarse
)LJ Texturally composite augen

(here, large rounded single crystals of felds-
par with associated finer aggregates) sug-
gesting shear and partial recrystallization
of porphyroblasts.
undeformed mica or chlorite growing across cleavages.

At the scale of individual mineral grains or small groups of grains, these
relations suggest sequence in metamorphism: (1) bent, kinked, broken, or
separated (pulled apart) crystals; (2) large bent carbonate crystals with
traces of twin lamellae; (3) augen consisting of rounded single crystals and
polycrystalline “tails” (Fig. 15-15); (4) porphyroclasts with margins recrys-
tallized along with the groundmass (Fig. 4-19,); (5) pseudomorphs of meta-
morphic minerals; (6) minerals with reaction rims; (7) zoning in porphyro-
blasts indicated by differences in color; (8) small grains growing in larger
ones along fractures; and (9) relics of minerals known to be unstable in a
given mineral assemblage.
Age relations may also be developed by geologic mapping, especially of
metamorphic zones: (1) relict contact aureoles around metamorphosed
intrusions; (2) zones of hydrothermal alteration lying across metamorphic
zones of regional extent; (3) broad zones of segregated rocks superimposed
on fine-grained schists; (4) zones of contact aureoles lying across regionally
extensive zone-sequences; and (5) bands of my Ionite or broad zones of
schistose rocks cutting through other metamorphic zones. T w o other
important relations have been discussed by Read (1957, p. 263ff): (1) meta-
morphic mineral zones may be formed in inverted structural order (high-
grade zones over low-grade zones); therefore, inverted zones are not
evidence of post metamorphic deformation; and (2) metamorphic zonations
from low to higher metamorphic grade are not evidence, in themselves,
that the higher grade rocks went through the stages represented by the
lower grade rocks. In fact, high grade rocks with relict primary features,
formed alongside lower grade rocks in which the features have been de-
stroyed, imply that the higher grade rocks did not go through the state
represented by the lower grade rocks.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Atherton, M. P., 1965, The chemical significance of isograds, p. 169-202 in Pitcher,
W. S., and Flinn, G. W., editors, Controls of metamorphism: Edinburgh and
London, Oliver and Boyd.
Atherton, M. P., and Gribble, C. D., editors, 1983, Migmatites, melting and meta-
morphism: Nantwich, England, Shiva Publishing Ltd., 326 p.
Bishop, D. G., 1972, Progressive metamorphism from prehnite-pumpellyite to
greenschist facies in the Dansey Pass area, Otago, New Zealand: Geological
Society of America Bulletin, v. 83, p. 3177-3198.
Compton, R. R., 1955, Trondhjemite batholith near Bidwell Bar, California: Geo-
Compton, R. R., 1960, Contact metamorphism in Santa Rosa Range, Nevada: Geo-
Einaudi, M. T., Meinert, L. D., and Newberry, R. J., 1981, Skarn deposits, p. 317-391
in Skinner, B. J., editor, Seventy-fifth anniversary volume: El Paso, Economic
Geology Publishing Co.
Hanor, J. S., 1979, The sedimentary genesis of hydrothermal fluids, p. 137-172 in
Barnes, H. L., editor, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits, 2nd edition, New
York, John W iley & Sons.
Hietanen, A., 1981, Geology west of the Melones fault between the Feather and North
Yuba Rivers: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1226-A, 35 p.
Lindgren, W., 1933, Mineral deposits, 4th edition: New York, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 930 p.
Meyer, C., and Hemley,J. J., 1967, W all rock alteration, p. 166-235 in Barnes, H. L.,
editor, Geochemistry of hydrothermal ore deposits. New York, Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Miyashiro, A ., 1973, Metamorphism and metamorphic belts: New York John W iley
& Sons, 492 p.
Moore, A. C., 1973, Studies of igneous and tectonic textures and layering in the
rocks of the Gosse Pile intrusion, central Australia: Journal of Petrology, v. 14, p.
49-80.
Pitcher, W. S., and Berger, A. R., 1972, The geology of Donegal: a study of granite
emplacement and unroofing: New York, Wiley-Interscience, 435 p.
Prinz, M., and Poldervaart, A., 1964, Layered mylonite from Beartooth Mountains,
Montana: Geological Society of America Bulletin , v. 75, p. 741-744.
Read, H. H., 1957, The granite controversy: London, Thomas Murby, 430 p.
Sales, R. H., and Meyer, C., 1948, Wall rock alteration at Butte, Montana: American
Institute of M ining Engineers Transactions, v. 178, p. 9-35.
Smith, R. E., 1968, Redistribution of major elements in the alteration of some basic
lavas during burial metamorphism: Journal of Petrology, v. 9, p. 191-219.
Sutton, J., and Watson, J., 1951, The pre-Torridonian metamorphic history of the
Loch Torridon and Scourie areas in the North-West Highlands, and its bearing
on the chronological classification of the Lewisian: Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
logical Society of London, v. 106, p. 241-307.
Tanner, P.W.G., 1976, The progressive metamorphism of thin calcareous bands
from the Moinian rocks of N. W. Scotland: Journal of Petrology, v. 17, p. 100-134.
Taylor, B. E., and O ’Neil, J. R., 1977, Stable isotope studies of metasomatic Ca-Fe-
Al-Si skarns and associated metamorphic and igneous rocks, Osgood Mountains,
Nevada: Contributions to Minerology and Petrology, v. 63, p. 1-49.
Turner, F. J., 1941, The development of pseudo-stratification by metamorphic dif-
ferentiation in the schists of Otago, New Zealand: American Journal of Science,
v. 239, p. 1-16.
Turner, F. J., 1981, Metamorphic petrology', mineralogical, field , and tectonic aspects,
2nd edition: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 524 p.
* HRORJ\ LQ WKH )LHOG
Vallance, T. G., 1965, On the chemistry of pillow lavas and the origin of spilites:
Mineralogical Magazine, v. 34, p. 471-481.
Winkler, H.G.F., 1979, Petrogenesis of metamorphic rocks, 5th edition: New York,
Springer-Verlag, 348 p.
5REHUW5&RPSWRQ
'HVHUW3HDNDQG1HDUE\5DQJHV[LQFKHV

Ŷ3UHSDULQJ,OOXVWUDWLRQVDQG
:ULWLQJ5HSRUWV
)URP)LHOG6WXG\WR 5HSRUW:ULWLQJ

On returning from the field, the following preparations for report writing
can be done at once:
1. Have films developed and printed.
2. Unpack rock samples and lay them out in order by age, by collecting
date, or by geographic position.
3. Get help from paleontologists to identify fossils, make geologic age
assignments, and assess depositional facies.
4. Read through the field notes carefully, making lists of (a) samples that
should be prepared for petrographic or other laboratory analyses, and (b)
data and ideas that are significant in light of the full field study.
5.Read all field summaries and unit descriptions, listing or indexing sig-
nificant items.
6.Study pertinent literature and geologic maps, taking notes on: (a) items
that will help in describing the regional setting of the study; (b) data that
can be added directly to the main results of the study; and (c) disagreements
in unit names or other specifics that will require further research or cor-
respondence with the authors or suitable experts.
7.Begin final assembly and checking of the geologic map, cross sections,
and columnar sections, as described in Section 16-2.
&RPSRVLQJDSODQIRUWKHUHSRUW should not be difficult if the purpose of
the project was clear (Section 1-3) and if evidence and interpretations have
been reviewed periodically during the field season (Section 1-6). The
purpose of the project predetermines the general nature of the report as
well as its readers, who must be considered during all stages of
organization and w riting. Reports for nongeologists require careful
organization and use of only the most common geologic terms. Geologist
readers vary in degree of specialization, field experience, and access to a
library, so the rule, again, is to write as simply and clearly as possible. This
rule applies especially to reports intended for a broad spectrum of geologists
and for the permanent scientific record, and this is the general case
assumed in this chapter. Reports on specialized studies that will be
published in journals must be so brief as to require thorough planning and
tight writing, but they should be directed to a general audience as much as
possible (Cochran and others, 1974). Reports making specific
recommendations, such as for drilling sites or engineered

structures, have the thrust of selling ideas, often to specific readers, and
must be organized and worded accordingly.
Outlines and further suggestions for several kinds of reports are pre-
sented in Section 16-4. No preexisting outline, however, provides a basis for
actually beginning a specific report, whereas the following questions may:
1. In view of the project's purpose and a final review of the literature,
what are the more valuable conclusions resulting from the study?
2. What data and relations led to these conclusions?
3. Were the methods of the study unusual enough so that they should be
described? Regardless of their originality, will a description be needed to
convince the reader of their validity and precision?
In order to adopt a direct writing style at the outset, respond to these
questions as if they were being asked by a reader. For question 2, for
example, list the data and relations in the order that will be most convincing
to the reader. Write as though you were talking to the reader, or perhaps as
though you were talking informally to several geologists. Go over what you
have written several times, on several days, and at times when you are not
rushed.
When you are satisfied with your answers to the three questions, recom-
pose the answers into a summary of the project. Give the purpose first,
then the methods, then the chief findings, and finally the conclusions. This
summary will be a brief version of your report and might be condensed
later into the report's abstract. The purpose and conclusions may be
brought together to make the first paragraph of the report itself. Before
organizing further sections, however, complete and study the map and
sections as well as other illustrations that will contribute directly to the
statements of your summary. You may want to modify your summary
after doing these things.
0DMRU,OOXVWUDWLRQV)LUVW
Maps, cross sections, and columnar sections convey most of the data in
geologic reports. If they are prepared before the report is written, the report
is likely: (1) to be more accurate than otherwise; (2) not to repeat informa-
tion shown clearly on these illustrations; and (3) include descriptions of
data and relations not apparent in the illustrations. If pencil drafts of the
illustrations have not been completed in the field (Sections 1-7,6-5, and 11-9),
they should be completed before summarizing the field study, as described
above.
The final illustrations should meet the needs of the project yet require as
little time and expense as possible. If the map and cross sections are placed
on one plate, readers can visualize the geology in three dimensions conve-
niently. The plate should be as small as consistent with clarity, and Fig.
Preparing Illustrations and Writing Reports 343
16-1 suggests a layout. Use of color on the final map is desirable and
practical when only a few copies will be needed, whereas colored maps and
sections are costly to reproduce and are usually published only by govern-
ment agencies. When planning a map for publication, the publisher’s
requirements must be determined at the outset.
A major question is whether the geologic map will need a topographic
base or whether a planimetric base of drainage and roads will be adequate.
An inexpensive way to produce a combined topographic and geologic map is
to draft the geology in black ink on a green chronoflex topographic base
(Section 6-1) or on a screened black reproduction of the topographic base.
When printed by most of the methods described below, the black ink lines
will reproduce distinctly darker than the green or screened lines, so that
topography can be distinguished from geology. If mapping was done on
plane table sheets, and the contours and other geographic features will obs-
cure the geology if all are shown in black, the geography and contours can
be traced first in black and reproduced as a screened transparent positive
on which the geology is inked. Use of a standard topographic map as a base
is limited by the fact that it will be illegible when reduced more than 50%.
*HRJUDSKLFQDPHV must be accurate, and all names used in the text of
a report should appear on at least one map accompanying the report. The
Domestic Names Committee of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names
supervises the standardization of geographic names in the United States,
and only names authorized by this committee appear on published maps
and charts of the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Forest Service, and the
National Ocean Survey. These sources thus serve as standards for use on
new geologic maps and in reports. The basic policy of the committee is to
)LJ Layout of map, cross sections, and explanation. The title is generally
placed along the upper or lower margin or in a box in one of the corners. See figures and
text that follow for details.
follow present-day local usage of names. If locally named features that

would be useful on a map are not named on the published maps and charts
mentioned above, it is advisable to write the committee about the use of the
new name. Before concocting names for completely unnamed features, it is
recommended to read the section on geographic names in Bishop, Eckel,
and others (1978) before proposing a new name to the committee.
Engineering geologic maps may cover such a wide variety of rock proper-
ties and other information that more than one map may be needed. Docu-
m entation maps show locations of all measurem ents, samples, or
observations as well as the data obtained. Derived maps present information
extrapolated over relevant areas, generally by colors, patterns, or contours.
Structure contour maps are derived maps showing elevations on a unit con-
tact or other surface of interest, and isopach maps are contoured so as to
show thicknesses of a unit or of overburden. Additional kinds of derived
maps show various grades of a rock property, or presence or absence of a
property or a critical unit (Section 5-7). Where a surficial deposit covers
another deposit of interest, the colors or patterns for the two units are
interstriped, or other patterns or colors are used to indicate the unit
sequence. Complex sequences can be indicated by brief logs at data sites
(Fig. 5-10). Still another kind of derived map shows areal distributions of
units and structures at some specific depth or at some elevation above a
datum. Varnes (1974) has described and illustrated several kinds of engi-
neering geologic maps, and examples of actual map series are those by
Easterbrook (1973,1976) and Pewe and Bell (1976).
Duplication processes range greatly in cost, convenience, and nature of
products, and may limit the size of the final plate. The information given
here is general and should be checked thoroughly at local blueprint com-
panies. For large plates, such as geologic maps, the least-expensive prints
are made from a transparent or translucent original by the diazo process
(and similar processes), which give black, blue, or brown lines on white
paper or transparent Mylar base. The paper copies often yellow with age
and are not strong enough for repeated handling; however, “ card stock”
gives white-based durable prints. The Xerox Large Document Printer pro-
duces copies up to 24 in. wide on paper of good quality and permits reduction
from either an opaque or transparent original.
The various “ blueprint” processes are generally more expensive because
they produce a negative print, and therefore a transparent negative must be
prepared first. They give durable prints on high quality paper, with maxi-
mum size limited by the size of the vacuum frame available.
Generally the most expensive process is that of having the plate photo-
graphed and copies printed from the negative. This procedure permits pre-
cise enlargement or reduction and can give large copies (e.g., 42 in. wide) on
high quality paper or Mylar.
Preparing illustrations and Writing Reports 345
If copies 18 x 24 in. or smaller will be adequate, Photomechanical transfer

(P M T ) provides excellent copies on a variety of materials at moderate cost.
Small illustrations can also be reproduced inexpensively by Xerox or Color
Xerox, with enlargement or reduction commonly available.
Drawing the map usually consists of taping a transparent sheet over a
penciled compilation and tracing the geologic features in black ink. The
features are inked in an order such that features inked later are broken so
as not to obscure features already inked (Fig. 16-2). A suggested order is: (1)
locations of fossil collections; (2) structure symbols without numbers; (3)
faults; (4) contacts; (5) cross-section lines; (6) numbers for structure sym-
bols; (7) numbers for fossil locations; and (8) letter symbols for rock units. If
the tracing is not made on a chronoflex or screened map base, these items
are inked in order before item 8: (1) culture; (2) drainage; (3) geographic
names; (4) contours; and (5) lines of longitude and latitude or lines of cadas-
tral surveys (in most cases these are shown as ticks in the margin rather
than across the entire map).
If the units will be patterned in black and white, the patterns are added
after the map has been checked and cleaned. Patterns, like colors, are used
to emphasize structural relations and to point up locations of certain units.
It is generally desirable to keep patterns light except for units that need
emphasis and carry no structural symbols (Fig. 16-2). Commonly, alternate
units (or more) need not be patterned, because unit symbols identify them
adequately. Prepared stick-on patterns (Craftint, Zipatone) are always uni-
form but are difficult to apply to small irregular areas and to trim around
structure symbols and geographic names. It may thus be quicker and easier
to hand-pattern all units except those that form large, simple areas. Maps of
foliated rocks are more expressive if patterned parallel to the strike of folia-
tion (Fig. 16-2). If structure symbols and numbers prove difficult to draw,
stick-on and rub-on copy is available commercially.
)LJ Part of a geologic map, showing features broken for crucial data, as at 1, where
section line and road are broken for a structure symbol. Point 2 indicates the section line
and point 3 a fossil locality. The patterning of schist, on the right, is drawn parallel to
local strike of the foliation.
When the map appears to be complete, a print should be made and

colored in order to catch errors and omissions. The map may then be
compared point by point with field sheets as a final check.
([SODQDWLRQV of geologic maps and sections serve three crucial
purposes: (1) identifying the map units and possibly describing them;
(2)showing their geologic ages or their age relations; and (3) identifying
all geologic structures, surficial features, and special engineering
geology symbols. Prior to the late 1960s, the first two purposes were
traditionally met by a single column of unit boxes, each identified by its
map symbol, unit name, and perhaps a brief description, and with
geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units shown by brackets on the
sides (Fig. 16-3). In cases where several units of the same age had to be
shown side by side, and especially in cases where allochthonous
assemblages required separate columns, the explanations were large and
some were difficult to follow. The U.S. Geological Survey resolved these
difficulties by an explanation in two parts: (1) an upper part consisting of
small unit-boxes arranged to show age relations at a glance (Fig. 16-4);
and (2) a lower part composed of larger boxes each accompanied by the
unit name and generally a brief description of the unit (Fig. 16-4).
In both kinds of explanations, the structure symbols are placed below the
unit explanation and are ordered more or less as in Appendix 7. They are
followed by symbols for mapped surficial features, boreholes, and so on.
Explanations are sometimes shortened by omitting the more common
structural symbols, as strike and dip of bedding and standard lines for con-
tacts and faults; however, symbols are not standardized internationally, so
EXPLANATION
Qa
UNCONFORMITY
Alluvium
Km
Silt, sand, and gravel
—Kmb—
Munroe Formation
Greenish gray shale
with bentonite bed (Kmb)
Terrace deposits
Alluvial sand and gravel
UNCONFORMITY
Rodelle Limestone
Tb Thin-bedded g ,
with shale interbeds
Basalt
)LJ Part of an explanation for a geologic map.

the readership of the report should be considered. Appendix 7 includes some

optional symbols, and the definition of any symbol should be changed if a
more specific or limited definition will give the map more meaning.
7KHWLWOH is usually lettered across the top or base of the map (Fig. 16-1),
in a box at any corner, or above the explanation. It includes these items
(numbered in Fig. 16-5): (1) name of the map, which should be in the
same geographic terms as the title of the report; (2) the map’s general
location; (3) the name of the geologist and his or her affiliation, if any; and
(4) the date when the map was completed.
Other items included in Fig. 16-5 and usually placed in the lower margin
of the map or elsewhere are (5) a bar-scale in metric and English units; (6)
the contour interval; (7) arrows showing the directions of true and magnetic
north and the amount of the magnetic declination; (8) a location map; (9)
mention of field personnel, dates of the mapping, or credit to persons who
drafted the map or contributed material to it; (10) if parts of the area were
mapped by different persons, a small map to locate the parts; and (11) iden-
tification of the base map. Finally, ticks and labels for longitude and latitude,
for townships and ranges, or for other cadastral lines are placed in the
- 3OHLVWRFHQH ª8$7(51$5<
j- Pliocene
^ Miocene
Lower PERMIAN
Permian
DESCRIPTION OF MAP UNITS
Qa ALLUVIUM—Silt, sand, and gravel along streams and in

lower parts of fans. Gravel fresh, pale gray.
GRAVEL AND SAND— Deposits On most of fans, benches,

Qg and terraces; includes colluvium at base of slopes and loess
on north end of Briggs Mountain. Gravel typically pale brown,
limestone and dolomite clasts distinctly etched.
SAND AND GRAVEL WITH INTERBEDDED WATER-LAID ASH

QTsc AND TUFFACEOUS SILTY SAND— Gravel matrix-supported;
sand moderately sorted; pale gray rhyolitic vitric ash mixed
with about half of sand beds and locally forming pure ash
beds 1-3 m thick.
)LJ Explanation for a geologic map, with the upper part showing age relations
among units and the lower part descriptions of the units (the lower part is a fragment.)
margins close to the edges of the map (see a U.S. Geological Survey quad-
rangle map).
Cross sections are prepared in pencil draft as described in Section 6-5.
When the geologic map is completed and checked, they are compared with it
and corrected as necessary by placing each transparent section strip along
its section line or by using a set of dividers to make sure that all contacts
and faults are in exactly the right position relative to the ends of the section.
The map should then be studied thoroughly to be sure that the sections
include all geologic features which do not cross a section line but project into
the sections at depth.
The sections are then traced with ink. Sections on a separate plate must
have a bar scale, a title, and an explanation or a reference to the explanation
of the map plate. If the sections will be colored, lines parallel to bedding or
foliation are all that need be added to the units. If the sections will not be
colored, the units can be indicated by patterns like those used on the map or
by simplified lithologic patterns drawn parallel to bedding (Appendix 8),
whichever makes their structural relations clearer.
Engineering geologic cross sections and sections of surficial deposits com-
monly are constructed with exaggerated vertical scales in order that thick-
nesses and depths to units can be scaled directly from the illustrations. The
© ©
GEOLOGIC MAP OF FOX RIDGE, COE COUNTY, TEXAS
%< 5 0 / ( ( ' $ 1 ' * + ' , / / 6

© 500 0 500 1000 meters
1000 2000 4000 feet
© Contour interval 20 ft
© Datum is mean sea level
196 mils
1978 magnetic north

declination, center
of map
Mapped bj^Leed, |------------------------
R.L. Kress and O.P. Smith,
field assistants.
Drafting by S.M. Mills Mapped by Dills
© 1982-83
Topographic base, Fox Ridge
7.5'quadrangle (1967)
)LJ Title and accessory information for a geologic map. The numbered items are
identified in the text.
Vertical scale 4x horizontal scale
)LJ Cross section with vertical scale exaggerated to show dimensions of
surficial deposits, based partly on two wells (vertical lines). Rcsg, soil of clayey sandy
gravel; Rcs and Rcs VRLOV of clayey sand; C, colluvium; Asg, alluvial sandy gravel;
As and As2 sands of alluvial terraces; Gt and GW, successive tills; Es, eolian
sand; and Kps, Cretaceous formation.
resulting exaggeration of surface slopes may be useful in pointing upcertain

landforms (Fig. 16-6). Although dips become exaggerated also, this is usually
not a problem with surficial units.
&ROXPQDUVHFWLRQV are constructed in pencil as described in Section
11-9. They can be redrafted into several kinds of illustrations:
1.A page-sized column, typically generalized and with lithologic descrip-
tions, to present an overview of the stratigraphy of an area. This illustration
might be used in the part of the report that introduces the stratigraphic
sequence (Section 16-4).
2.Detailed columns, generally without lithologic descriptions, of specific
members, formations, or sequences of lithologically related units. They
)LJ Serial columnar sections documenting a marine transgression, with location

map showing lines along which sections were measured.
might be used to illustrate cyclic or rhythmic sequences, series of uncon-

formities, evidence for transgression or regression, sitesof fossil collections or
other important samples, or serve in place of descriptive text. Examples are
given by Sando and others (1975, pO. 1).
3. Tw o or more columns illustrating lateral variations in lithology or age,
or showing correlations. Lithologic descriptions are generally omitted, and
thesectionsare aligned on a biozoneboundary or key bed that is drawn as a
horizontal line through all of them, or they may be plotted with their bases at
the same level (Fig. 16-7). Correlation lines must be labeled if they are
based on data other than lithology. Sando and others (1975) have given
several examples. Any columnar sections drafted on separate plates must
be accompanied by all of the items described in Section 11-9.
3KRWRJUDSKV'UDZLQJVDQG'LDJUDPV
When the main subjects of the report have been determined (Section 16-1),
field sketches and photographs can be selected to present points in evidence
or clarify complex relations. This section describes some examples and
suggests ways of making them effective.
3KRWRJUDSKV that show convincing relations are scarce and of excep-
tional value as illustrations. Writers tend to see more in their photographs
than readers do, and therefore the effectiveness of photographs should be
tested on other persons. Color photographs are generally superior for illus-
trating scenes and earth materials, whereas black and white photographs
are superior for structures and other features that must be shown crisply
or with a strong sense of the third dimension. Glossy prints are required for
published reports, but matte-surfaced prints are generally more attractive
and far easier to retouch. Retouching removes dust spots and interfering
highlights and shadows. To retouch, mix black ink and china white paint in
a white dish with a pointed sable brush, and apply the paint a small spot at
a time. Photographs can be clarified by adding unit symbols, arrows, and
obscure contact lines, or by tracing a line drawing from the photograph and
mounting the two side by side. If no hammer or other recognizable object is
in the photograph, the dimensions of an obvious feature should be given in
the caption.
Vertical aerial photographs often make valuable illustrations, and they
can be reduced to small prints of high quality by first obtaining transparent
negatives, which are generally available from suppliers of aerial photo-
graphs. Topographic forms on vertical photographs will appear natural
rather than inverted if they are oriented so as to appear lighted from the
upper left. Geographic orientation can be described in the caption or shown
by a north arrow on the print.
'UDZLQJV are used for a variety of illustrations: (1) objects shown natu-
rally in three dimensions; (2) simplified views or cutaway sections in two

dimensions; (3) small maps and cross sections; and (4) generalized diagrams,
charts, and graphs. The illustrations in this book show examples of most of
these varieties.
Three-dimensional drawings are generally shaded as though lighted from
the upper left. Shading can also give a sense of texture if applied as dots
(stippling) for grainy surfaces, parallel lines for smooth or lineated surfaces,
and irregularly applied short lines for rough surfaces. Dark objects can be
textured effectively by inking over the entire object on scratch board (card-
board with a thin coating of white clay) and scratching away part of the ink
with a knife, as in Fig. 14-1. Dark backgrounds emphasize the shapes of
light objects (Fig. 4-3). Smooth all-value shading is done with ink wash,
powdered carbon, or pencil, and must be reproduced photographically.
Perspective drawings can be constructed offhand by making horizontal
lines converge toward a horizon line that is erased when the drawing is
completed (Fig. 16$) . For objects with large vertical dimensions, vertical
lines must also converge upward or downward (Fig. 16-8B). Preparation of
accurately dimensioned perspective drawings has been described by
Hoelscher and Springer (1956) and Lobeck (1958). Isometric drawings are
easier to construct than dimensioned perspective drawings and the reader
can make measurements on them by using their three axial scales, which
are identical (Fig. 16-9).
Page-size or smaller maps and sections are often essential to illustrate
structural relations, certain geologic aspects of an area, or regional relations.
They should be oriented to read like the text of the report rather than being
placed sideways. The location map may also illustrate geologic features
mentioned in the introduction to the report or in the description of the
regional setting (Fig. 16-10. An effective method of illustrating correlations
among different sets of data is to make small duplicate outline maps of the
area, plot a different set of data on each map, and mount the maps together,
as four-to-the-page, so that readers can compare them easily. Outline maps
of a pluton, for example, might be used to show fracture systems, dikes, and
)LJ Perspective diagrams based on convergence of parallel lines toward two points
(A) and three points (B).
)LJ Isometric diagram of a breccia body (lined pattern) along a fault, developed by
mine workings and drill holes. Isometric drawings may be constructed from maps and
subsurface data by: (1) making measurements along N-S, E-W, and vertical lines, and (2)
laying out these distances on the three mutually perpendicular axes of the diagram, each
of which is parallel to one of the scaled lines in the figure.
a variety of alterations. Series of small maps can also present stages in

paleogeography, tectonic history, or development of igneous centers. Addi-
tional kinds of maps are described briefly under Engineering geologic maps
in Section 16-2. Diagrammatic cross sections are often used to summarize
stratigraphic relations among surficial deposits and soils, or to show depo-
sitional models interpreted from stratigraphic data.
Diagrams commonly used are stereographic plots of structural data,
charts showing stratigraphic correlations among a number of units (as
Sando and others, 1975, p. 50); and charts summarizing past uses of
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)LJ Map used in text of a report to show location of the area, access to it, and
major geologic structures and rock units in the vicinity.
VWUDWLgraphic names compared to their use by the author (as in Sando and
others, 1975, p. 6). Charts summarizing stratigraphic units and their
corresponding events are especially valuable for reports on Quaternary
history (as Mullineaux, 1970, p. 73). Diagrams comparing thicknesses of
lithostratigraphic units to geologic age-ranges have been described by
Meyer and Dickinson (1984). For showing horizontal orientations of
currents, wind-rose graphs are recommended over sector graphs because
the latter give visual bias to the more abundant orientations (Fig. 16-11).
A variety of other graphs are described and illustrated diagrammatically
by Bishop and others (1978, p. 70), and Tufte (1983) has described the
basis, design, and preparation of a great variety of diagrams.
16-4. Designing the Report

Every scientific report consists of four basic elements that are arranged
logically as follows:
1. What was sought or intended in making the study.
2. What was actually done.
3. The data or relations that were found or measured.
4. Conclusions that can be inferred from the data and from all other
information available.
The principal subjects in each category can be determined by composing
a preliminary summary, as suggested in Section 16-1. The summary pro-
vides a central thrust or design for organizing additional topics and details.
Features relevant to the design are organized with care, down to the last
detail, whereas irrelevant although interesting ones are omitted or given
subordinate treatment. A detailed outline for one report can never serve for
another, and thus the outlines presented here are of the broadest sort. Most
Fig. 16-11. Current data accumulated in 20° intervals of azimuth and depicted by a
sector diagram (left) and wind-rose diagram. The numbered circles indicate numbers of
measurements.
apply to descriptive rather than specialized reports, and are organized

along traditional lines in parallel with the sequence noted above.
It is recommended that every report start with a statement of the
project's purpose and the principal conclusions, thus giving readers a sense
of direction as well as an interest in what is coming. This introduction does
not contravene the abstract, which consists mainly of the actual findings
of the study (Section 16-6).
5HSRUWVRQJHQHUDOJHRORJ\ are traditionally organized as follows:

1.Introduction, (a) Statement of purpose and description of main conclu-
sions; (b) location of area, as by referring to a small map that can also show
geographic and geologic data needed to describe the purpose and conclusions
(Fig. 16-10); (c) access and geography, if essential to others finding the area;
(d) summary of previous work or annotated list of more important publica-
tions (only where truly pertinent to the project); and (e) acknowledgment
of help or information received (or this can be placed at the end of the
report).
2. Methods, (a) Description of any that are new or so unusual that the
data of the report cannot be judged otherwise; (b) dates of the field work
and other studies; and (c) mention of kinds of laboratory work, such as
petrography or micropaleontology.
3. Regional setting. Geologic relations and histories needed as a framework
for the data of the area studied; typical examples are regional structures,
regionally significant stratigraphic sequences, broadly interrelated igneous
bodies, and regional patterns of metamorphism.
4. Rock units (Stratigraphy if all units are lithostratigraphic). This major
section may be introduced by a general description of the rock sequence and
its genetic interrelations, and consists otherwise of systematic descriptions
of the units in order of decreasing age, typically including: (a) mention of
the principal kinds of rocks, the thickness or shape of the unit, and perhaps
its geographic distribution; (b) brief explanation of unit name, as by refer-
ence to its original definition and any revisions; (c) complete description of
rocks (Section 3-3) and their lateral variations (descriptions need not dupli-
cate information on stratigraphic columnar sections); (d) description of unit
contacts; (e) fossils or isotopic determinations and probable geologic age of
the unit; and (f) interpreted origin.
5. Structure. An introduction may clarify geographic and age relations in
complex areas; descriptions of folds, faults, joints, brecciated rock, intrusive
relations, and melanges may be put in whatever order will make their
interrelations clearest; metamorphic minerals, fabrics, and structures
should be described together with related tectonic structures (Section 15-8);
page-size or smaller maps, sections, and diagrams may be essential.
6. Geologic history. Interpreted events, citing their age relations and geo-
logic ages, ordered chronologically; references to others’ data and ideas are
typically included; diagrammatic maps or sections may help in presenting

paleogeography or stages in tectonic evolution.
Reports with emphasis on biostratigraphy may be organized like the forego-

ing outline except for:
1. In Methods, (a) discussion of the kinds of fossils used; (b) their interre-
lations as faunas or floras; (c) methods of collecting and separating them;
and (d) discussion of the validity of the methods.
2. For each stratigraphic unit, and generally after the full rock descripti-
on: (a) lists of specific fossils collected; (b) zonations or other correlations;
and (c) ecology and environment.
3. The final interpretation will typically require correlation charts, serial
columnar sections, diagrams of depositional models, or paleographic maps.
Reports with emphasis on structure will typically include:

1. In Methods, (a) quantitative procedures and theory behind them; (b)
tests for the validity of the data; and (c) determinations of numerical ages.
2. In Structure, any information on (a) apparent movement relations, (b)
kinds and amounts of strain; (c) metamorphic and diagenetic changes asso-
ciated with deformation; (d) relations to igneous bodies; and (e) actual age
relations as distinct from inferred age relations.
3. Geologic history w ill treat one or more of many possible interpretive
topics, depending on the specific study; stereographic diagrams and maps
showing stages of tectonic development are two of many possible dia-
grammatic figures.
Reports with emphasis on ore deposits may include:

1. In Methods, (a) mapping methods and (b) sampling strategies and
procedures, with reference to theory.
2. In Regional setting, distribution of ore deposits and mineralized areas.
3. In Rock units, emphasis on units that are related to ore and mineraliza-
tion.
4. An additional section on Ores and mineralization including: (a) distri-
bution relative to rock units, fracture systems, or other structures; (b) size
and shape; (c) mineral assemblages, with age relations; (d) geometric and
age relations between ores, wall-rock alteration, and other metamorphic
features; (e) age and origin; (f) maps and descriptions of mines and partly
developed areas; and (g) suggestions for prospecting and other exploration.
Reports with emphasis on engineering geology are typically specialized

because of the wide range of subjects (Section 5-7; and see Slosson, 1984). A
broad study might include:
1. Emphasis on Methods, including (a) sources of all subsurface informa-
tion, referring to standard tests to save space but making sure reader can
tell what was done; and (b) new methods and a discussion of their validity.
Throughout the report, inferred information must be distinguished clearly
from observed or tested data.
2. Emphasis in Rock units on surficial deposits, soils, and engineering
properties (Section 5-7) with age and origin of rocks treated briefly unless
they are important to engineering decisions. Abundance and nature of
exposures are important and should be documented by outcrop maps (Sec-
tion 5-6). Where possible, descriptions of surficial units should include their
correspondence to specific landforms.
3. Emphasis in Structure on faults, degree and orientation of fracturing,
and discontinuities (as contacts) that might lead to sliding.
4. A section on Geomorphic relations as they apply to surface stability,
erosion problems, and site selections.
5. A section on Hydrology with a complete description of surface water
systems and groundwater (specific topics are suggested in the subsection
Environmental assessments, Section 5-7).
6. A section on Geologic processes or Historic events describing specific
erosion, sliding, earthquakes, ground collapse, subsidence, creep, and other
on-going processes(Section 5-7).
7. A section on Economic geology describing availability of construction
materials.
8. Engineering geology, a principal section giving specific practical judg-
ments or recommendations derived from all the foregoing, such as founda-
tion conditions per area, siting of septic and refuse systems, slope stabilities
per use or area, restrictions on quarrying and fill, and so on.
Maps, borehole logs, diagrams, and cross sections should carry as much
of these descriptions as possible. Engineers' needs and vocabulary should
guide the writing in all cases (Rose, 1965).
5HSRUWV FRQVLVWLQJ PDLQO\ RI UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV are typically
specific in scope and not intended for general geologic readers nor for the
scientific record. They are usually prepared for a limited readership and
are com-monly in-organization reports, often essentially memoranda.
They will work best for the writer if: (1) the purpose of the study and thus
the report is clearly understood by both the writer and the reader; (2) the
writer takes the reader’s interest, schedule, and idiosyncrasies into
account; and (3) the writing is as direct and convincing as possible, with
details presented in lists, tables, maps, and sections of an appendix. The
report should always begin with a statement of purpose and a brief
description of the recommen-dations and their principal logic or basis.
The remainder of the report develops a fuller argument, and can be
organized much as the outlines given above. Tichy (1966) and Rose (1965)
have given valuable suggestions for preparing this kind of report.
7KH:ULWLQJ ,WVHOI
Because many geologic relations combine elements of time, place, and

degree, clear geologic writing requires extra effort. Some general sugges-
tions are: (1) deal with only one topic at a time; (2) think carefully about
what you want to say; and (3) say it as simply and directly as possible.
Brevity is desirable but not as important as saying exactly what you mean.
After writing a sentence, study it to see if each word carries the meaning
accurately. Perhaps the statement can be made more direct by deleting
some adjectives, adverbs, or articles.
Use terms that will be understood by geologists generally, and avoid say-
ing anything that will interrupt the reader’s progress. In-words (jargon)
and vague new terms tend to have this effect. Many readers will also pause
at sexist terms, such as the he without the accompanying she. Above all, do
not let your opinions show in descriptive writing. Your readers will pause,
become wary, and begin to think thoughts other than the ones you intended.
Unless the meaning is obvious, try not to interchange words expressing
place with those expressing time, prevalence, or abundance. Locally, here
and there, nowhere, everywhere are place words; often, sometimes, frequently,
never, always are time-words; and usually, typically, generally, invariably,
ordinarily, and commonly are words expressing prevalence. Specific terms
of abundance, such as many, most, few, several, abundant, and scarce should
be used where possible instead of vague terms, such as considerable, apprec-
iable, adequate, and some.
Statements can generally be made more direct by removing any variations
of occur, exist, are present, are found, and are observed. Thus change Faults
found on the west side of to Faults on the west side of; change Occurrences of
hornfels on Stevens Hill indicate that a pluton is present at some depth beneath
to Hornfels on Stevens Hill indicates an underlying pluton; and change
Observations ofcross-bedding in the sandstones indicate currents to The cross-
bedded sandstones indicate currents. Tichy (1966, p. 123) compiled a valuable
list of similarly diffuse verbs and verbal constructions.
Avoid explaining too much (teaching), and use long, pretentious words
only when their meaning is just right. Long words based on Latin or Greek
are numerous in geology and can in some cases be replaced by simpler ones,
such as stratification by bedding, highly indurated by tough, dessicated by
dry lithologic unit by rock unit, arenaceous by sandy, portion by part,
melanocratic by dark, transformation by change, and homogeneous by uni-
form . Nongeologic words and phrases that result in false elegance or
wordiness can be corrected by using the list prepared by Tichy (1966, p.
137).
Data, strata, criteria, and media are the plural forms of datum, stratum,
criterion, and medium. And note the use of each of the italicized words:
The study comprised current measurements, mapping, and petrography.

The formation is composed of (or consists of) sandstone and shale.
The three intrusions constitute a genetic series.
The evidence implies these events— .
The geologist inferred the event from these relations— .
The section “Review of English I ” in Bishop and others (1978) presents
many additional suggestions for word usage and correct writing.
Degrees of precision and accuracy are important in geologic descriptions
and can often be covered without long statements. Doubt in identification
or correlation may be expressed by inserting a question mark, as metamor-
phosed Daley(?) Shale Tertiary (?) intrusions, and rhyolite(?) vitric tuff.
Ranges and averages of quantitative data can be written as 5-17 m (average,
12 m). Significance of numbers is shown by rounding off to the order of
reliability; for example, a stratigraphic thickness accumulated by measur-
ing ten units to the nearest meter might sum to 2717 m, but would be given
in the text as about 2720 m or about 2700 m. Customarily, numbers
followed by a plus or minus quantity, such as 113 ±5 , indicate reliability
with approximately a 90% degree of confidence (two standard deviations).
Use the metric system generally, but include English equivalents when
appropriate for readers who will need them.
Rock names are described in Chapter 4 and geographic names in Section
16-2. Fossil names are covered by rules of biologic taxonomy that were pre-
sented succinctly by Schenk and McMasters (1956). Guidelines for use of
fossil names and for expressing degrees of uncertainty in identifications are
also described by Bishop and others (1978, p. 181). Geologic terms can be
checked for spelling and meaning by reference to Bates and Jackson (1980,
1984).
Use of stratigraphic names and names of unstratified rock units should
follow the stratigraphic code (North American Commission on Stratigra-
phic Nomenclature, 1983). Modifications of the code will be made from time
to time, and references to them are available from the Chairman of the
Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature (c/o American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, Box 979, Tulsa, OK 74101). Correct current usage of
specific unit names can be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey, as
described in Section 5-3.
6W\OH, as used here, is the overall aspect of writing that guides the
reader's flow of thought, of appreciation, and of feeling. When style is right,
the reader gets exactly what the writer intended to convey. Moreover, the
reader is unaware of getting it, and thus reads on easily to the next topic
and the next. The meanings of words and phrases are a major element of
style, as are their spoken sound and the degree of emphasis and rhythm
they impart to phrases and sentences. Lengths of sentences and para-
graphs, parallelism within paragraphs, and departures from normal syntax
are further elements of style. T o learn about these specifics and at the same
time get a sense of first-rate style, read Strunk and White (1959) from cover
to cover. Read it carefully and in one sitting if possible (it’s a little book).
Revision is typically essential but of little value until a complete draft of
the report can be set aside for several weeks. Other tasks can be completed
during this period, as final drafting of figures and writing figure captions.
When it is time for revising, try reading the report aloud or have someone
read it to you. Another way to sense major problems with awkward or
heavy writing is to first read something that is well written; for example,
reread Strunk and White (1959). Comparing the figures and figure captions
with the text will almost always lead to simplification. Let the figures
carry as much of the presentation as possible, and avoid giving the same
information in text and captions.
6SHFLILF3DUWVRIWKH5HSRUW )RUPDW
Acknowledgmentsare traditionally placed either in the introduction or
at the end of the report. They credit help from individuals and organizations
not cited elsewhere in the report. Each credit should be simple and specific
and need not state gratitude (which will be implied).
References cited in the report are listed alphabetically by author in a
separate section placed immediately after the last part of the text. The
exact style of citations varies from decade to decade and journal to journal,
so that recent journal issues should be consulted for preparing lists that
will be published. Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey or the Geolog-
ical Society of America may be used as guides for reports that will not be
published; however, fuller references (e.g., those in this book) are never
incorrect. The basic rule is to include enough information so that readers
can find the items in libraries easily. Names of journals should not be
abbreviated unless the terms will be absolutely clear.
Citations in the text are given by the author’s name and the year of
publication. Page numbers should be included if the reader will need them
to find the relevant material, such as topics in long documents that are not
subheaded or indexed. Citations for unpublished information should give
the person’s full name, an affiliation if appropriate, and the nature and date
of the communication; for example, The fossils were identified by William P.
Nash of the Illinois State Survey (written communication, 1974).
Many abstracts prepared for talks are inaccurate or incomplete because
they are written long before studies are completed. Thus always correspond
with authors before using and citing these sources.
Lists and tables may save space or may present data more clearly than it
could be presented in the text. Lists are organized in one or two columns,
and the items should have parallel construction if they are statements. The
stratigraphic log in Section 11-9 is an example. Items in tables are divided
by horizontal and vertical lines or by enough space to imply these lines.

Tables typically present data sets or classifications based on two kinds of
variance (Table 4-2). Tables may be ideal for comparing the characterizing
properties and features of a sequence of rock units.
Lists are generally introduced directly by the text and are within the
text, whereas tables have titles and are presented much like figures.
References to sources and other pertinent information in tables are gener-
ally placed at the base of the table. Bishop and others (1978, p. 82) have
given additional suggestions and several examples for composing moder-
ately complex tables.
The abstract was well defined by Landes (1966) as “ a condensation and
concentration of the essential information in the paper” (his italics). A good
time to prepare an abstract is just after the first revision of the report,
when the material is well in mind but the report is not quite finished. The
preliminary summary described in Section 16-1 may be a useful first
version of an abstract but it may have to be condensed, because most
abstracts should be no more than two typed pages long, and those for
published papers shorter than a page. A general suggestion, however, is not
to be too concerned about length at the outset. Say all that seems necessary
and condense it later.
Overall, the abstract should give the study’s purpose, methods, and
principal results. The results are its main subject and should comprise
data and relations as well as the conclusions they imply. The brevity
required causes some writers to give up and write such statements as
Structural and textural relations between the granitic bodies and the meta-
morphic rocks indicate that metamorphism and intrusion were synchronous,
when they could have said Concentric patterns o f mapped mineral zones and
metamorphic textures in early granitic dikes indicate metamorphism and
intrusion were synchronous. The idea is to make the abstract as informative
and specific as possible. It is the only part of the report that most people will
manage.
Points need not be in the same order as they are in the text although that
is preferable. Ideal coverage will vary from report to report; however, it is
generally preferable to deal firmly with important topics rather than to
cover all topics.
As in the main text, write to the reader. A sign of success will be wanting
to modify the text when the abstract is finished.
The format of a report comprises: (1) typing it double-spaced throughout,
with margins of at least 1 in. on all sides; (2) using headings and subhead-
ings to guide the reader where necessary, and making their rank obvious;
(3) leaving an extra space after each headed section; (4) numbering pages
throughout, including illustrations bound with the text; (5) omitting foot-
notes, if necessary by modifying the text; and (6) inserting figures and
tables where they will be most useful to the reader. Plates are oversized
illustrations that are folded and inserted in an envelope glued firmly inside
the back cover of the report or placed in a separate, fully titled cover. Plates
should either be folded so that the plate number can be seen without
unfolding them, or the number should be lettered on the outside of the
folded plate.
)URQW PDWWHU generally consists of a title page, an abstract, a table
of contents, and a list of illustrations, in that order. In addition to the title
of the report, the title page includes the name of the author, his or
her affiliation during the project, and the date when the report was
completed (or published). The abstract has already been described. The
table of contents is a paginated list of headings and subheadings, but
perhaps without those of lowest rank, such as the repetitive subheads
under each rock unit. The rank of headings is indicated by indenting each
successively lesser rank at last five spaces to the right. The list of
illustrations gives numbers, captions, and pages of text figures, and then
numbers and names of plates. Long captions should be reduced in the list,
as from Outcrop of Farley Conglomerate viewed from the east, showing
cross sections of filled stream channels to Outcrop of Farley Conglomerate or
Channel structures in Farley Conglomerate, depending on the chief message.
5HIHUHQFHV&LWHG
Bates, R. L., and Jackson, J. A., editors, 1980, Glossary of Geology, 2nd edition:Falls
Church, VA, American Geological Institute, 749 p.
Bates, R. L., and Jackson ,J. A., editors, 1984, Dictionary of geological terms:Garden
City, NY, Anchor Press/Doubleday, 571 p.
Bishop, E. E., Eckel, E. B., and others; Eric,J. H., coordinator, 1978, Suggestionsto
authors of the reports of the United States Geological Survey, 6th edition: Wash-
ington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 273 p.
Cochran, W., Fenner, P., and Hill, M., editors, 1979, Geowriting; a guide to writing;
editing, and printing in earth science, 3rd edition: Falls Church, VA, American
Geological Institute, 80 p.
Easterbrook, D. J., 1973, Map showing percolation rates of earth materials in western
Whatcom County, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologic
Investigations Map I-854-A.
Easterbrook, D. J., 1976, Map showing engineering characteristics of geologic mate-
rials, western Whatcom County, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Miscel-
laneous Investigations Series Map I-854-D.
Hoelscher, R. P., and Springer, C. H., 1956, Engineering drawing andgeometry: New
York, John Wiley & Sons, 520 p.
Landes, K. K., 1966, A scrutiny of the abstract, II: American Association of Petro-
leum Geologists Bulletin, v. 50, p. 1992.
Lobeck, A. K., 1958, Block diagrams and other graphic methods used in geology and
geography, 2nd edition: Amherst, MA, Emerson-Trussell Book Co., 212 p.
Meyer, L., and Dickinson, W. R., 1984, Time-thickness diagrams: Simultaneous
display of lithostratigraphic thickness and chronostratigraphic age: Geology, v.
12, p. 7.
Mullineaux, D. R., 1970, Geology of the Renton, Auburn, and Black Diamond quad-
rangles, King County, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
672, 92 p.
North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 1983, North Ameri-
can stratigraphic code: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
v. 67, p. 841-875.
Pewe, T. L., and Bell, J. W., 1976, Map showingfoundation conditions in the Fairbanks
D-2 SWquadrangle, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investiga-
tions Series Map I-829-E.
Rose, D., 1965, A civil engineer reads a geology report: Geotimes, v. 10, no. 1, p. 9-12.
Sando, W. J., MacKenzie, G. Jr., and DutroJ. T.,Jr., 1975, Stratigraphy andgeologic
history of the Amsden Formation (Mississippian and Pennsylvanian) of Wyo-
ming. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 848-A, 83 p.
Schenk, E. T., and McMasters, J. H., 1956, Procedure in taxonomy, 3rd edition
(revised by A. M. Keen and S. W. Muller): Stanford, CA, Stanford University
Press, 149 p.
Slosson,J. E., 1984, Genesis and evolution of guidelines for geologic reports: Asso-
ciation of Engineering Geologists Bulletin, v. 21, p. 295-316.
Strunk, W., Jr., with revisions, an introduction, and a new chapter on writing by E.
B. White, 1959, The elements of style, New York, Macmillan Co., 71 p.
Tichy, H. J., 1966, Effective writing fo r engineers, managers, scientists: New York,
John Wiley & Sons, 337 p.
Tufte, E. R., 1983, The visual display of quantitative information: Cheshire, CT,
Graphics Press, 197 p.
Varnes, D. J., 1974, The logic of geologic maps, with reference to their interpretation
and use fo r engineering purposes: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
837, 48 p.
Ŷ Appendixes
$33(1',; (TXLSPHQWDQG6XSSOLHVIRU*HRORJLF )LHOG:RUN

BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
Most of the items in this check list are described in Chapter 2 and in Section
6-2, or Section 7-1. For a list of equipment for plane table mapping, see
Table 8-1.
Adhesive tape Mineral hardness set
Aerial photographs and indexes Moil
Altimeter Needles, for marking photographs, etc.
Auger, soil Notebooks, field
Binoculars Paper, lined
Calculator, pocket Paper, quadrille
Camera, tripod, film, etc. Paper, scratch
Canteens Pen, drop circle
Cement, cellulose Pen holders
Chemicals for staining rocks Pen points
Cold chisel Pen, ruling
Color pencils Pens, ballpoint
Colored tape or paint for marking Pens, inkflow, for photographs
localities Pencils, 3B to 9H
Compass, Brunton or other Pencil pocket clips
Clinometer (or Brunton compass) Pencil pointer (file or sandpaper)
Drawing board Pick or mattock
Erasers Plastic drafting film, matte-surfaced
Field case for maps and photographs Pocket knife
Field glasses Proportional dividers
First aid kit Protracters
Flashlight Rain gear
Gloves Rangefinder
Gold pan Reference library
Grain-size card Safety goggles
Hammer, geologist’s Sample bags
Hand lens Scale, plotting, 6 in.
Hand level (or Brunton compass) Shovel
Hydrochloric acid, dilute Stereographic net
Ink, waterproof; black, brown, blue, Stereoscopes
red, and green Straightedge, steel
Insect repellent Tables, mathematical
Jacob staff Tally counter
Knapsack Tape, 6-ft
Lettering set Tape, 100-ft
Looseleaf binder Triangles, drawing
Magnet T-square
Maps, topographic, geologic Typewriter
Microscope, binocular Watch
363
$33(1',; $EEUHYLDWLRQVRI*HRORJLF7HUPV
Abbreviations for nouns are capitalized to distinguish them from adjectives

(see, for example, dolomite and dolomitic). For a more extensive list, see
Mitchell, J.G., and Maher, J.C., 1957, Suggested abbreviations for lithologic
descriptions: Bulletin o f the American Association o f Petroleum Geologists,
vol. 41, p. 2103-2107.
abundant abnt clinopyroxene Cpx
acicular acic cobble Cbl
actinolite Act conglomerate Cgl
aggregate Aggr contact Ctc
albite Ab cordierite Cord
amorphous amor corundum Cor
amount Amt cross-bedded xbdd
amphibole Amph cross-bedding Xbdg
amphibolite Ampht cross-laminated xlam
andalusite Andal cross section X sect
angle L crystal XI
angular ang crystalline xln
andesite And diameter Diam
anhedral anhed different diff
anhydrite Anhy diopside Diop
approximate approx disseminated dissem
arenaceous aren dolomite Dol
argillaceous arg dolomitic dol
argillite Arg elevation Elev
arkosic ark equivalent equiv
arsenopyrite Ars evaporite Evap
asphaltic asph exposure Exp
average Ave feldspathic feld
bedded bdd foliated fol
bedding Bdng foliation Fol
bentonite Bent foraminifer Foram
biotite Bio formation Fm
bituminous bit fragmental frag
boulder Bldr glauconite Glauct
brachiopod Brach granite Gr
breccia Bx granodiorite Grd
calcareous calc granular gran
carbonaceous carb graptolite Grap
cavernous cav graywacke Gwke
cement Cmt greenstone Grnst
chalcedony Chal gypsiferous gyp
chalcopyrite Cp hematitic hem
chlorite Chi horizontal horiz
claystone Cist hornblende Hbl
cleavage Civ hornfels Hfls
Appendix 2 365
hypidiomorphic hypid pyritic py

igneous ign pyroxene Px
ignimbrite Ignm pyroxenite Pxt
ilmenite Ilm pyrrhotite Pyrr
inclusion Incl quartz Qz
interbedded intbdd quartzite Qzt
intrusion Intr radiolarian Rad
irregular ireg reconnaissance Recon
joint Jnt regular reg
kaolinite Kaol rhyolite Rhy
K-feldspar Kspar rocks Rx
laminated lam rounded rndd
limestone Ls sandstone Ss
limonite Lim saturated sat
lithologic lith secondary sec
magnetite Mag sediment Sed
maximum Max sedimentary sed
member Mbr serpentine Spt
metamorphic met siliceous sil
microline Micr siltstone Sltst
montmorillonite Mont soluble sol
mudstone Mdst sphalerite Sphal
muscovite Muse station Sta
nepheline Neph staurolite Staur
nodular nod structure Struc
olivine 01 stratigraphic strat
orthopyroxene Opx surficial surf
orthoclase Orth tabular tab
outcrop Otcp temperature T
pebble Pbl topographic topo
pegmatite Peg tourmaline Tourm
peridotite Perid tremolite Trem
permeability Perm unconformity Uncf
phenocryst Pheno variegated vrtg
phlogopite Phlog vegetation Veg
phosphatic phos vertebrate Vrtb
plagioclase Plag volcanic vole
point Pt volume Vol
porphyritic porph wollastonite Woll
probable prob xenolith Xen
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Appendix 3 367
*To convert the results to weight percentages, multiply each volume percentage by the
specific gravity of that mineral and recalculate the resulting numbers so that they
sum to 100.
25%
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A material s strength is its resistance to breaking under compression, and

its hardness is its resistance to scratching or grinding. Strength varies
with degree of coherence and, for most clay-rich materials, with moisture
content. The scales presented here are not standards but may serve for
systematic comparisons. The hammer tests should be made with a 2-lb
hammer on pieces about 4 in. (10 cm) thick placed on a solid, hard surface,
and tests with the hands should be made on pieces about 1.5 in. (4 cm)
thick. The pieces must not have incipient fractures, and therefore several
should be tested. The sound tests, which are only accessory, should be
made on solid outcrops or on fragments thicker than 1 ft (0.3m).
A. SCALE OF STRENGTH
1. Loose. Sediment flows when dry and thus cannot be sampled in
aggregate.
2. Veryfriable. Sediment crumbles so easily that pieces are difficult to
collect intact.
3. Friable. Sediment crumbles under light pressure in the hands.
4. Somewhat friable. Rock breaks in the hands under moderate
pressure.
5. Firm , slightly friable. Rock breaks with difficulty in the hands but
readily by hammer blows, sounding a dull “ whop.”
6. Weak, nonfriable. Rock cannot be broken in the hands but breaks
under light hammer blows, sounding “ whop.”
7. Moderately strong. Rock breaks under moderate hammer blows, sounding
“ whap.”
8. Strong. Rock breaks under hard hammer blows, sounding “ whack,”
with a ring.
9. Very strong. Rock difficult to break with hammer, sounding “ boink.”
10. Unusually strong. Rock impossible to break with hammer, sounding
like steel.
B. SCALE OF ROCK HARDNESS
1. Soft. All rocks weaker than 5 on the scale above.
2. Moderately hard. Slightly friable or nonfriable rocks consisting mainly
of soft minerals, as carbonates, sulfates, micas, and clays.
3. Hard. Nonfriable rocks consisting almost entirely of minerals with
hardnesses of 4, 5, or 6 on the Mohs scale, and quartz-rich rocks with
strength of 6 or 7.
4. Very hard. Rocks stronger than 7 on the scale above and consisting
mainly of minerals harder than 6 on the Mohs scale.
Appendix 5 369
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The dimensions given in the diagrams below are ideal (for example, some
townships are somewhat more or less than 6 mi on a side). Most section
corners and some corners can be found in the field by a vertical pipe
with ascribedbrasshead,orbyaconcreteorstonemarker.As examples
of location notations, the 40-acre plot (lower right) is the SE of the
SE of Sec. 12, T2S, R1W, and point A is 394 ft south and 552 ft
east of the N corner of Sec. 12, T2S, R1W.
R2W R1W R1E R2E R3E R4E T3N
1 mi
^ 6 5 4 3 2 1 O A
7 8 9 10 11 12 '
N W 1/4 N E 1/4
18 17 16 15 14 13
T2S
19 20 21 22 23 24 ^ C e n te r Sec. 12
30 29 28 27 26 25
31 32 33 34 35 36
S W 1/4 SEV4
R1W
[ 40 acres
^ i
Section corner K 1/4 corner
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Color is an important aspect of materials, and it must be standardized
for two reasons: (1) a given color will often be named differently by different
persons, and (2) a given color w ill appear differently when seen next to
other colors (e.g., gray appears bluish when seen next to orange or brown
earth colors). Both of these problems can be resolved by use of charts that
provide a color notation based on standard color chips, and that permit
comparisons against a neutral gray background. The most widely accepted
system of color notation in the United States is the Munsell color system,
and it is the basis of the Munsell Soil Color Charts, which provide a detailed
coverage of colors characteristic of soils, sediments, and most rocks. These
charts are bound in a hard loose-leaf cover and are available from the Mun-
sell Color Company, 2441N. Calvert St., Baltimore, MD 21218. A somewhat
broader but less detailed coverage is given in the Rock-Color Chart, available
from The Geological Society of America, P.O. Box 9410, Boulder, CO 80301.
The descriptions and instructions given below specify the Munsell Soil
Color Charts but can be applied readily to the Rock-Color Chart.
Each chart is based on a primary color or on a specific mixture of primary
colors, designated by a symbol at the top of the chart. As examples, the hue
of the chart with the symbol 5R is spectrum red; the chart 5Y is spectrum
yellow; and the chart 5YR spectrum orange. Additional charts are based on
intermediate hues, such as 7.5 YR, which is a yellowish orange. For each
chart, the basic hue is mixed with near-white in five or six graded steps
arranged across the top of the chart, from near-white on the left to the
fullest chroma (amount of the basic hue) appearing in most soils and rocks
(see the diagram). Black is then mixed with each of these chromatic divi-
sions to give seven grades (values) forming vertical sets of chips that range
from mixtures with nearly pure white to mixtures with nearly pure black
(pure white would have a value of 10 and black a value of 0). Colors thus
become lighter in value from bottom to top and more intensely colored
(chromatic) from left to right. No chart has a full array of chips because
colors not represented in natural materials are omitted.
Small sediment or rock samples are placed under the apertures in order
to find a color match. The color is then recorded as the letter-and-number of
the chart plus the numbers of the value and chroma. For example, a rock
matching the chip X in the diagram would be color 5YR 6/4. Intermediate
colors can usually be estimated to the nearest half-and-half mixture, and
are designated accordingly (as 5YR 6.5/4). Color names are given on the
page facing each chart but are not subdivided as fully as the color chips and
their notation.
Appendix 6 371
5YR
Color chip
8/
Aperture
II
6
Ōnnnnu
VALUE
5/
4/
nnnnnn
3/
LILT
2.51
n 12 /3 IA /6 /8
---- CHROMA -------------ź
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Contact, showing dip where trace is horizontal, and strike and dip
where trace is inclined
&RQWDFW, located approximately (give limits)
--Contact, located very approximately, or conjectural

---
Contact, concealed beneath mapped units
Contact, gradational (optional symbols)
Fault, nonspecific, well located (optional symbols)
Fault, nonspecific, located approximately
Fault, nonspecific, assumed (existence uncertain)
Fault, concealed beneath mapped units
Fault, high-angle, showing dip (left) and approximate dips
Fault, low-angle, showing approximate dip and strike and dip
Fault, high-angle normal (D or ball and bar on downthrown side)
Fault, reverse 5on upthrown side)
Fault, high-angle strike-slip (example is left lateral)
Fault, thrust 7 on overthrust side)
Fault, low-angle normal or detachment (D on downthrown side)
Fault, low-angle strike-slip (example is right lateral)
Fault, low-angle, overturned (teeth in direction of dip)
Optional sets of symbols for different age-groups of faults
Fault zone or shear zone, width to scale (dip and other accessory
symbols may be added)
Faults with arrows showing plunge of rolls, grooves or
slickensides
Fault showing bearing and plunge of net slip
Point of inflection (bar) on a high-angle fault
Points of inflection on a strike-slip fault passing into a thrust

Fault intruded by a dike
Faults associated with veins
Anticline, showing trace and plunge of hinge or crest line

(specify)
Syncline (as above), showing dip of axial surface or trough
surface
Folds (as above), located approximately
Folds, conjectural
Folds beneath mapped units

Asymmetric folds with steeper limbs dipping north (optional
symbols)
Anticline (top) and syncline, overturned
Synformal (inverted) anticline
Antiform (top) and synform (stratigraphic sequence unknown)
Separate dome (left) and basin
Culmination (left) and depression

Small anticline and syncline, showing shapes in horizontal
section
Vertically plunging anticline and syncline
Monocline, south-facing, showing traces of axial surfaces
Steeply plunging monocline or flexure, showing trace in

horizontal section and plunge of hinges
Plunge of hinge lines of small folds, showing shapes in horizontal
section
Strike and dip of beds or bedding
Strike and dip of overturned beds

Strike and dip of beds where stratigraphic tops are known from
primary features
Strike and dip of vertical beds or bedding (dot is on side known to
be stratigraphically the top)
Horizontal beds or bedding (as above)
Approximate (typically estimated) strike and dip of beds
Strike of beds exact but dip approximate
Trace of single bed, showing dip where trace is horizontal and where
it is inclined
Strike and dip of foliation (optional symbols)
Strike of vertical foliation
Horizontal foliation
Strike and dip of bedding and parallel foliation
Strike and dip of joints (left) and dikes (optional symbols)
Vertical joints (left) and dikes
Horizontal joints (left) and dikes
Strike and dip of veins (optional symbols)
Vertical veins
Horizontal veins
Bearing (trend) and plunge of lineation
Vertical and horizontal lineations
Bearing and plunge of cleavage-bedding intersection
Bearing and plunge of cleavage-cleavage intersections
Bearings of pebble, mineral, etc. lineations
Bearing of lineations in plane of foliation
Horizontal lineation in plane of foliation
Verti cal lineation in plane of vertical foliation

Bearing of current from primary features; from upper left:
general; from cross-bedding; from flute casts; from imbrication
Appendix 7 375
Bearing of wind direction from dune forms (left) and cross-

bedding
Bearing of ice flow from striations (left) and orientation
of striations
Bearing of ice flow from drumlins
Bearing of ice flow from crag and tail forms
Spring
Thermal spring
Mineral spring
Asphaltic deposit
Bituminous deposit
Sand, gravel, clay, or placer pit
Mine, quarry, or open pit
Shafts: vertical, inclined, and abandoned
Adit, open (left) and inaccessible
Trench (left) and prospect
Water wells: flowing, nonflowing, and dry
Oil well (left) and gas well
Well drilled for oil or gas, dry
Wells with shows of oil (left) and gas
Oil or gas well, abandoned (left) and shut in
Drilling well or well location
Glory hole, open pit, or quarry, to scale

$33(1',;
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1. Breccia 2. Clast-supported 3. Matrix-supported 4. Conglomeratic

conglomerate conglomerate sandstone
v' uY: !< h\

::V :'•ʄ’I'.-'. '
• ’4 ?- '• : u * .•n-N- i
7. Feldspathic 8. Tuffaceous
sandstone sandstone sandstone
9. Graywacke 10. Cross-bedded 11. Bedded 12. Calcite-cemented

sandstone sandstone sandstone
13. Dolomite- 14. Silty 15. Siltstone 16. Mudstone

cemented sandstone sandstone
Q-z.
17. Shale 19. Pebbly 20. Calcareous

mudstone shale
3 r Z ! _ 1 1
21. Limestone 22. Cross-bedded 23. Dolomite 24. Dolomitic
limestone (dolostone) limestone
25. Calcitic 26. Sandy 27. Clayey 28. Cherty

dolomite limestone limestone limestone
29. Bedded 30. Phosphorite, 31. Chalk 32. Marl

chert phosphatic shale
ML _ _ G 2 R
^ 1
1^ i«> \ «
_ _ $ _ _

R
6 6 6
1 , ^ «1
33. Fossiliferous 34. Oolitic 35. Pelletal 36. Intraclastic
limestone limestone limestone limestone
Ŷ 9 F F I 0 _ 0 _ 0 > T J ^ 7 1 ³

F F F ²² L² ² U U
to 0 _ P
37. Crystalline 38. Micritic 39. Algal 40. Limestone
limestone limestone dolomite conglomerate
Appendix 8 377
~t"1-"f ~ ~~
41. Limestone
breccia
mi
42. Algal dolomite
breccia
43. Gypsum bed,
gypsiferous shale
~7A7 f
44. Anhydrite, anhy-
dritic dolomite
==
++++++
~
+ + + ++.
~~~=-§_-=-~~ ++~+++
+++++-
45. Rock salt, 46. Peridotite 47. Gabbro 48. Mafic plutonic
salty mudstone rock
~ o ~; o~--~
~ll~~ 17~0,d
ae:,o ~ ~c:f~ " ~ 4
49. Coarse 50. Fine 51. Porphyritic 52. Porphyritic
granitic rock granitic rock plutonic rock plutonic rock
>< )(.)()(XX
)( )C)(X)(.
V V V V V
r V
53. Mafic lava 54. Silicic lava 55. Intrusive 56. Pillow lava
volcanic rocks
H4Hi::J li~ ~ II II II ., I II 4' II ~ II V II ~
4 • H• O .ti
~ H.. .- .. " u u :3 fl <S II 4 II Cl
tt .Cl. H .. c1'.H.b I II II II I(
u O ,, <) u
. . . . .. - ll I
~ U
57. Hyaloclastite 58. Tuff 59. Tuff-breccia 60. Volcanic breccia
'+ '';+'-+ -
, \'+'-+.'
~ ~~~-
\ I_ • ~I_ I ,. / : 4S-'5-s-
~
~~~
I ' /, ', - '
/ ( ,-~ - '' I -
61. Massive 62. Foliated 63. Schist 64. Crenulated

serpentinite serpentinite schist
66. Semischistose 67. Semischistose 68. Semischistose

sandstone limestone gabbro
69. Greenstone 70. Silicic 71. Mafic 72. Marble

gneiss gneiss
73. Foliated
marble
74. Foliated calc-
silicate rock
la~::>l - ··;~ :..
76. Alteration
zones
~ bti'
~~~
: '.;·
:
77. Quartzite 78. Quartzite 79. Silicic 80. Mafic
migmatite migmatite
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Algae Tree trunk fallen
Algal mats Trilobites
Ammonites Vertebrates
Belemnites Wood
Brachiopods Beds distinct
Bryozoans Beds obscure
Corals, solitary Unbedded
Corals, colonial Graded beds
Crinoids Planar cross-bedding
Echinoderms Trough cross-bedding
Echinoids Ripple structures
Fish bones Cut and fill
Fish scales Load casts
Foraminifers, general Scour casts
Foraminifers, large Convolution
Fossils Slumped beds
Fossils abundant Paleosol

Fossils sparse Mud cracks
Gastropods Salt molds
Graptolites Burrows
Leaves Pellets
Ostracodes Oolites
Pelecypods Pisolites
Root molds Intraclasts
Spicules Stylolite
Stromatolites Concretion
Tree trunk in place Calcitic concretion
*Chiefly after the Standard Legend of the Royal Dutch/Shell Group of Companies (Shell International
Petroleum Maatschappij B. V., The Hague, July 1977)
Appendix 10 379
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I
Age estimates of
Eon or Era or
Period or System Epoch or Series boundaries in
Eonothem Erathem millions of years2
-
Quaternary Holocene
(Cl) 0.010 -
Pleistocene
Neogene
2 (1.7-2.2) -
Pliocene
Cenozoic Subperiod or 5 (4.9-5.3) -
(Cz) Subsystem (N) Miocene
Tertiary , ...
1))1 /l)'l 'lC\
''"-,u, -
(T) Paleogene Oligocene
38 (34-38) -
Subperiod or Eocene
Subsystem (PB) 55 (54-56) -
Paleocene
63 (63-66) -
Cretaceous Late Upper
(K) Early Lower
-96 (95-97) -
138 (135-141) -
Mesozoic Jurassic Late Upper
Middle Middle
(Mz) (J) Early Lower
Late Upper
205 (200-215) -
Triassic Middle Middle
Phanerozoic (R) Early Lower
~ 'lAn
C..,V -
Permian Late Upper
(P) Early Lower
Late Upper
290 (290-305) -
Pennsylvanian
Carbon-
( IP) Middle Middle
iferous Early Lower
Periods or -330 -
Systems Mississippian Late Upper
(C) (M) Early Lower
~aleozoic 360 (360-365) -
(Pz) Devonian Late Upper
Middle Middle
(D) Early Lower
Late Upper
410 (405-415) -
Silurian Middle Middle
(S) Early Lower
Late Upper
435 (435-440) -
Ordovician Middle Middle
(0) Early Lower
Late Upper
500 (495-510) -
Cambrian Middle Middle
(£) Early Lower
-5702 -
Late Proterozoic4 (Z)
<") Proterozoic 900 -
($' Middle Proterozoic 4 (Y)
-
-Cl.
C:
~
(e)
Early Proterozoic4 (X)
Late Archean 4(W)
1600
2500 -
is 3000 -
E Archean Middle Archean4 (V)
~
(.)
Q)
(A)
Early Archean 4 (U)
3400 -
d:
- ~e-Ar~he;n (pA)-an .info;mai time term without specific r;,;-·- - · -·- -·- ....
3800?
4550
Format modified slightly from Sohl, N.L., and Wright, W.B. (1980, Changes in stratigraphic nomen-
clature by the U.S. Geological Survey, 1979: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1502-A, p. A1-A3.),
with Precambrian units from Harrison, J.E., and Peterman, Z.E. (1980, A preliminary proposal for
the Precambrian of the United States and Mexico: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 91,
Q 1128-1133). See these articles for sources of the original data.
Ranges reflect uncertainties of isotopic and biostratigraphic age assignments. Ages of boundariesnot
closely bracketed by data shown by_ .
A time term without specific rank.
Time terms only.
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l_\, Sine Cos. Tan. Cot. Li Sine Cos. Tan. Cot.

0° .0000 .0000 infin. 23° .3907
oo
1.000 .9205 .4245 2.356 67°
.0087 .9999 .0087 114.6 .3987 .9171 .4348 2.300
1° .0175 .9998 .0175 57.29 89° 24° .4067 .9135 .4452 2.246 66°
.0262 .9997 .0262 38.19 .4167 .9100 .4557 2.194
2° .0349 .9994 .0349 28.64 25° .4226 .9063 .4663 2.145 65°
00
o
00
.0436 .9990 .0437 22.90 .4305 .9026 .4770 2.097
3° .0523 .9986 .0524 19.08 26° .4384 .8988 .4877 2.050 64°
00
o
.0610 .9981 .0612 16.35 .4462 .8949 .4986 2.006
<3
00
4° .0698 .9976 .0699 14.30 27° .4540 .8910 .5095 1.963 63°
.0785 .9969 .0787 12.71 .4617 .8870 .5206 1.921
5° .0872 .9962 .0875 11.43 85° 28° .4695 .8829 .5317 1.881 62°
.0958 .9954 .0963 10.39 .4772 .8788 .5430 1.842
6° .1045 .9945 .1051 9.514 84° 29° .4841 .8746 .5543 1.804 61°
.1132 .9936 .1139 8.777 .4924 .8704 .5658 1.767
00
CO
7° .1219 8.144 .8660 .5774 1.732

o
.9925 .1228 .5000 60°

CO
O
o
.1305 .9914 .1317 7.596 .5075 .8616 .5890 1.698

8° .1392 .9903 .1405 7.115 31° .5150 .8572 .6009 1.664 59°
00
o
CM
.1478 .9890 .1490 6.691 .5225 .8526 .6128 1.632

9° .1564 .9877 .1584 6.314 81° 32° .5299 .8480 .6249 1.603 58°
.1650 .9863 .1673 5.976 .5373 .8434 .6371 1.570
CO
CO
.1763 .8387 .6494 1.540 57°

o
10° .1736 .9848 5.671 .5446

00
O
o
.1822 .9833 .1853 5.396 .5519 .8339 .6619 1.511

11° .1908 .9816 .1944 5.145 79° 34° .5592 .8290 .6745 1.483 56°
.1994 .9799 .2035 4.915 .5664 .8241 .6873 1.455
00
12° .2079 .2126 4.705 35° .5736 .8192 .7002 1.428 55°
o
.9781
.2164 .9763 .2217 4.511 .5807 .8142 .7133 1.402
13° .2250 .9744 .2309 4.331 77° 36° .5878 .8090 .7265 1.376 54°
.2334 .9724 .2401 4.165 .5948 .8039 .7400 1.351
14° .2419 .9703 .2493 4.011 76° 37° .6018 .7986 .7536 1.327 53°
.2504 .9681 .2586 3.867 .6088 .7934 .7673 1.303
15° .2588 .9659 .2679 3.732 75° 38° .6157 .7880 .7813 1.280 52°
.2672 .9636 .2773 3.606 .6225 .7826 .7954 1.257
16° .2756 .9613 .2867 3.487 74° 39° .6293 .7771 .8098 1.235 51°
.2840 .9588 .2962 3.376 .6361 .7716 .8243 1.213
17° .2924 .9563 .3057 3.271 73° 40° .6428 .7660 .8391 1.192 50°
.3007 .9537 .3153 3.172 .6494 .7604 .8541 1.171
18° .3090 .9511 .3249 3.078 72° 41° .6561 .7547 .8693 1.150 49°
.3173 .9483 .3346 2.989 .6626 .7490 .8847 1.130
19° .3256 .9455 .3443 2.904 71° 42° .6691 .7431 .9004 1.106 48°
.3338 .9426 .3541 2.824 .6756 .7373 .9163 1.091
20° .3420 .9397 .3640 2.747 43° .6820 .7314 .9325 1.072 47°
O
o-
o
.3502 .9367 .3739 2.675 .6883 .7254 .9490 1.054

21° .3584 .9336 .3839 2.605 69° 44° .6947 .7193 .9657 1.036 46°
.3665 .9304 .3939 2.539 .7009 .7133 .9827 1.018
22° .3746 .9272 .4040 2.475 68° 45° .7071 .7071 1.000 1.000 45°
.3827 .9239 .4142 2.414 .7133 .7009 1.018 .9827
Cos. Sin. Cot. Tan. L\ Cos. Sine Cot. Tan. L\
Appendix 12 381
$33(1',; (TXLYDOHQFH$PRQJ&RPPRQ (QJOLVKDQG0HWULF8QLWV
Underlined numbers are exact; others are rounded to the nearest numeral
on the far right.
1 m = 1000 mm; 100 cm; 10 dm; 0.1 dkm; 0.01 hectometer; 0.001 km
1 km = 1000 m; 0.621 mi; 3281 ft
1 m = 39.37 in.; 3.281 ft; 1.094 yd; 0.000624 mi
1 cm = 10 mm; 0.394 in.
1 in. = 2.54 cm; 25.4 mm; 0.0833 ft; 0.02778 yd
1 ft = 0.3048 m; 12 in.; 0.061 rods; 1/6 fathom; 0.0001894 mi
1 yd = 0.9144 m; 3 ft; 0.1818 rods; 0.0005682 mi
1 rod = 5.0292 m; 198 in.; 16.5 ft: 5.5 vd
1 mi = 1609 m; 1.609 km; 5280 ft; 1760 vd; 320 rods
1 international nautical mile = .999 U.S. nautical mile; 1.151 mi; 1852 m
1 sq km = 100 hectares; 247.1 acres; 0.386 sq mi
1 hectare = 10,000 sq m; 2.471 acres; 11,960 sq yd
1 sq m = 10.76 sq ft; 1.196 sq yd
1 sq mi = 259 hectares; 2.59 sq km; 640 acres
1 acre = 4048 sq m; 0.405 hectare; 43,560 sq ft; 4840 sq yd
1 sq ft = 929.0 sq cm; 144 sq in.
1 liter = Xcu dm; 1000 cc; 61.02 cu in.; 1.057 liq quarts; 0.264 gallon
1 cu m = 1000 liters; 1.308 cu yd; 35.32 cu ft; 264.2 gallons
1 cu ft = 7.481 gal; 28.3 liters; 0.0283 cu m; 0.0370 cu yd
1 acre ft = 1233 cu m; 43,560 cu ft
1 U.S. liq ounce = 29.57 cc; 1.805 cu in.
1 U.S. liq quart = 0.964 liter; 57.75 cu in.; 0.833 British quart
1 U.S. gallon = 3.785 liters; 231 cu in.; 0.833 British gal; 0.0238 bbl pet
1 kilogram = 1000 gr; 2.205 lb
1 gram = 0.035 ounce; 15.43 grains
1 ton metric (megagram) = 1000 kilograms; 2205 lb; 1.102 net ton;
0.984 gross ton
1 lb avoir. = 453.6 grams; 7000 grains; 16 oz; 1.215 lb troy
1 ounce (avoir.) = 437.5 grains; 28.35 grams
1 ton, net = 0.907 metric ton; 2000 lb avoir.; 0.893 gross ton
1°F = 5/9°C; T in °F = (T in °C X 9/5) + 32; T in °C = (T in °F - 32)5/9
3 82 Geology in the Field
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The true dip of a planar feature is seen in vertical sections oriented per-
pendicular to the strike of the feature. Vertical sections oriented otherwise
show apparent dip. All beds have horizontal apparent dips in any vertical
section parallel to their strike, and the apparent dip increases as the acute
angle between the vertical section and the strike increases, approaching
the true dip as the angle between the section and the strike approach 90°.
The values of apparent dip given below correspond to the true dips shown
at the left of the table and to the angles between strike and the line of the
vertical section shown at the top of the table and in the diagram. The values
of apparent dip are rounded to the nearest 0.5° because dips are rarely
measured or plotted more precisely.
True dip Line of
ACUTE ANGLE BETWEEN STRIKE AND LINE OF VERTICAL SECTION

True
dip
2.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80
5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.5 4.5 5.0 5.0
10 0.5 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
15 1.0 1.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.5 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 11.5 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 15.0
20 1.0 2.0 3.5 5.5 7.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 13.0 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 18.0 19.0 20.0
25 1.0 2.0 4.5 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 20.0 21.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 25.0
30 1.5 3.0 6.0 8.0 11.0 14.0 16.0 18.5 20.5 22.0 24.0 25.0 26.5 27.5 28.5 29.5
35 2.0 3.5 7.0 10.5 13.5 16.5 19.5 22.0 24.0 26.5 28.0 30.0 31.0 32.5 33.5 35.5
40 2.0 4.0 8.0 12.0 16.0 19.5 23.0 26.0 28.5 30.5 33.0 34.0 36.0 37.0 38.5 39.5
45 2.5 5.0 10.0 14.5 19.0 23.0 26.5 30.0 33.0 35.0 37.0 39.0 41.0 42.0 43.0 44.5
50 3.0 6.0 11.5 17.0 22.0 27.0 31.0 34.5 37.5 40.0 42.5 44.0 46.0 47.0 48.0 49.5
55 4.0 7.0 14.0 20.0 26.0 31.0 35.5 39.5 42.5 45.0 47.5 49.5 51.0 52.5 53.5 54.5
60 4.5 8.5 16.5 24.0 30.5 36.0 41.0 45.0 48.0 51.0 53.0 55.0 56.0 57.5 58.5 59.5
65 5.5 10.5 20.5 29.0 36.0 42.0 47.0 51.0 54.0 56.5 58.5 60.0 62.0 63.0 63.5 64.5
70 6.5 13.0 25.5 35.0 43.0 49.0 54.0 57.5 60.5 63.0 64.5 66.0 67.0 68.0 69.0 69.5
75 9.0 18.0 33.0 44.0 52.0 57.5 62.0 65.0 67.5 69.0 70.5 72.0 73.0 73.5 74.0 75.0
80 13.5 26.5 44.5 56.0 63.0 67.5 70.5 73.0 74.5 76.0 77.0 78.0 78.5 79.0 79.5 80.0
85 26.0 45.0 63.5 71.5 75.5 78.0 80.0 81.5 82.0 83.0 83.5 84.0 84.0 84.5 84.5 85.0
Appendix 14 383
$33(1',; (TXDODUHD 6FKPLGW6WHUHRJUDSKLF1HW

BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
T o prepare the net for use: (1) cut it out and glue it to a smooth-surfaced flat board,
such as one made of -inch masonite; (2) make a small hole through the
board exactly at the center of the net; (3) insert a thumbtack through the hole from
the back of the board, and glue or tape it firm ly in place; (4) cut a rectangular sheet
of plastic drafting film or tracing paper that is somewhat larger than the net; (5) stick
a small piece of drafting tape on the back of the sheet at its center; (6) press the
sheet down over the board so that the tack comes through the piece of tape and the
sheet lies flat on the net; (7) mark and label pencil ticks on the sheet at the N and S
poles of the net.
Data may now be plotted on the net, and Fig. 3-11 describes how to plot a planar
feature and a lineation that lies parallel to the feature. The same figure describes
each step in converting a lineation measured by its pitch into a lineation based on
bearing (trend) and plunge. In addition, Fig. 9-12 describes the steps in rotating
inclined linear features and planar features so that they are horizontal, and Fig.
9-14 describes rotations used to unfold or unfault linear and planar features. Turner
and Weiss (see the references for Chapter 12) have described basic as well as more
complex procedures with a stereographic net; and basic procedures are also des-
cribed in some structure texts.
5REHUW5&RPSWRQ
*UDVV5LSHQHGRQ6XQQ\6ORSHV[LQFKHV
Index
Page numbers in italic type refer to figures or tables.
Aa lava, 275-277 Antidunes, 165,284

Abbreviations of geologic terms, 27, 28-29, Aphanitic texture, 63-64

Aplite, 66, 310, 312
Abstracts of reports, 342, 360 Apparent dip, 382
Acknowledgments in reports, 354, 359 Appinite suite of igneous rocks, 312
Accretionary lapilli, 66, 283 Arenite, 55
Adinole, 74 Argillic alteration, 334,335
Aerial photographs, choice of Argillite, 58
as base for mapping, 6 Ash (vitric, lithic, crystal), 65, 66
compiling data from, 127-129 Ash flows, 284
cross sections from, 129-130 Atherton, M. P., 323
data printed on, 115-116 Atherton, M. P., and Gribble, C. D., 333
determining scales o f, 115-116,118,124-125 Attewell, P. B., and Farmer, I. W., 92
displacements of images on, 117 Autobrecciated lava, 281, 289
distortions of, by tilt, 118 Autoliths, 303
geologic mapping on, 126-127 Autometamorphism, in plutons, 315-316
in geologic reports, 350 in volcanic rocks, 281,287-288, 292
kinds of, 112 Axial surfaces of folds, 250
locating points on, 125-126 Aydin, A., and Page, B.M., 263
north arrows for, 125
plane table mapping on, 159-160 Bailey, R. A., Dalrymple, G. B., and Lanphere,
scale variations on, 117-118 M. A., 280
stereoscopic view ing of, 113-115 Balk, R., 314
in studying viscous lavas, 281 Ballard, R. D., Holcomb, R. T., and van Andel,
Age relations, among folds, 254-255 T. H., 278
of glacial drifts, 205-206 Banding (layering), in gneiss, 331
of metamorphic rocks and structures, in plutons, 305-307
337-338 Base line, measurement of, 150-152
of plutonic units, 297-299, 307, 312, 316 Barchan, 201
among rocks, 1-2 Basalt, 67,274-280,283
in sedimentary sequences, 181,182,184,185, Basanite, 67, 312
188, 190, 198 Base for geologic mapping, choice of, 6
in volcanic rocks, 272-273, 290-291 Base map, topographic, 99-101
Airfall (fallout) deposits, 282-283 Base surge deposits, 283-284
Alidade, peep-sight, 106 Bateman, P. C., Clark, L. D., Huber, N. K.,
Alidade, standard, 135-137 Moore, J. G., and Rinehart, C. D., 314
Altimeter, use of in locating points, 104-105 Bates, R. L., and Jackson, J. A., 358
Allostratigraphic units, 84 Beach deposits, 184-186,200
Allotriomorphic texture, 63 Beaman arc, 139-140
Alluvial deposits, 198-200 Beane, R. E., and Titley, S. R., 314
Alteration, diagenetic, 53-54 Bearings, measuring, 17-18
in plutons, 315-316 Bedding, defined, 164
volcanic, 64, 281, 287, 292 determining attitude of, 34-38
zones of, 327, 333-336 plotting symbols for, 86,103
Amphibolite, 72 Bedforms, depositional, 164-166
Anderson, R. E., 262 Bedrock maps, 92
Andesite, 67, 280, 288 Beds, defined, 162
Anhydrite, 184 amalgamated, 162
Anorthosite, 64, 69 convoluted, 170,171
385
386 Index
Beds, cont. Buol, S. W., Hole, E D., and McCracken,

cyclic sets of, 163-164 R.J., 214, 216, 217, 218
determining stratigraphic tops of, 193 Burnham, C. W., 314, 315
graded, 163, 167,168,169
Bed forms, 164-171 Calcarenite, 58
Bedsets, 163 Calcirudite, 58
Bibliographic sources o f geologic infor- Calcilutite, 58
mation, 3 Caldera-collapse breccias, 289
Billings, M. P., 260 Calderas, recognition of, 290
Bimodal sediments, 49 Cameras, selection of, 12
Biogenic crystalline textures, 52-53 use of at outcrops, 33-34
Bioturbation, 176-178,180, 182 Cameron, E. N., Jahns, R. H., McNair, A. H.,
Biostratigraphic units, 84 and Page, L. R., 310
Biostratigraphy, reports on, 355 Campbell, C. V., 163
Birdseye, C. H., 152,157 Campbell, R. H., 208
Birkeland, P. W., 216, 217 Carbonaceous rocks, 61
Bishop, D. G., 325 Carbonate rocks (see Limestone, dolomite)
Bishop, E. E., Eckel, E. B. and others; Eric, Carlisle, D., 279
J. H., coordinator, 344, 353, 358, 360 Carson, M. A., and Kirby, M. J., 207
Black, R. W., Goldthwait, R. P., and Williams, Cataclastic rocks, 73, 259,260, 268
H. B., 198 Cataclastic texture, 71
Blastoporphyritic texture, 72 Cements, in sedimentary rocks, 54,
Block flows, 284, 289 naming, 56-57
Blocks, volcanic, 65, 66, 280, 281, 284, Chappie, W. M., and Spang, J. H., 252
288-290 Chert, 55, 60
Blocky lava flows, 289 Christiansen, R. L., 290
Bomb-sag, 284 Clark, B. R., 242
Bombs, volcanic, 65, 66, 283 Clark, M. M., 263
Boudinage, 170, 246, 258, 332 Clastic texture, 48-51
Boulter, C. A., 242 Clast-supported rudite, 57
Boulton, G. S., 204 Clay (size limits), 49
Bouma, A. H., 166 Clay skins, 214
Bouma divisions of turbidites, 166, 190-191 Claystone, 57
Boundstone, 59 Cleavage, formed in unconsolidated sedi-
Brasier, M. D., 41, 44, 45 ments, 242
Breadcrust bomb, 66 tectonic varieties, 255-258
Breccia, fault (cataclastic), 73, 260, 268 Clifton, H. E., 184
plutonic, 64, 311-312 Clifton, H. E., Hunter, R. E., and Phillips,
sedimentary, 57,179, 183, 184, 200,2 6 7 R. L., 185
solution-collapse, 183 Climbing ripples, 165, 202
volcanic, 65, 279, 280, 281, 284, 288, Clinker, in aa flows, 275,2 76
289, 290, 292 Clinometers, 19
Breccia pipes and dikes, 290, 292, 311-312, Clinopyroxenite, 68
315 Cloos, E., 248,2 58
Brecciated formations, 267 Coal, anthracite, 61
Briggs, R. P , 94 bituminous, 61
Broken (faulted) formations, 267 sub-bituminous, 61
Bromley, R. G., 180 Coalification series, 61
Brunton compass (and clinometer), described, Cochran, W., Fenner, P., and Hill, M., 341
16-17 Cognate xenoliths, 303
leveling with, 19-20 Coleman, J. M., and Prior, D. B., 188
measuring linear structures with, 38-40 Collage terrains, 269
measuring stratigraphic sections with, Color charts for rocks and sediments,
233-234 370-371
measuring strike and dip with, 34-38 Color index, charts for determining, 366-367
measuring vertical angles with, 19 Colluvium, 206-207
Index 387
Columnar joints, volcanic, 277-278, 286, in subaqueous antidunes, 166

289, 291 in subaqueous dunes, 166, 185
in other materials, 214, 266 in tidal deposits, 181
Columnar sections, preparing, 80, 238-240 Cross sections, introduction, 8
in reports, 349-350 from aerial photographs, 129-130
Colwell, R. N., 118 from a pace and compass traverse, 78-80
Comb layers, 306 of surficial units, 349
Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, from a topographic base map, 108-111
84,358 Crowell, J., 259
Compaction, of pyroclastic flow deposits, Crystalloblastic series, 70
285-286 Crystallization sequences in melts, 62
of sedimentary rocks, 228-229, 242 C u rren t d irectio n s fro m sed im en tary
of sediments, 53,171 structures, 171-176
testing degree of, 24, 368 Current indicators, 171-172
Com pass, B ru n ton ( see also B ru nton Current ripples, 164-165
compass), 16-17 Curtis, G. H., 288
Silva, 16 Cyclic bedding, 163-164
sun, 18
Compass bearings, taking, 17-18 Dacite, 67
Compass surveys, 75-80,103-106 Dackombe, R. V., and Gardiner, V., 197
Composite dikes and sills, 290-291 Dalrymple, B. G., and Lanphere, M. A., 299
Compton, R. R., 83, 301, 324, 325, 326, Dating rocks (see Numerical ages)
327 Davies, H. L., 308
Cone sheets, 291 Daytime photographic infrared imagery, 119
Concretions, 172 Debris flows, 168,199,209, 267-269, 288
Conglomerate, 57 Decker, J. E., Jr., 269
Contacts, basic kinds of, 23 Deep-sea deposits, 188-192
C ontacts betw een rock units, fin d in g Deep-sea fans, 189-191
and tracing, 80-83, 88-89, 90, 297- Deltaic deposits, 187-188
298, 305 D epositional bedform s and structures,
gradational, 82-83, 297 164-169
Contour interval, selection of, 148 Depositional environments (see Environ-
on topographic maps, 99 ments of deposition)
Contourites, 189 Derived maps, 344
Contours, accuracy of, 100 Descriptions of rock units, 30-31
draw in g durin g plane table survey, Devitrification, 64
158-160 Diagenetic changes, 53-55,171,183, 187
Control for maps, horizontal and vertical, Diagenetic textures, 53-55
148-155, 238 Diagrams used in reports, 351, 352-353
Conversion of English and metric units, 381 Diastem, 179
Conversion of true and apparent dip, 382 Diatomite, 55, 59
Convolution, 170,171, 212 Diatremes, 292
Cooke, H.B.S., 197 Dickinson, W. R., 56
Cooling units in ash-flow deposits, 287-288 Didier, J., 305, 307,308
Correlation of rock units, 85-86, 272, 274 Dietrich, R. V., DutroJ. T.,Jr., and Foose, R. M.,
Coupled folds, 250 192
Creep, continuous, 207 Dikes, clastic, 26, 171, 243, 263, 290
discontinuous, 207 in and arou n d p lu to n s, 297, 298,
in measuring structural attitudes, 34 308-314
Crenulation cleavage, 256 in metamorphic rocks, 326
Crevasse-splay deposits, 199 in and around volcanoes, 290-291
Crimes, T.P., and Harper, J.C., 176 Diorite, 69, 312
Cross-bedding, classified, 163 Dip, definition and measurement, 34-38
in base-surge antidunes, 284 from map patterns, 106-107
in eolian dunes, 201-202 Dish structures, 166, 167
hummocky, 163, 186 Documentation maps, 344
388 Index
Dolomite (dolostone), 59,184 Eolian deposits, 201-203

Domes of viscous lava, 282 Equipment, general, 10-21, 363
Dorjes, J., and Howard, J. D., 178 for a compass traverse, 76
Dott, R. H., and Bourgeois, J., 186 for mapping on aerial photographs,
Drawing geologic maps, 345-347 123-124
Drawings, made in the field, 29, 32-33 for plane table surveys, 148
for geologic reports, 350-353 suppliers of, 10
Dreimanis, A., 203 for taping distances precisely, 150
Drever, J., and Johnston, R., 301 Error of closure in traverse, 103,104
Drift, 203 Estuarine sediments, 181-182
D rift stratigraphy, 205-206 Eutaxitic fabric, 286
Duffield, W. A., 261,301 Evaporite, 60-61
Dunes, eolian, 20J E xp lan a tion s for geologic maps, 343,
subaqueous, 165,185 346-347
Dunham, R.J., 58 Explosive eruptions, types of, 283
Dunite, 68 Extension fractures, 245, 246, 252, 259,
Duplication of maps and drawings, 344-345 260,262, 265-266
Dyer,J. R.,266, 266 Eyles, C. H., and Eyles, N., 205
Dysaerobic environments, 189
Dzulynski, S., and Walton, E. K., 170 Fabric of crystals along faults, 259
Fabric of rocks, defined, 48
Earthflows, 208 foliate (planar), 243-248,255-257, 301
Easterbrook, D. J., 344 foliate and lineate, 301
Einaudi, M. T., Meinert, L. D., and N ew - in igneous rocks, 244, 280, 286, 300-303,
berry, R. J., 325, 336 306, 313
Einsele, G., and Seilacher, A., 164 lineate, 258, 301
Elevation difference (see Vertical distance) in m etam orph ic rocks, 70-71, 242,
Elter, R, and Trevisan, L., 268, 269 245, 255-258, 331-332, 337-338
Elutriation pillars, 167 in sedimentary rocks, 51, 245, 255-258
Ellis, M. Y., 99,112 Facies, of deep-sea fans, 189-191
Engineering geologic cross sections, 348-349 metamorphic, data for, 321
Engineering geologic map symbols, 91, 93, in plutons, 296
95, 96 Fans, alluvial, 199-200
Engineering geologic maps and mapping, deep-sea, 189-191
92-97, 344 Farrow, G. E., 176
Engineering geologic reports, 355-356 Fault breccia, 73, 260, 268
Enveloping surfaces of folds, 250 Fault gouge, 73, 259, 262
Environmental assessments (impact state- Faults, brittle, 259
ments), 97-98 classifications of, 259-260
Environments of deposition, alluvial, 198-200 detachments (decollements), 264-265
basinal (basin plain), 191-192 ductile, 244, 259
beach, 184-186 finding and mapping, 86-88
continental slope, 189 lateral or strike-slip, 262-263
deltaic, 187-188 listric, 262
deep-sea fan, 189-191 low-angle, 259, 263-265
dysaerobic, 189 in m easured stra tigra p h ic sections,
eolian, 201,205 228
estuarine, 181-182 normal, 260-262
glacial, 203-206 in plutons, 312-314
hillslope, 206-212 reverse, 262
intertidal, 183 thrust, 260, 264,281, 287
lacustrine, 200-201, 205 in unconsolidated sediments, 242
periglacial, 210-212 in viscous lava, 281
reefal, 182-183 Fault zones, 259
supratidal, 184 Feather joints, 259
shelf, 186-188 Festoon cross-bedding, 163,198
tidal, 180-184 Feth,J. H., 200
Index 389
Fiamme (compacted pumice), 286 in lava, 275, 276, 281, 287

Field notebooks, 11 in welded tuff, 287
Field notes, in general, 27-31 Foliation, defined, 255
materials for, 11-12 in general mapping, 88
for measuring vertical angles, 153 from photogeologic studies, 122
for paleocurrent data, 174 Folk, R. L., 59
for stadia mapping, 142-143,144, 159 Format of reports, 360
for stratigraphic measurements, 224, Formation (rock unit), 84
225,226, 227 Fossil fumaroles, 285
summaries of, 8, 9 Fossils, collecting, 40-45
Field work, general, 6-8 correlation by, 85
routines in camp or office, 7-8,160 finding, 40-45
routines and tasks late in season, 8,161 indicating stratigraphic tops of beds,
Fink, J. H., 281, 282 192
Fink, J., and Kukla, G.J., 197 indicating unconformity, 178
Fisher, R. V., 65 Fossil symbols, 378
Fisher, R. V., and Schmincke, H.-U., 65, 274 Fractures, 24,245, 246, 252, 259-266
Fiske, R. S., Hopson, C. A., and Waters, A. C., in plutons, 312-315
290, 291, 299, 300, 314 Fragmental phaneritic textures, 64-65
Fiske, R. S., and Matsuda, T., 284 Francis, E. H., and Howells, M. F., 284
Flame structures, 171,172 French, H. M., 211, 212
Flasar (lenticular) structure, 164, 181, 257 Frey, R. W „ 176
Fleuty, M. G., 250 Friedman, G. M., 15
Flow banding (layerin g), 280-281, 291, Front matter in reports, 361
305-307
Flow structures in viscous lava, 280,282,291 Gabbro, 69, 301, 304, 305-306, 309, 310,
Flows of viscous lava, 280-282 312
Flow units, 272 Galster, R. W., 93, 96
Fluidal texture, 62 Gans, R B., and Miller, E. L., 261
Fluidized flows, 168 Garrison, R. E., and Kennedy, W. J., 187
Flute casts, 169 Gash fractures, 245, 259
Folding, by bending, 253 Gates, O., 292
by buckling, 252-253 Geochronologic units, 85, 379
by extension, 253 Geographic names, 343
Folds, age relations among, 254-255 Geologic maps, defined, 2
box, 251 of bedrock units, 92
chevron, 251 of engineering geologic units, 92-97
cleavages related to, 255-257 outcrop maps, 89-90
convolutions, 170 preparing final version, 342-348
coupled, 249 sources of, 3
crenulations, 256 of surficial deposits, 90-92
deformed, 254-255 work on, in field camp, 7-8,160-161
disharmonic, 252 Geologic Names Committee, U. S. Geo-
elements of, 249-252 logical Survey, 84
fan, 251 Geothermal alteration, 315, 316, 333-334,
in general mapping, 86 336
interpretation of, 252-255 Gilbert, G. K., 26
kink, 249 Gile, L. H., and Grossman, R. B., 216
in m easuring stratigraph ic sections, Glacial deposits, 203-206
228 Glaciomarine deposits, 204
in metamorphic rocks, 329, 330, 332, Glass shards, 66
337-
337 Glassy texture, 63
parallel, 251 Gneiss, 73, 331-332
profile of, construction, 248 Gold pan, use of, 12-13
ptygmatic, 312, 332 Goldsmith, R., 72
similar, 251 Goudie, A., 197
sinusoidal, 251 Gouge, fault 73, 259,262
390 Index
Govean, F. M., and Garrison, R. E., 189 Herringbone crossbedding, 181

Gradations between rock units, 82-83 H.I. (height of instrument), 140
Graded beds, 163,166-169 Hietanen, A., 325
Gradienter method, 145-146 Hildreth, W., and Mahood, G., 273
Grain flows, 169 Hill, M.L., 260
Grain-size classification of sediments, 48 Hine, A. C., 186
Grain sizes, cards for determining, 49 Hinge lines of folds, 249-250
of limestone, 59 Hobbs, B. E., Means, W. D., and Williams,
of metamorphic rocks, 72 P. F., 252
of plutonic igneous rocks, 63 Hoelscher, R. P., and Springer, C. H., 351
of sediments, 48 Holcomb, R. T., 273
Grainstone, 58 Holdsworth, B. K., Jones, D. L., and Allison,
Granite, 69 C., 44
Granoblastic texture, 70 Honnorez, J., and Kirst, P., 279
Granodiorite, 63, 69 Hooper, P. R., Knowles, C. R., and Watkins,
Granofels, 72 N. D., 273,276
Granophyre, 64, 304, 308 Hornblendite, 68
Granular texture, igneous, 62 Hornfels, 72, 321, 325, 327
G raphic colum nar sections, 239, 2 7 7 , Hornfelsic texture, 70
349-350 Hornitos, 275
Gravel, classification of, 57 Howard, J. D., 180
in alluvial deposits, 198-200 Howard, J. D., and Frey, R. W., 177
in beach deposits, 185 Howell, D. G., and Normark, W. R., 189
in eolian deposits, 202 Hsu, K. J., 267
in glacial deposits, 203-205 Hubbert, M. K., 260
in sediment-gravity-flow deposits, 167-168 Hummocky cross-bedding, 163, 186
Gravity currents, fluid, 164 Hunter, R. E., 202
sediment gravity currents, 164 Hunter, R. E., and Clifton, H. E., 163
Graywacke, 55 Hunter, R. E., Richmond, B. M., and Alpha, T.
Greisen, 74, 334 R., 202
Grolier, M. J., and Bingham, J. W., 274 Hyaloclastic deposits, 279
Groove casts, 170 Hydrochloric acid, 12
Group (rock unit), 84 Hydrofluoric acid, 14-15
Gustafson, L. B., and Hunt, J. P., 315, 316 Hydrofractured rock, 263
Gypsum, as cause of detachment faults, 264 Hydrothermal alteration, 315-316, 333-336
in evaporites, 184 Hypidiomorphic texture, 62
Hackly jointing in lava, 277 Ice flow, direction of, 205

Hamilton, E. L., 171 Ice-wedge deposits, 211
Hammer, geologists, 10 Igneous rocks, 61-68, 272-292, 296-312
Hampton, M. A., 168 Ignimbrite, 284
Hand lenses, selection of, 13 Illustrations for reports, 341, 342-353
use of, 13-14 Imbrication, of low-angle faults, 264
Hand levels, 19-20 in sediments, 51,185,199, 203
Hanor.J. S., 334 Impact statements ( see Environmental
Hansen, W. R., 209 assessments)
Hantzschel, W., 176,192 Inclusions in plutons, 297, 298, 300, 302,
Hardground, 179,187 303-305, 308
Hardness, of minerals in rocks, 14 Index minerals, 323-324
of rocks, 368 International Association of Engineering
Harms, J. C., Southard, J. B., and Walker, Geology, 95
R. G., 164 Interpretations, geologic, 1-2, 25-27
Harzburgite, 68 of rock units, 31
Hatheway, A. W., 95 Intersection, location by, 102-103, 105, 149,
Hawaiian-type activity, 283 151-153
Heard, H. C., and Rubey, W. W., 264 Intraclasts, 59
Heezen, B. C., and Hollister, C. D., 189 Involution, 212
Index 391
Iron-rich rocks, 60-61 Lamprophyre, 67, 312

Irvine, T. N., 305 Landes, K. K., 360
Irvine, T. N., and Smith, C. H., 305 Landsat multispectral scanning imagery,
Isaacs, C. M. 45, 55, 60, 189 119
Isogonic charts, 17 Landslides, general, 207-209, 265
Isometric drawings, 351 in measuring stratigraphic sections, 228
Isopach maps, 344 Laniz, R. V., Stevens, R. E., and Norman, M. B.,
Isotopic ages (see Numerical ages) 14,15
Lapilli, 65, 66
Jackson, E. D., 305 Larionov, A. K., 214
Jacob staff, construction and use of, 20, Laterite, 61, 216
229-232 Latite, 67
Jahns, R. H., and Burnham, C. W., 310 Lava channels, 276
Jahns, R. H., and Tuttle, O. F., 306, 310 Lava toes, 275
James, H. L., 61 Lavas, fluid, 274-280
James, N. R, 183 viscous, 280-282, 289
Johnson, A. R., 252 Lava tubes, 277
Johnson, B., 210 Law of Vs in outcrop patterns, 106-107
Johnson tripod head, 138 Layering (banding), in gneiss, 331
Joints, defined, 265 in plutons, 305-307
age relations among, 266 Leeder, M. R., 162
in basaltic lava, 277-278 Legends on maps (see Explanations)
conjugate sets of, 266 Legget, R. F., Brown, RJ.E., and Johnston,
feather, 259 G. H., 199
in general mapping, 88 Lignite, 61
in metamorphic rocks, 122 Lillesand, T. M., and Kiefer, R. W., 118
from photogeologic studies, 122,123 Lindgren, W., 327
in plutons, 312-313 Limestone, classified, 58-59
in viscous lava, 280 in deep-sea associations, 192
in volcanic intrusions, 290, 291 lacustrine, 200
in welded pyroclastic rocks, 284-285 photogeologic recognition of, 121
Jorgenson, D. B., 97 in reef-lagoon associations, 182-184
of shelf seas, 187
Kame deposits, 204 unconformities in, 178-180
K-Ar dating, volcanic rocks, 273 Linear features (lineations), general, 38, 258
plutons, 299 in deformed rocks, 243, 246, 258
Keaton, J. R., 93, 96 on faults, 259, 260
Keefer, D. K., and Johnson, A. M., 208, measuring, 38-40, 247-248
209 in metamorphic rocks, 258, 331
Kennedy, W. J., and Garrison, R. E., 187 in plutons, 300-303, 305, 314
Keratophyre, 67 in sedimentary rocks, 51, 165, 169-170,
Kerogen, defined, 61 172, 203, 205
rocks rich in, 61, 200 in volcanic rocks, 277,278, 280,2 8 7
Key beds, 86 Lipman, R W., 289
Kink bands, 249 Lipman, R W., and Mullineaux, D. R., 274
Komar, R D., 306 Liquefied flows, 168-169
Koringa, M. K., 281 Liquefaction of sediments, 168, 171
Kottlowski, F. E., 222 Lirer, L., Pescatore, T., Booth, B., and Walker,
Ksiazkiewicz, M. 177 G.P.L., 283
Kummel, B., and Raup, D., 41, 44, 45 Lists and tables in reports, 359-360
Kupfer, D. H., 89, 260 Lithodemic units, 84, 290, 296
Lithologic symbols, chart of, 376-377
Labeling fossils and rocks, 43, 45, 46 in columnar sections, 227, 239
Lagoons, carbonate producing, 182-183 in cross sections, 110
Lahars (volcanic debris flows), 288 Lithophysae, 64
Lake deposits, 200-201, 205 Lithostratigraphic units, 84
Lamination, defined, 163 Load structures, 170
392 Index
Lobeck, A. K., 351 Mollard, J. D., 122

Locality descriptions, 43 Monzodiorite, 69
Locating points, on a base map, 101-106 Monzogabbro, 69
on aerial photographs, 125-126 Monzonite, 69
Lockwood, J. P., and Lipman, P. W., 273 Moore, A. C., 331
Loess, 202-203 Moore, J. G., 278, 283, 298, 303, 313
Logs, stratigraphic, 240-241 Moore, J. G., and Lockwood, J. P., 306
Love, J. D., 241 Moore, J. G., and Peck, D. L., 66
Lowe, D. R., 164,166, 167 Moore, J. G., and Phillips, R. L., Grigg, R. W.,
Lutite, carbonaceous, 61 Peterson, D. W., and Swanson, D. A., 278
iron-rich, 60-61 Moore, J. G., and Schilling, J.-G., 278
silicate-rich, 57-58 Moore, J. G., and Sisson, T. W., 284
siliceous, 55, 59-60 Moore, R. C., 41
volcaniclastic, 60 Moores, E. M., 309
Lydon, P. A., 288, 290 Moran, S. R., 205
Morgan, J. P., 187
Macdonald, G. A., 277 Morrison, R. B., 218
Magnetic anomalies, 18 Morse, S. A., 301, 305
Magnetic declination, 16-17 Mudstone, 58
Magnetostratigraphic units, 84, 273 Muller, S. W., 6,192
Mahaney, W. C., 198 Mullineaux, D. R., 240, 353
Mahood, G. A., and Drake, R. E., 273 Mullion (structures), 258
Map (cartographic) units ( See Rock units) Multiple dikes and sills, 290-291
Map holder, 11 Munsell color charts, 370-371
Map-scale, selection of, 76,147-148 Mutti, E., and Ricci Lucchi, F., 189
Maps ( See Specific kinds) Mylonite, 73
Map symbols, geologic, 372-375 Mylonite, along faults, 259, 262
Marble, 72 in plutons, 297, 298
Matrix-supported rudite, 57 Mylonitic texture, 71
Mattinson, J. M., 299
McBirney, A. R., and Noyes, R. M., 305 Naming rocks, igneous, 65-68
McCallum , M. E., Woolsey, T. S., and metamorphic, 72-74
Schumm, S. A., 292 sedimentary, 55-61
McKee, E. B., 201, 202 Neff, T. R., 313
Measurement of stratified rocks, 222-238 Nelson, C. A., and Sylvester, A. G., 299
Megaripples, 165 Nephelinite, 69
Melanges, 266-269 Nickelsen, R. P., and Hough, V.N.D., 266
Member (rock unit), 84 Nilsen, T. H., 199
Mertie, J. B., Jr., 235 Normark, W. R., Mutti, E., and Bouma, A. H.,
Metamorphic mineral reactions, 323-325, 189
333-336 North Am erican Commission on S trati-
Metamorphic rocks, classification, 68-74 graphic Nomenclature, 84, 358
minerals, zones, and structures in, 320-338 North arrow, on aerial photographs, 125
map units of, 84, 319 in plane table mapping, 154-155, 157,160
photogeologic recognition of, 122 on topographic maps, 99, 348
Metasomatic rocks, 325-328, 333-336 Notebook, (see Field notes)
Meyer, C., and Hemley, J. J., 328, 334, 335 Numerical (chiefly isotopic) ages, in dating
Meyer, L., and Dickinson, W. R., 353 deformation and metamorphism, 255,
Miarolytic cavities, 300, 311 337
Micrite, 59 in dating fault movement, 263
Microfossils, 43-45 in dating plutons, 299
Migmatite, 297, 332-333 in dating volcanic rocks, 273
Miller, E. L., Gans, P. B., and Gaving, J., 261 equivalence to geochronologic units, 379
Miller, V. C., and Miller, C. F., 120 by K-Ar methods, 273, 299
Mineral properties in hand specimens, 13-14 by radiocarbon method, 197, 273
Mineral zones, metamorphic, 323-325 by Rb-Sr method, 299
Miyashiro, A., 324 by U-Pb method, 299
Index 393
Ocelli in lamprophyre, 312 Pessagno, E. A., Jr., and Newport, R. L., 44

O ffice maps, 7 Peterson, D. W., 285,286
O ffsets in stratigraphic measurements, Peterson, D. W., and Tilling, R. I., 275
225-226 Pettijohn, F. J., 49
“ Oil shale,” 200 Pewe, T. L., 203,211
Olistostromes, 168, 267-269 Pewe, T. L., and Bell, J. W., 344
Omission surfaces, 179 Phacoidal (lensoid) structure, 245, 257
Oolites, 52 Phaneritic texture, 61
Ore deposits, reports on, 355 Pharo, C. H., and Carmack, E. C., 201
Orbicules, 304, 306, 311 Phonolite, 69
Oriented samples, 46-47 Phosphorite, 59
OrthomyIonite, 73 Photo indexes, 112
Orthophotomaps (orthophotoquads), 112 Photogeologic studies, 120-123
Orthopyroxenite, 68 Photographing outcrops, 33-34
Oscillation ripples, 165 Photographs in reports, 350
Osiecki, R. A., 309, 310 Photomosaics, 113
Outcrop maps and mapping, 89-90 Phreatoplinian-type activity, 283
Outcrops, describing, 27-31 Phyllite, 72, 325
drawings of, 32-33 Pierce, W. G., 265
finding, 22 Pillow breccia, 279
interpretation of, 25-27 Pillow lava, 274,278-279
photographing, 33-34 Pipe vesicles, 277,278
studying, 22-25 Pitch of lineation, 39-40
Outlines for geologic reports, 353-356 converting to plunge, 40
Pitcher, W.S., 296, 297, 300, 304, 314
Pace and compass traverse, 75-80 Pitcher, W. S., and Berger, A. R., 299,303,305,
Pacing distances, 20-21 307, 311, 312, 324
Packstone, 58 Pitchstone, 63
Page, B. M., 268 Planar bed, 165
Page, B. M., and Suppe, J., 269 Plane table and map sheets, 137-138
Pahoehoe lava, 275-277 Plane table mapping, 135-161, 237-238
Palagonite breccia, 279 Plane table tripod, 138
Paleocurrent direction, 171-178 Plinian-type activity, 283
Paleoslope direction, 171-178 Plumose structure, 311
Paleosols, 217-218 P lu n ge of lin ear features, m easuring,
Palmer, H. S., 235 38-39
Parabolic dune, 201 obtaining, from pitch of features, 40
Parallax correction, 136 Plutonic suites, 296
Parallel folds, 251 Plutonic units, 296
Parsons, I., 305 Plutons (defined), 296
Patterned ground, 211 autometamorphism of, 315-316
Peat, 61 contacts with country rocks, 297
Pebble counts, 57 contacts within, 297-298
Pedometers, 21 dating, 299
Pedostratigraphic units, 84 deformation in, 300, 314-315
Pegmatite, 66, 277, 306, 307, 308-310, 312 depth of emplacement of, 300
Pelletal texture, 52, 53,5 8 determining relative ages of, 298-299
Pencils, 10-11 dikes associated with, 297, 308-313
Penetrative cleavage, 255-256 fabrics in, 300-303, 314
Pens, 10-11 fracture systems in, 312-315
Peperite, 290 inclusions in, 303-305
Percentage diagrams for estimating compo- layering (banding) in, 305-307
sition by volume, 366-367 mapping country rocks around, 299
Peridotite, 68, 74, 306, 321 schlieren in, 307-308
Periglacial deposits, 210-212 volatile-rich facies in, 308-309, 315-316
Permafrost, 210 Pocket stereoscope, 113
Perspective drawings, 351 Poikiloblastic texture, 72
394 Index
Polymetamorphic rocks, 71,321-323,337-338 Quartzolite, 69

Polymorphic transformations of SiOa, 55 Quartz syenite, 69
Porcelanite, 55, 60 Quaternary stratigraphy, 197-198
Porosity of sedimentary rocks, 24, 31, 53,242
Porphyritic texture, 62 Radar-sensed (SLAR ) imagery, 119
Porphyroblastic texture, 72 Radbruch, D. H., 94
Porphyroclastic texture, 72 Radial line compilation, 130-133
Porphyry, 66 Ramberg, H., 253
Potassic alteration, 334 Ramsay, J. G., 254
Postdepositional sedimentary structures, Ramsay, J. G., and Huber, M. I., 248
169-171,176-180,184,1 87 Rangefinders, 21
Powell, C. McA., 242 Rapid (reconnaissance) mapping, 88-89
Powers, M. C., 51 Rates of deposition, 180
Precision, horizontal, of plane table mapping, Raup, D. M., and Stanley, S. M., 41
152-153 Ray, L. L., 206
of mapped contacts, 81 Ray, R. G., 120
of plotting data on compass traverses, 76 Reactivation surfaces, 180,181
of stratigraphic measurements, 223, 231, Read, H. H., 338
233,234, 235, 236, 237 Reconnaissance, general, 4-5
Preparations for field, general, 5-6 for a compass traverse, 76
for mapping on aerial photographs, 123-124 for plane table mapping, 147
for mapping on a topographic base, 101 rapid mapping methods for, 88-89
for measuring stratigraphic sections, 223 for stratigraphic measurements, 223
for plane table mapping, 147-148 References cited in reports, 359
Pressure ridges in lava, 276 Rehrig, W. A., and Heidrick, T. L., 315
Pressure solution, 53,187 Reineck, H.-E., 181
Pressure-solution cleavage, 53, 252, 256 Reineck, H.-E., and Singh, I. B., 162
Prinz, M., and Poldervaart, A., 330 Remote-sensed imagery, 112,118-119
Profile (normal section) of folds, 249 R e p la c e m e n t, d u rin g m e ta m o rp h is m ,
Properties of materials, 92-94, 368 325-328, 333-336
Propylitic alteration, 334 in sedimentary rocks, 55
Protoclastic texture, 64 Reports, geologic, abstracts of, 360
Protoliths of metamorphic rocks, 319-321 illustrations for, 341-353
Protomylonite, 73 outlines for, 353-356
Protractor, size needed, 12 references cited in, 359
use of in plotting data, 103 writing, 341-342, 353-361
Pseudomatrix in sandstone, 50 Resection, locating stations by, 156
Pumice lapilli, 66 Restites, 303
Pumice, compaction and welding of, 285-287 Rhyolite, 67, 280
Pumice flows, 284 Rhythmic bedding, 163-164
Pumiceous flow tops, 280 Richey, J. E., 290, 292
Pure shear, 244, 246 Ring dikes, 291
Pyroclastic deposits, 282-288 Rip channels, 185
Pyroclastic flow deposits (defined), 284 Ripples, climbing, 165,202
compaction and welding of, 285-287 eolian, 202
crystallization and vapor alteration of, 287 subaqueous, current, 164-165
depositional sequence in, 285 subaqueous, oscillation, 165
postdepositional flow of, 286 Rock-Color Chart, 370
Pyroclastic materials, reworking of, 288 Rock falls, 210
Pyroclastic texture, 65 Rock, N.M.S., 312
Pyroclasts (tephra), kinds of, 66 Rocks, collecting, 45-47
Pyroxenite, 68 describing, 27-31
estimating compositions of, 366-367
Quartzite, 72 examining, 22-25
Quartz diorite, 69 identifying, 48-74
Quartz gabbro, 69 Rock units, correlation of, 85-86
Quartz keratophyre, 68 description of, 30-31,225,239, 240
Index 395
Rock units, cont. Schmincke, H.-U., 272, 274,2 7 7

for engineering geologic studies, 92-97 Scholle, R A., Arthur, M. A., and Ekdale, A. A.,
formal (established), 84 187, 192
informal, 84 Scholle, R A., Bebout, D. G., and Moore, C. H.,
metamorphic, 319-321 162
in plutons, 296-297 Scholle, R A., and Spearing, D., 162
recognition of on aerial photographs, Scientific method, 25
Scoria, 64, 66
for reconnaissance mapping, 89 Sedimentary rocks, classifications of
refining, 83-85 depositional environments of, 162-219
selection of for general mapping, 80, 83 d ep osition a l sequences of, 163-164,
selection of for stratigraphic measure- 166-169, 178-193, 198-199, 205-206,
ment, 223-224 217-219
volcanic, 272-273, 274 primary structures of, 162-219
Rock units too small to map to scale, 82 textures of, 48-55
Rodingite, 74, 325 Sediment gravity currents, 164, 166-169
Rods (rodding structure), 258 Sediments {see Sedimentary rocks)
Rod, stadia, 135, 140-141 Seilacher, A., 176,177
Rose, D., 356 Seif, 201
Rose, W. I., 282 Selecting a field study, 3-4
Rounding of sedimentary grains, 50-51 Self, S., and Sparks, R.S.J., 197, 283
Rudite, defined, 49 Semischist, 73
classified by texture, 57 Semischistose texture, 70
calcirudite, 58 Seriate texture, 62
intraformational, 178,179, 183, 187 Sericitic alteration, 334
in melanges, 266-269 Serpentinite, 74
silicate-rich, 57 Shale, defined, 58
Ruhe, R. V., 197, 217 carbonaceous, 61
Rust, G. W., 292 “ oil shale” , 61
Shaw, S. E., and Flood, R. H., 296
Sabins, F. F., Jr., 118 Shelf deposits, 186-188
Safety, in using HF, 15 Shelly pahoehoe, 275
in using hammer, 10 Sheridan, M. F., 285, 287
Saleeby, J., 267,269 Sheridan, M. F., and Ragan, D. M., 286
Sales, R. H., and Meyer, C., 335 Shimer, H. H., and Shrock, R. R., 41
Samples, of macrofossils, 40-43 Shinn, E. A., 184
of microfossils, 43-45 Shreve, R. L., 210
of rocks, 45-47 Sideromelane, 279
oriented, 46-47 Sieh, K., 263
Sand, sizes of, 49 Similar folds, 251
sorting of, 49-50 Simple shear, 244-245
Sando, W. J., MacKenzie, G., Jr., and Dutro, Sills, associated with volcanoes, 291
J. T., Jr., 350, 353 in foliated plutons, 307
Sandstone, classification, 56 Silt, sizes of, 49
iron-rich, 61 Siltstone, 57
silicate-rich, 55-57 Silvestri, S. C., 279
Scale, for a pace and compass traverse, 76 Skarn, 72, 325, 336
of quadrangle maps, 99-100 Skialiths, 304
for stadia mapping, 147-148 Slate, 72, 325
Scales, for plotting and measuring, 12 Slaty cleavage, 256
Scales for strength and hardness of rocks, Slosson, J. E., 98, 355
368 Slumps, in soft sediment, 170
Schedule of a field project, 4-9 Smith, J. T., and Anson, A., 120
Schenk, E. T., and McMasters, J. H., 358 Smith, R. E., 329
Schist, 72, 325 Smith, R. L., 285,285, 286
Schistose texture, 70 Soft-sediment deformation, 170-171,202,242
Schlieren, 307-308 Soil Conservation Service, 213, 216
396 Index
Soils, describing, 213-214 used to locate contacts, 82

horizons in, 213 Stromatolites, 52-53
kinds of, 214-216 Strombolian-type activity, 283
maps of, 216-217 Structural geologic reports, 355
stratigraphy of, 217-219 Structure, as defined for rocks, 48
Soil slips (landslides), 208 Structure contour maps, 344
Soil Survey Staff, 213, 214, 216 Stru ctu res, diagenetic, 167, 171, 172,
Solifluction, 207, 212 183, 187
Solution of sediments, 53-54 general mapping of, 86-88
Sorting in sedimentary rocks, 49-50 indicating stratigraphic tops of beds,
Soula, J.-C., 297, 298 193
Sources of geologic and topographic informa- photogeologic recognition of, 122-123
tion, 3 primary, symbols for, 378
Spaced cleavage, 256 small-scale, in rocks, 48
Sparks, R.S J., 285,2 85 soft-sediment, 166, 170-171,210, 242
Spherulites, 64, 280, 287 in soils, 214
Spilite, 67 tectonic, 86-88, 243-269
Spine, volcanic, 280,282 Strunk, W., Jr., and White, E. B., 359
Spiracles, in basalt flows, 277 Style, in geologic reports, 358-359
Stadia constant, 144-145 Stylolites, 54
Stadia interval, 144-145 Suite (rock unit), 84, 296-297
Stadia mapping, 139-146,155-160 Sun compass, 18
Stadia rod, 135, 140-141 Surficial deposits, in columnar sections, 239
Staining rocks, 14-15 in cross sections, 110, 111, 349
Stebinger drum, 145 kinds of, 198-219
Steel needle, mounting, 11 mapping, 90-92,198, 216-217
Stereographic net, equal area, 383 photogeologic recognition of, 122
converting pitch to plunge with, 40 Surtseyan-type activity, 283
plotting planes and lines on, 40, 173, 175 Sutton, J., and Watson, J., 333
rotating current data with, 173, 175 Swanson, D. A., 275,2 7 7
unfolding planes and lines, 173, 175 Swanson, D. A., Wright, T. L., and Helz, R. T.,
Stereoscopes, 113-115 274
Stereoscopic viewing, 113-115 Syenite, 69
Strain, general, 243-246 Sylvester, A. G., and Smith, R. R., 263
measurement of, 247-248 Symbols for fossils and primary structures,
Stratigraphic code, 84 378
Stratigraphic logs, 240-241 Symbols, for geologic maps, 372-375
Stratigraphic sections, covered intervals in, for topographic maps, 99
227-228,2 3 9
of deformed rocks, 228-229 Tables in geologic reports, 359-360
lateral variations in, 229 Tabor, R. W., 300
measuring, 224-225, 229-238 Tally counters, 21
presenting in reports, 238-240, 349-350 Talus, 282
selection of, 222 Tanner, P.W.G., 324
subdividing and describing, 223-225 Tanner, W. F., 233
Stratigraphic sequence ( See stratigraphic T a p e -c o m p a s s -c lin o m e te r m eth o d of
tops of beds) measuring rocks, 234-236
Stratigraphic thickness of folded rocks, Tapes, 20
228
228- Taping distances, 20,150-151
Stratigraphic tops of beds, 193 Taylor, B. E., and O ’Neil, J. R „ 336
Streckeisen, A. L., 68 Teichert, 41
Strength of rocks and sediments, 92,94,368 Tephra, 66
Strike and dip (defined), 34 Tephrite, 67
determined from contour map, 106-107 Terraces, periglacial, 212
measurement of, 34-38 Terwindt, J.H.J., 180
plotting and checking, 86 Textural zones, metamorphic, 325
by three-point method, 37-38 Texture of rocks, defined, 48
Index 397
Textures (and see specific kinds), igneous, Turner, F. J., 320, 325, 330
61-65 Turner, F. J., and Weiss, L. E., 254, 383
metamorphic, 68-72, 322, 325, 331, 337 Type locality of a rock unit, 85
sedimentary, 48-55 Type section of a rock unit, 85
Thayer, T. P., 306
Thermal infrared scanning imagery, 119 Uebel, P.-J., 309
Thickness of strata, calculating, 234, 235 UltramyIonite, 73
Thiessen, R. L., and Means, W. D., 254 Unconformity, general, 178-180
Three-point method, of locating plane table angular, 178
stations, 156-158 disconformity, 178
of measuring strike and dip, 37-38 in volcanic rocks, 273
Tichy, H.J., 356, 357 Units of weight and measure, 381
Tidal channels, 181-182,182, 183 U-Pb dating of plutons, 299
Tidal environments, 180-184 U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 152
T ill, 203-204
Todd, V. R., 255, 298 Vallance, T. G., 329
Tonalite, 69 Varioles, 64
Topographic maps (described), 99-100 Varnes, D.J.,95, 97,344
accuracy of, 100 Varves, 189, 205
choice of as a base, 5-6 Veins, age relations among, 245, 246, 328,
interpreting geologic lines on, 106-107 329
locating geology on, 101-106 alterations associated with, 327, 328, 335
sources of, 100-101 in plutons, 312-316
Township-section cadastral system, 99, 369 metamorphic, 329-331,335
Trace fossils (defined), 176 Vergence of folds, 250
in dysaerobic environments, 189 Vernier scale, reading, 143-144
in judging rates of deposition, 180 Vertical angles, measuring w ith alidade,
in judging soft-sediment deformation, 171 143-144,153-154
marking diastems, 179 m easuring w ith clinom eter (Brunton
in pelagic chalk, 187,192 compass), 19
Trachyte, 67, 280 Vertical distances, by altimeter, 104-105
Transit, in control surveys, 149 by hand leveling, 19-20
in m easuring stratigraph ic sections, by stadia methods, 141-144,146
236-
236 by the stadia stepping method, 146
Transpositional layering, 257 from vertical angles, 19,143-144,153-154
Transverse dune, 201 Verwoerd, W. J., 290
Transverse ripples, 165 Vesicles, in subaerial basalt, 277
Trautmann, C. H., and Kulhawy, F. H., 3 in subaqueous basalt, 278
Traversing, with altimeter, 104-105 in subaqueous tuffs, 283
with compass, 75-77, 103-104 in viscous lava, 280,281
with plane table and alidade, 155, 156, Vitrophyric texture, 63
237-238 Volcanic intrusions, age relations among,
Trend (bearing) of linear features, 38 290-291
Triangulation, with a compass, 105-106 associated alterations, 292
with plane table and alidade, 149-154 Volcanic necks and pipes, 291-292
for stratigraphic measurements, 238 Volcanic rocks, classified, 67
with a transit or theodolite, 149 primary structures in, 274-292
Trigonometric functions, 380 Volcanic vents, forms of, 290-292
Tripod, plane table, 138 indications of, 281, 282, 283, 292
Trondhjemite, 69 von Bandat, H. F., 120,123
True dip and apparent dip, 382 Vuagnat, M., 278
Tuff, devitrified, 64
naming, 68, 288 Wacke, 55
Tufte, E. R., 353 Wackestone, 58
Tumuli, 275 Wager, L. R., and Brown, G. M., 304,305,306
Turbidites, 167-168,189-191 Walker, G.P.L., 274, 277, 283, 285
Turbidity currents, 164,166-168, 201 Walker, G. W., 274
398 Index
Wallace, R. E., 262 Williamson, D. A., 96

Washburn, A. L., 211 W illis, D. B., 301
Waters, A. C., 274, 277, 278 Winkler, H.G.F., 320
Wave length of folds, 250 Wise, D. U., and seven others, 71,73,244,259
Way, D. S., 120 Wohletz, K. H .,279
Weathering characteristics of rocks, 24-25 Wohletz, K. H., and Sheridan, M. F., 283,284
Websterite, 68 Woillard, G. M., 197
Wehrlite, 68 Work in field camp or office, 7-8
W eld in g in p y ro cla stic deposits, 283, Wright, A. E., and Bowes, D. R., 311
284, 286-287 Wright, H. E., Jr., 198,206
Wentworth, C. K., and Macdonald, G. A., Wright, T. L., Grolier, M. J., and Swanson,
273, 274,2 7 6 D. A., 274
Wentworth, C. M., Jr., 167
Westgate, J. A., and Gorton, M. R, 272 Xenoliths, 303
White, W. H., and six others, 314, 315
Williams, G. P., and Guy, H. P., 209 Zoned inclusions, 304
Williams, H., 280 Zones, associated wtih veins, 334-335
Williams, H., and McBirney, A. R., 274, diagenetic, 55
282, 288 hydrothermal, 328, 334-336
Williams, H., Turner, E J., and Gilbert, C. M., metamorphic, 323-325
55, 72 in plutons, 296, 315-316
Williams, P. F., Collins, A. R., and Wiltshire, in pyroclastic flow deposits, 286-287
R. G., 242
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