Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil for use as fuel in artisanal
fishing boats: Integrating environmental, economic and social aspects
Elisa Helena Siegel Moecke a, b, *, Rafael Feller a, He

lia Alice dos Santos c,
Marina de Medeiros Machado a, Anelise Leal Vieira Cubas d, Ana Regina de Aguiar Dutra e,
Lucas Leonardo Vieira Santos f, Sebastia ~o Roberto Soares f
a
Environmental Engineering, University of Southern Santa Catarina e UNISUL, CEP 88279900, Palhoça, Santa Catarina, Brazil
b
polis, SC, Brazil
Federal University of Santa Catarina e UFSC, Department of Food Science and Technology, Itacorubi, 88034-001, Floriano
c
City College of Palhoça e FMP, Department of Pedagogy, CEP 88130-470, Palhoça, Santa Catarina, Brazil
d
UNA - PCA, Articulation Academic Unit of Production, Construction and Agribusiness, Environmental Engineering, University of Southern Santa
Catarina e UNISUL, CEP 88279900, Palhoça, Santa Catarina, Brazil
e
Production Engineering, University of Southern Santa Catarina e UNISUL, CEP 80137-270, Palhoça, Santa Catarina, Brazil
f
Life Cycle Assessment Research Group (CICLOG) e Environmental Engineering Postgraduate Program (PPGEA) e Federal University of Santa
Catarina - UFSC, Technological Center e University Campus, Trindade, Mailbox 476, CEP 88040-970, Floriano
polis, Santa Catarina, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Concern in relation to creating environmental protection policies is increasing, particularly with regard
Received 12 July 2015 to the reuse of waste for power generation. In this context, biodiesel production from waste cooking oils
Received in revised form could play an important role. Biodiesel is a biofuel that can be produced from saturated fatty raw ma-
25 May 2016
terial discarded by restaurants, such as oils and fats used for cooking processes. This paper describes a
Accepted 26 May 2016
biodiesel production plant installed at Pinheira Beach in the State of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil and
Available online 11 June 2016
aims to discuss the environmental, social and economic impacts by analyzing the biodiesel production by
life cycle assessment (LCA), relationship with the emission of greenhouse gases. The plant is run by an
Keywords:
Waste cooking oil
association and is aimed at promoting the recycling of waste cooking oil from restaurants and residences
Biodiesel in the area and, at the same time, enables the continuity of artisanal fisheries in the region. The trans-
Transesterification esterification production process was used to convert waste cooking oils into biodiesel using basic
Methyl esters catalysis in the presence of methanol. A batch system with the capacity to produce 200 L of biodiesel per
Life cycle assessment day was adopted. The data obtained for the biodiesel produced at the plant were 879.2 kg m
3 density,
Carbon footprint 495.74 mg kg
1 water content, 94.38% ester content, and 1.5 mg.kg
1 sodium plus potassium. Related to
the Life Cycle Assessment the results demonstrate that the category that most contributes to the
emissions generated in biodiesel production process is the collection stage with 92.10% contribution,
presenting a significant difference to the productions stage which contributed 7.9%. The plant provides
environmental, social and economic gains for the community, for instance, increased income for the
associates and fishermen, environmental education in schools, and cooking oil recycling opportunities.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
1.1. General discussion of biofuels
In order to achieve the sustainability of production processes
* Corresponding author. University of Southern Santa Catarina e UNISUL, Pedra
Branca Unit, Avenue Pedra Branca, 25, Pedra Branca, CEP 88137-270, Palhoça, SC,
Brazil.
E-mail address: smoecke@gmail.com (E.H.S. Moecke).
the search for alternatives that do not harm the environment and
the use of clean renewable energy and reverse logistics are of great
importance (Nikolaou et al., 2013). The clean production of energy
addresses environmental aspects by optimizing processes, whereas
in reverse logistics the recycling and reuse of materials, which meet
the requirements of environmental protection and social aspects,
are priority issues (Yam and Mak, 2014). The use of waste cooking
oils to produce biodiesel fits these concepts, given that this initia-
tive avoids the inappropriate disposal of wastes and promotes the
use of a sustainable fuel (Giraçol et al., 2011), reducing the costs of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.05.167
0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
680 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688
production and associated activities (Skarlis et al., 2012).
One of the best ways to use waste oils in an efficient and cost-
effective way is to produce biofuel. Math et al. (2010) address
that transesterified vegetable oil (biodiesel) has attracted attention
all over the world as an alternative fuel for diesel engines because of
its reusability.
Biodiesel can be obtained through different processes, trans-
esterification being the most widely used method due to its tech-
nical simplicity and efficiency (Morais et al., 2010). The
transesterification reaction can be carried out using alkali, acid or
enzyme catalysts, depending on the undesirable compounds
(especially water) and free fatty acids present (Nair et al., 2012). In
general, the reaction proceeds more rapidly with alkali catalysts as
compared to the use of acids (Yaakob et al., 2014). The alkali-
catalyzed transesterification of waste cooking oil is somewhat
limited in the presence of high concentrations of free fatty acids
and water, given that it favors the saponification reaction (Ullab
et al., 2015). Despite this drawback, the alkali-catalyzed trans-
esterification of waste cooking oil is still widely used (Yaakob et al.,
2013).
After being subjected to successive heating to high temperature
(around 190  C), waste cooking oils show chemical and physical
changes arising from thermal, oxidative and hydrolytic reactions,
with the formation of various harmful and undesirable compounds
(Yaakob et al., 2013). Diya
uddeen et al. (2012) report about the
injurious effect of frying oil in food preparation formulations for
feeding domestic animals, which resulted in a ban from 2002 in the
EU. Because this may return to the human food chain through meat
consumption (Issariyakul et al., 2007). Thus, waste cooking oils
must be disposed of safely to avoid harm to human health and the
environment (Kulkarni and Dalai, 2006).
Although biodiesel comes from a renewable source, it should be
produced in an efficient and economic process in which the impacts
and emissions are minimized or eliminated according to the pre-
cepts of clean production (Bonilla et al., 2010). In order to corrob-
orate to the Bonilla et al. assertion, the authors Chang et al. (2014)
and Sheinbaum-Pardo et al. (2013) emphasize that biodiesel is a
biodegradable fuel derived from renewable sources and its com-
bustion has less harmful effects on human health compared to
petroleum diesel, with lower emissions of pollutants, such as car-
bon monoxide and fine particulate matter, due to a more complete
combustion process Sheinbaum-Pardo et al., 2013). Furthermore,
there is no sulfur in its composition (Chang et al., 2014).
Avhad and Marchetti (2015) presents some advantages of bio-
diesel include: domestic origin, reducing the dependency on im-
ported petroleum, biodegradability, high flash point and inherent
lubricity in the neat form. Tan et al.(2015) also mentions that bio-
diesel has low toxicity.
Currently, the cost of biodiesel is high as compared to conven-
tional diesel oil because most of the biodiesel is produced from
pure vegetable oil (Sheinbaum-Pardo et al., 2013). However, the
cost of biodiesel can be reduced by using low cost feedstock such as
animal fat and used cooking oil (Chang et al., 2014). The fact that the
cost of biodiesel is high compared to diesel or other fuels
(Enweremadu and Mbarawa, 2009), but it can be minimized when
produced from a residue is reinforced by the previously mentioned
authors Bonilla et al. (2010). In contrast, Enweremadu and Mbarawa
(2009) point out that the increasing awareness of the depletion of
fossil fuel resources and the environmental benefits of biodiesel
fuel has made it more attractive in recent times.
The next paragraphs discuss about biodiesel production from
waste cooking oils. These studies were conducted in different
countries and reported here by different authors, reinforcing the
importance of reuse of cooking oil for the biodiesel production. As
an example, Melero et al. (2014) carried out to investigate
transesterification of waste cooking oil to methyl esters using
Agglomerated Zr-SBA-15/bentonite as active and stable catalyst.
The process displays high potential for the conversion of low grade
feedstock. Mohammadshirazi et al. (2014) conducted an energetic
and economical evaluation of the biodiesel production process
from cooking oil waste using the conventional transesterification
method. According to the results of this economical analysis, the
cost benefit relation was of 2.081 $, where the avarege liquid return
and productivity were of 1.298 $ L
1 e 0.946 $ kg
1, respectively.
Utlu and Koçak (2008) developed a study which the objective
was to perform experimentally parametric tests of a turbocharged
diesel injection engine fueled with biodiesel obtained from waste
cooking oil at several steady state operating conditions. The pro-
duction process was based on the transesterification method that
required 200 ml methyl alcohol, 6.5e8.5 g NaOH that is determined
with titration, and 1e2 g acetic acid. In the first stage, test applied
the transesterification reaction is realized in the reactor tank at
65  C temperature during 1 h. The second stage is composed of
product rest and raw biodiesel separation from glycerin, then,
washing process of obtained raw biodiesel is done by using the
same volume of pure water, and second washing process follows
and this washing process is carried out to increase the pellucidity of
biodiesel by using bubble method. They could conclude that
cooking oil methyl ester as alternative diesel engine fuel can be
used successfully to operate a turbocharged direct injection diesel
engine without modifications to engine or injection system.
Phan and Phan (2008) produced biodiesel from waste cooking
oil that were collected from restaurants and shops within Ho Chi
Minh City, Vietnam. The transesterification was carried out in a
500 ml three-neck glass flask connecting with a reflux condenser
using tap water to condense methanol vapour and a thermocouple
probe. KOH pellets were dissolved in methanol before being poured
in the reactor containing about 200 g of waste cooking oil (WCO)
heated up to a desired temperature, which was 30  C, 50  C or 70  C.
The reaction was kept at a desired temperature for 20 min, 40 min,
60 min, 90 min or 120 min. The results showed that the highest
yield of biodiesel was obtained at the ratio of methanol/WCO of
7:1e8:1 during 80e90 min at temperatures ranging 30e50  C in
the presence of 0.75 wt% KOH.
Vasudevan and Briggs (2008) performed-state-of-the-art
research that examined different biodiesel sources (edible and
nonedible), virgin oil versus waste oil, algae-based biodiesel that is
gaining increasing importance, the role of different catalysts
including enzyme catalysts, and the current state-of-the-art in
biodiesel production.
1.2. Biofuels in the Brazil context
National Petroleum Agency (ANP) and the Brazilian Association
of Vegetable Oil Industries (ABIOVE) data, referring to October,
2014, show that in this year, about 20,609 m3 of cooking oil were
allocated to biodiesel production, surpassing the year 2012, with
17,827 m3 (ABIOVE, 2014). In Brazil, about 80% of the produced
biodiesel is derived from soybean oil, according to the Ministry of
Agrarian Development (MDA), soy is considered one of the biggest
culture in Brazil, soy production is almost half his acreage in grains,
especially in the Midwest and South. Technological advances are
the main reasons for this increase over the years (MAPA, 2015), but
the oil content in soybeans is not the highest, and, according to
Paulillo et al. (2006), the oil content is approximately 18% and
0.2e0.4 tons.ha
1.
In 2012e2013 Brazil's soybean crop occupies an area of 27.7
million hectares, totaling 81.5 tons (EMBRAPA SOJA, 2015), in the
2013e2014 season, for the National Supply Company (Conab), there
was increase of 6.2% in soybean cultivation area and productivity
 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688
reached about 3.07 kg.ha
1 (CONAB, 2014). The supply chain that
involves culture, such as biodiesel, generates $US 980 M/y. Until
October 2014, it was 2,056,118 m3 of soybean oil for biodiesel
production (ABIOVE, 2014).
One of the major concern in biodiesel production is economic
viability. The raw material for biodiesel is considered the most
important variable cost of biodiesel in the global market. In Brazil,
most biodiesel plants use refined vegetable oils as main raw ma-
terial. Therefore, the cost of the refined vegetable oils contributed
about 80% of the total biodiesel production (Lam et al., 2009). The
use of the waste cooking oil as raw material for production of
biodiesel can reduce the cost of the final product, and is environ-
mentally friendly. Currently in production of Brazilian biodiesel,
only 0.61% is from the WCO (ANP, 2016a,b).
The price estimates for biodiesel can vary greatly. According to
estimates by the International Energy Agency - IEA (IEA, 2010), the
scale can affect 25% the final cost of biodiesel, whereas the price of
raw materials might represent differences of up to 50% of the final
cost. According to Parente (2003) a major proportion of the cost of
biodiesel is attributed to the cost of raw material, which is around
2/3 of the total production costs. The remaining portions of the
costs (such as transesterification reagents) can be partially absor-
bed by credits from the sale of glycerin. The author shows that for a
cost of raw materials of US$ 400/ton the cost of biodiesel produc-
tion would be about US$ 0.36/L. Considering a profit margin and
freight about 25% of the final price, the biodiesel sales price would
be US$ 0.45/L, which might be considered competitive with respect
to diesel oil.
Alnuami et al. (2014) shows in their article that the cost of raw
materials in the biodiesel production is amount to about 80% of the
total operating cost, and explain that this fact is related to the high
cost of the feedstock oils. This high cost of feedstock oils is in turn
attributed to the unavailability of sufficient agricultural land for the
cultivation of the oil seeds for biodiesel production as the food
materials for food production.
At present the S10-diesel commercialization is around US$ 0.81/
L1 (ANP, 2016a,b). As for biodiesel, data from the National Agency of
Petroleum (ANP) show that, in March 2015, in Brazil, the price of
the S-10 diesel (with lower sulfur content) to the refinery was US$
0.53/L,2 3.3% higher than the average price paid to biodiesel plants,
which stayed at $ 0.51/L3 (ANP, 2015).
It is known that the total value of commercialization of biofuels,
80% refer to the cost of the raw material (US$ 0.41/L4) (Alnuami
et al., 2014). Thus, with the use of waste vegetable oils to bio-
diesel production, the cost concerning the raw material is zero, as it
is a residue which would be discarded, representing a saving of
about 21.6%, demonstrating the economic viability of biofuels
production from saturated vegetable oils.
Thus, for Brazil, according to Lucena (2008), biodiesel proposal
is associated with import substitution, generating reducing
external vulnerability, increased national energy independence,
foreign exchange savings and consequently reduction of country
risk. Furthermore, in Brazil, as in other countries, as expressed
before, interest in biodiesel is not limited to the economic dimen-
sion, but also search results in the social and environmental
1
Considering the actual conversion price of real (R$) to US dollars (US$) on
March 4th, 2016 in the amount of R$ 3.86 (price in Real - R$ 3.14/L e Bovespa,
2016).
2
Considering the actual conversion price of real (R$) to US dollars (US$) on
March 4th, 2016 in the amount of R$ 3.86 (price in Real - R$ 2.04/L - Bovespa, 2016).
3
Considering the actual conversion price of real (R$) to US dollars (US$) on
March 4th, 2016 in the amount of R$ 3.86 (price in Real - R$ 1.98/L - Bovespa, 2016).
4
Considering the actual conversion price of real (R$) to US dollars (US$) on
March 4th, 2016 in the amount of R$ 3.86 (price in Real - R$ 1.58/L - Bovespa, 2016).
681
dimensions. To support this fact, is quoted the report Garcez and
Vianna (2009) that analyze the Brazilian Biodiesel Policy does
possess the laudable objectives of promoting social inclusion and
regional development. However, it has been found that a lack of
incentives, training, and strong Policy mechanisms have resulted in
the following: soybean as the dominating feedstock; the majority of
authorized biodiesel production capacity being installed in the
Central-West of the country; and the role of family farmers being
limited to that of producers of grains. The Policy also overlooks
some important aspects of environmental sustainability, such as
consumption patterns and the promotion of agricultural practices
that are less intensive on local ecosystems. The authors of the
article hope that the issues previously highlighted may contribute
to the national and international debate regarding biodiesel policy.
In this context, this paper describes a study on a small-scale
biodiesel production plant, where waste cooking oil from restau-
rants and residences was turned into fuel for use in artisanal fishing
boats and the vehicles that make the selective waste collections in
the region. Furthermore, aims to discuss the environmental, social
and economic impacts by analyzing the biodiesel production with
life cycle assessment (LCA), relationship with the emission of
greenhouse gases.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Case study
2.1.1. Study area characteristics
The biodiesel production plant, the object of this case study, is
located in a protected area named Environmental Protection Area
Surrounding the Coast of Serra do Tabuleiro State Park. The Serra do
Tabuleiro State Park is located between the geographical co-
ordinates 2740 20900 to 28º0704200 South latitude and 48º340 0900 to
48º570 1300 West longitude, and covers an area of 84.130 ha, in the
State of Santa Catarina, Brazil (FATMA, 2009). According to infor-
mation provided by the Environmental Foundation of the State of
Santa Catarina (FATMA), the park notably encompasses five of the
six phytogeographic regions of the state: mangroves, sandbanks,
dense tropical rainforest, mixed tropical rainforest, and high-
altitude grasslands (Klein, 1981). Pinheira Beach, which is charac-
terized by artisanal fishing and tourism, lies within the coastal re-
gion of Serra do Tabuleiro State Park.
The plant is operated by an association named Pro-CREP (Create,
Recycle, Educate and Preserve) comprised of Pinheira Beach resi-
dents, which also carries out the collection and sorting of recyclable
solid wastes.
Pinheira Beach was colonized by Azoreans and until the 1970s it
was still characterized as a fishing community. It has a colony of
fishermen with 30 boats registered. Severo (2008) found that the
main cost component of the fishing activity is the fuel (oil) used by
the boats.
Artisanal fishing is an important activity in the State of Santa
Catarina, with around 30,000 artisanal fishermen who account for
approximately 30% of the state fish production. However, there are
problems associated with this activity, such as difficulties in rela-
tion to maintaining the fishing colonies, competition from indus-
trial fishing and pollution.
In addition to artisanal fishing, tourism drives the economy of
the region and increases the users of local services, especially res-
taurants, which generate large amounts of waste cooking oil that
are often discarded improperly.
Based on these concepts, the biodiesel production plant at
Pinheira Beach has the characteristics of a sustainable activity,
meeting the requirements of clean production and reverse logistics,
based on the following principles:
682 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688
 Environmental conservation, through proper disposal of waste
cooking oils;
 Waste recycling by reusing waste cooking oils to produce
biodiesel;
 Reuse of residues by utilizing the byproduct of the trans-
esterification reaction (glycerol) and high acidity oil to produce
soap;
 Reduction of production costs by using scrap materials for
manufacturing reactors and solar panels for water heating in the
biodiesel purification process;
 Environmental education and campaigns to involve the local
community in the collection of waste cooking oils;
 Social inclusion, with the participation of residents in the bio-
diesel production process and the integration of artisanal fish-
ermen, aimed at encouraging them to remain living in the same
neighborhood and to continue the activity of artisanal fishing in
the region.
In order to reinforce the requirements of cleaner production and
reverse logistics, adopted by the biodiesel production plant at
Pinheira Beach is discussed here the LCA methodology, which aims
at continuous improvement of processes and products, minimizing
or eliminating waste. LCA is considered a methodology that seeks
continuous improvement of processes, aimed at quantifying,
managing and further reduction of impacts, defined as a method-
ology that evaluates and quantifies the potential impacts associated
with a product's life cycle, process or service (Guine
e et al., 2011).
According to Lo € fgren et al. (2011), the LCA is seen as the most
important methodology in environmental management today.
According to Johnson (2008), the carbon footprint is the total
greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted directly or indirectly by a person,
organization or product throughout its life cycle. One approach of
LCA, known as Carbon Footprint, allows the analysis of direct and
indirect emissions of greenhouse gases produced during the life
cycle of an activity. As the International Standard ISO 14067, the
calculation of product carbon footprint is based on the Life Cycle
Assessment methodology, established in ISO 14040 and 14044
standards.
2.1.2. Survey of economic, social and environmental impacts on
Pinheira beach
Open interviews were conducted with key local stakeholder
(especially artisanal fishermen and restaurant owners) focusing on
issues related to: 1) activities in the area such as fishing and tourism
(main sources of income); 2) environment as the selective collec-
tion of cooking oil and aspects related to preserving the environ-
ment and its importance for the continuation of fishing and
tourism. In order to allow the understanding of the influence of the
changes (social, economic, political, technical and environmental)
on the changes experienced directly by them and by other mem-
bers of the community over time.
The next step consists of interviews with semi-structured
questionnaires given to residents of Pinheira beach. At this stage,
fishermen interviews were conducted (15), restaurant owners (34),
teachers (16) and students (170) of primary and secondary
education.
In the interviews with fishermen, issues were discussed relating
to fisheries and its importance for the region, artisanal fishing costs
and health problems. The issues raised with the restaurant owners
were referring to the cooking oil quantitative generated per month,
the destination of the oil, and if they would like to donate the oil to
produce biodiesel to be used by fishermen that provide fish for
restaurants.
In the school environment questions have been raised about the
parent activity, environmental issues related to protecting the
environment, waste and cooking oil separation. The perception of
the problems, the implemented strategies and other elements that
make up their way of life, such as relations with the community and
knowledge of the natural environment were also addressed. In-
terviews were scanned on a data sheet for carrying out the
assessments.
After the data collection, activities related to the implementa-
tion of the biodiesel plant in Pinheira Beach next to the waste
sorting center (Pro-CREP) were initiated to satisfy the needs of
fishermen and restaurants owners. To establish the type of trans-
formation to be adopted the following steps were carried out:
optimization of the production process on a laboratory scale,
equipment manufacturing, plant construction, and biodiesel pro-
duction and evaluation.
During the project implementation, talks were given to
disseminate the concepts within the community and provide
environmental education in primary and secondary schools, in
addition to meetings with artisanal fishermen.
2.1.3. Biodiesel production plant
Once the amount of waste cooking oil available per month had
been quantified, was established architecture of the biodiesel
production plant and the optimization of reaction conditions of
biodiesel production on a laboratory scale, the reactors and other
equipment were designed.
Scrap stainless steel material was primarily used to manufacture
the equipment. The transesterification reactor was designed for a
capacity of 80 L with mechanical stirring using a three-phase
electric motor (WEG, W22 tri-phase motor, 220 V, 0.75 HP). The
reactor for the catalytic mixture was designed for a capacity of 15 L
with fins to dissipate the heat generated during the dissolution of
KOH in methanol. A three-phase electric motor (WEG, W22 three-
phase motor, 220 V, 0.5 HP) was coupled to this reactor to stir the
mixture in order to facilitate the KOH dissolution.
The decanter for glycerol separation was designed for a capacity
of 150 L. The washer and the desiccator were designed for a ca-
pacity of 200 L each. The washer was equipped with mechanical
stirring using the same type and model installed in the trans-
esterification reactor. The distiller for methanol recovery (from
both glycerin and biodiesel) was designed for a capacity of 60 L. The
four tanks for waste cooking oil storage and decanting were made
of PVC material, with a capacity of 1000 L each.
The next step was the construction of the physical space of the
plant (84 m2) to receive the reactors and other equipment. Con-
structed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface flow have been
deployed to wastewater treatment of the biodiesel production
process. For this system plants were used macrophyte species
Typha latifolia and Scirpus sp. The reactors and other equipment
were placed at key locations around the plant according to the
production flow, as shown in the flowchart of Fig. 1.
The waste cooking oil was collected from restaurants in 50 L
canisters and taken to the plant where samples were taken for
acidity and moisture determination. When the levels of free fatty
acids were very high (>2%) and water content was high
(>700 mg kg
1), the oil was considered inappropriate (approxi-
mately 3% of the total volume collected per month) for catalysis-
based biodiesel production because the free fatty acids react with
the base catalyst to form soap. The soap formed during the reaction
impairs the separation of glycerol, which reduces the ester pro-
duction yield (Nurfriti et al., 2013; Enweremadú and Mbarawa,
2009; Phan and Phan, 2008).
The oils considered as suitable for biodiesel production were
filtered for the removal of food waste, which was disposed of in
landfills, and then transferred to a sequence of three decanters,
where they were separated from water and small particulates were
 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688
Fig. 1. Flowchart of raw material processing.
separated out. For the transesterification, the water and particulate
free oil was placed in a reactor, equipped with mechanical stirring,
heated up to 50  C, and a catalytic mixture (KOH and methanol) was
added. After the transesterification reaction, methyl esters (bio-
diesel) were separated from glycerol by decantation. Free-glycerol
esters were rinsed with water heated to a temperature of
45 ± 3  C and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). Low
cost water heating solar panels were installed at the plant. Meth-
anol recovered by distillation was returned to the production pro-
cess. The crude glycerin obtained from the biodiesel production
process and the waste cooking oil with free fatty acids content
above 2% were used for soap production.
2.1.4. Physicochemical characterization of waste cooking oils
It is important to assess the quality of the raw material by
providing a physicochemical characterization of the cooking oil,
given that oil degradation can lead to a decrease in ester yield. The
presence of hydroperoxides caused by the exposure of oil to high
temperatures can aid the oil degradation. Table 1 shows the
physical and chemical parameters of the waste cooking oil collected
from the restaurants and residences and used for the production of
biodiesel.
The refined soybean oil oxidation level is considered low when
the peroxide index (PI) is between 1.0 and 5.0 mEq O2 kg
1 oil;
683
moderate when the IP is between 5.0 and 10.0 mEq O2 kg
1 oil; and
high when the IP is greater than 10 mEq O2 kg
1 oil (Canesin et al.,
2014).
The acid number, as well as the peroxide value, reflects the
amount of free fatty acids (FFA) in the oil. Free fatty acids are
formed under different conditions, such as high temperatures and
oxidation, which can occur in the presence of peroxides or light
(Canakci, 2007). The WCO samples used in the production of bio-
diesel showed high values for peroxide and FFA. When the acidity
values are greater than 2.0%, the saponification reaction can reduce
the transesterification reaction efficiency. Felizardo et al. (2006)
have studied the influence of the oil acid value on the production
of biodiesel, six experiments were conducted using WCO with acid
values of 0.42 and 2.07. In all experiments, the biodiesel produced
from the WCO with the lower acid value had a purity higher than
the one obtained from the more acidic cooking oil, by as much as
14%. It was also observed that those methyl ester layers could be
more easily separated from the glycerol rich phases than the ones
produced using the more acidic WCO.
The saponification index (IS), which consists of the complete
hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in alkaline solutions, leads to the
formation of fatty acid salts and can be used for the rapid assess-
ment of the potential formation of esters by determining the
theoretical percentage of esters according to Equation (1), as shown
684 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688

Table 1
Physicochemical parameters of waste cooking oils used in biodiesel synthesis.

Characteristics Units Valuea Methods

Acid value (IA) (mg KOH g
1) 1.93 (±0.48) AOAC n. 940.28 (2005)
Water content (mg kg
1) 655.75 (±87.24) ISO 12937 (2000)
Saponification value (IS) (mg KOH g
1) 174.89 (±6.07) AOAC n.920.16 (2005)
Iodine value (IP) (g I2 100 g
1) 111.64 (±8.31) AOAC n. 993.20 (2005)
Peroxide index (IP) (mEq O2 kg
1) 12.02 (±2.91) AOAC n.965.33 (2005)
a
Average values of nine samples analyzed.

by Canesim (2014): reaction.

Ester content ð%Þ ¼ 100 ðIS
IAÞ=IS
Thus, the theoretical percentage of esters that can be obtained
from waste cooking oil will be 98.90%.
The fatty acids composition of the waste cooking oil showed
small differences in comparison with soybean oil and larger dif-
ferences in relation to oleic acid (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2).
This indicates that the waste cooking oil is a blend of vegetable oils
of different origins and also reflects the influence of the oxidation
process during the heating (Çetinkaya and Karaosmanog lu, 2004).
The predominant fatty acids found in vegetable oils are divided
into saturated (Cn:0), with no double bonds in the carbon chain,
and unsaturated, with double bonds in the carbon chain. The un-
saturated fatty acids are divided into monounsaturated (Cn:1) and
polyunsaturated (Cn:2,3) as described by Ramos et al. (2009). The
percentages of these compounds are shown in Table 2.
The unsaturation parameters were calculated from the compo-
sition of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (wt%)
present in the oil using the empirical equation shown in Eq. (2)
(Ramos et al., 2009).
DU ðwt%Þ ¼ monounsaturated ðCn : 1Þ
þ 2 X polyunsaturated ðCn : 2; 3Þ
The waste cooking oil used by Ramos et al. (2009) showed a
degree of unsaturation similar to that of the oil used at the plant in
this study; however, the oil used by Ramos contained a higher
concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids and lower levels of
saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
2.1.5. Biodiesel production system
The biodiesel production capacity per day adopted at the plant
was a batch of 200 L. The first process stage is filtration, aimed at
separating out the solid impurities, followed by decantation to
remove the fine solids and water. At this stage, 8e15% of the total
volume was discarded, in the form of solid wastes and water, and
disposed of in a sanitary landfill facility. The conditions during the
optimization process (molar ratio - 1:6 oil/methanol, temperature
50  C, KOH - 0.75% in relation to the oil mass, and reaction time 2 h
under mechanical stirring) were applied in the transesterification
After the transesterification involving glycerol separation and
(1) decanting is completed, the crude biodiesel purification stage be-
gins for the removal of the catalyst (KOH) used in the reaction and
NaCl from the food cooking process. The purification of the bio-
diesel was more efficient using water heated to 40  C (±3  C) at a
ratio of 70:30 (v/v) biodiesel/water.
A low-cost water heating system based on solar panels was
suitable for maintaining the water at a temperature of 15  C (±3  C)
above room temperature without the use of electricity, throughout
the year, which allowed a saving of approximately 55.44 kWh/
month. Drying by adsorption with anhydrous sodium sulfate
(Na2SO4), which is the last step in the biodiesel production process,
was necessary to reduce the water content.
2.1.6. Life cycle assessment settings
The carbon footprint of the biodiesel manufacturing process
from cooking oil (raw material) was evaluated and is considered in
the study as zero impact because it is a residue. Thus, an LCA was
conducted based on the survey data provided by the primary bio-
diesel plant and shaped into specialized software for the global
warming impact category. Fig. 2 shows the inputs and outputs of
the product system to be studied. The functional unit (FU) of the
(2) present study was set to 2028 kg of biodiesel (cradle to gate).
The Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), focused on specific environmental
issues in this case - the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG)eis
presented with one of the major steps in this study. The GHG
emission factor (tCO2e.kg
1) provided by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the GHG Protocol, using the
methodology of Life Cycle Assessment for its determination. The
method used to collect the data necessary for modeling was by
completing the ICV by the head of the plant for which data were the
most accurate and reliable.
In the Life Cycle Impact Assessment, to estimate emissions for
each of the elementary input and output streams considered in
product supply (Fig. 2), we used the SimaPro 8.0.2 software. The
impact assessment method chosen was the IPCC (2007) GWP 100a,
developed by IPCC. All GHG emissions accounted for were
expressed as tons of equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2e), following
standard accepted by the world scientific community, stipulated by
IPCC, the scientific body for matters of UN climate change.

Table 2
Compositions (wt%) of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and degree of unsaturation of waste cooking oil and vegetable oils.

Chain Composition (wt%)

Waste cooking oila Waste cooking oil from Madridb Soybeanc Sunflowerc Cornc

Saturated 18.86 14.61 15.3 11.1 8.0

Monounsaturated 37.60 45.45 25.6 25.6 66.4
Polyunsaturated 43.54 39.94 59.1 63.3 25.3
Degree of unsaturation 124.68 125.33 143.8 152.2 117
a
Waste cooking oil used in this study.
b
Bautista et al., 2009.
c
Ramos et al., 2009.
 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688 685

Fig. 2. Inputs e outputs of the product system.

3. Results and discussion
The data collection revealed that the amount of WCO in the
Pinheira Beach area was seasonal, reaching 5000 L per month in the
summer season due to the increased flow of tourists at that time of
the year. Around 30 restaurants and a number of residents partic-
ipated in the project by storing waste cooking oil in 50-L canisters.
A utility vehicle (Fiat Ducato), running on biofuel (B50) produced at
the plant, was used to collect the donated WCO.
3.1. Characterization of the waste cooking oil-based biodiesel
In addition to the sodium and potassium measurements, the
specific mass, water content, methyl ester content and esterified
fatty acids profile were determined.
Table 3 shows the results obtained for the biodiesel produced
from waste cooking oil at the Pinheira Beach plant and the speci-
fications established by the Brazilian National Petroleum Agency -
ANP (Brazil, 2014).
The water content of the biodiesel was twice the limit estab-
lished by the Brazilian National Petroleum Agency (ANP). However,
this value adheres to the EN 14214:2012 European specifications
(500 mg kg
1). The density of the biodiesel is acceptable according
to standards required by ANP. The density is directly linked to the
carbon chain length of the alkyl ester. The longer the carbon chain
the higher the density of the biodiesel will be, but this value de-
creases with the degree of unsaturation of the molecule (Vie ^gas
et al., 2015). The peroxide value and the iodine index were typical
of biodiesels obtained from waste cooking oil and basic catalysis
(Enweremadú and Mbarawa, 2009; Demirbas, 2009; Thanh et al.,
2010; Yaakob et al., 2013). Brazilian regulations do not specify a
threshold value for the iodine index, but the European biodiesel
standard EN 14214:2012 establishes a limit of 120 g I2 100 g
1.
The iodine value is a measure of total unsaturation of a fatty
material, the more unsaturation is present in the oil, the higher the
index iodine (Lin et al., 2006; Ramos et al., 2009). The conversion of
FFA of WCO into methyl esters in this work was 94.38% (±3.54),
while the work performed by Phan and Phan (2008) also using
WCO alkali catalyst and the conversion was 90e92%. The oil is
converted into methyl esters related to the content of FFA, the free
FFA with the catalyst to form soap (Leung et al., 2010) and water
and the lower conversation (Wang et al., 2007).
3.2. Biodiesel use
Currently, the biodiesel produced at the biodiesel plant is used
to supply two vehicles, one that collects the solid waste (Ford truck,
model 816) and a utility vehicle (Ducato, Fiat) that collects the
waste cooking oil, both using B70, and three fishing boats, using
B50. The vehicles did not shown any wear on the motor or any other
problem caused by the biodiesel after one year of use. The marine
engines (MWM Sprint and Yanmar) used in the boats showed
regular wear after 4 years of B50 biodiesel use, which leads us to
conclude that biodiesel is a safe fuel for use in boat engines.
All WCO is donated either by restaurants like the homes, and the
distance to the oil collection is near the plant (an axis of 50 km),
reducing the costs of transporting the WCO, and in this way you can
provide biodiesel a lower value (15%) than diesel for fishermen.

Table 3
Quality parameters for biodiesel produced at the Pinheira Beach plant.

Quality parameters Unit ANP 4 - Brazil specificationa EN 14214:212 specificationb Biodieselc


3 
Density at 20 C kg m 850e900 (860e900 at 15 C) 879.2 (±2.21)
Water content, max. mg kg
1 200 500 495.74 (±141.1)
Methyl esters content, min. % mass 96.5 96.5 94.38 (±3.54)
Sodium þ potassium, max. mg/kg 5 5 1.5 (±0.13)
Acid value Mg KOH g
1 0.5 0.5 0.48 (±0.18)
Peroxide value mEqO2 kg
1 e e 3.82 (±1.33)
Iodine index, max. g I2100 g
1 note 120 115.38 (±6.51)
a
Brazilian National Petroleum Agency (ANP) - Technical Regulation No. 3/2014 of the ANP Resolution No. 45, as of 8.25.2014.
b
EN 14214:2012 is a European Standard from 2012.
c
Mean values and standard deviation of 8 biodiesel samples.
686 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688
Table 4
Inventory Lifecycle of the CS and PS inflows.
Inputs Amount
Cooking Oil 2500
KOH 17,3
Methanol 364.46
Water 2775
NaSO4 Anhydrous 38.45
Electricity 158.73
Table 5
Carbon Equivalent for categories of emissions.
Carbon equivalent (tCO2e) using petroleum (100%)
Collection stage (CS) Production stage (PS) Total emissions (TE)
4.17 0.36 4.53
3.3. Life cycle inventory and impact assessment
Through the development of ICV, data from elementary streams
of biodiesel production input were obtained, considering the
collection stage (CS) and the production stage (PS), noted in Table 4.
The collection stage refers to the route by the Association
vehicle of the collection points of the raw material (waste cooking
oil) for biodiesel production. The collection points are the com-
mercial establishments, which are the project partners, and are
located in different places, totaling about 30 points.
The production stage refers to all processes defined by the
system boundary in the biodiesel production from the cooking oil.
At this stage the raw material is already in the plant for use in the
production process.
Considering the collection stage (CS), equivalent to 4.17 tons of
CO2 were emitted. As for the Production Phase (PS) gave 0.36 tons
of CO2 equivalent pointing to a carbon footprint of 4.53 tons of CO2
equivalent (Table 5).
However, it is noteworthy that the vehicle used in the collection
of waste cooking oil used fuel B50, and even if the same vehicle is
used for the collection of recyclable materials in the region,
reducing 25% of emissions CO2 from the collection stage, decreasing
to 3.13 tCO2e emissions at the Collection Stage (Table 6).
In the Graph 1 shows that the category that most contributes to
the emissions generated in biodiesel production process is the CS
with 92.10% contribution, presenting a significant difference to the
PS which contributed 7.9%.
Although, according to Dermibas (2007), combustion of bio-
diesel alone provides over a 90% reduction in total unburned hy-
drocarbons (HC), and a 75e90% reduction in polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs). Biodiesel further provides significant re-
ductions in particulates and carbon monoxide than petroleum
diesel fuel.
One of the factors that most influence so that the CS is the main
source of impact is linked to the fact that the means of transport
fuels that carries out the collection of the raw material used to
produce biodiesel be non-renewable sources (diesel) and generate
large amounts of CO2, but also considers the vehicle consumption
and the consumption of used road.
Table 6
Comparison of the CO2e emission in the Collection and Production stages using petroleum and biodiesel.
Carbon equivalent production stage
Carbon equivalent using petroleum (100%) (tCO2e)
Carbon equivalent using B50 (Biodiesel 50%) (tCO2e)
3.4. Gains for the community
Unit Since the beginning of implementation of the plant today are
kg
performed movements in the community as the “Ecovida” next to
kg Pro-CREP Association to disseminate the importance of protecting
kg nature, because the community benefits from it to make their living
kg (and tourism artisanal fisheries). In this event the schools bring
kg
their students to experience to work in the biodiesel plant and
kWh
sorting and even learn how they separate the oil that is processed
into biofuel. The truck “Science Mobile” developed by the Univer-
sity of Southern Santa Catarina (Brazil), offers workshops, focused
on the environment, where students have the opportunity to
develop new knowledge. With this, the community begins to un-
derstand how the waste properly disposed of, in addition to envi-
ronmental gains can help implement income of associates and for
fishermen.
Based on data from interviews, questionnaires can be said that
the Biodiesel Plant in Pinheira Beach provided the residents and the
rest of the community with the following benefits:
 More than 1800 residents were involved in environmental ed-
ucation events, encompassing 1300 primary school students,
400 secondary school students, 60 teachers, 80 community
leaders, and 14 community agents;
 110 people, including associates, fishermen and their families,
benefited directly from the project;
 Monthly income increased by around 100% for the associate
members;
 The cost of fueling the artisanal fishing boats was reduced (in
2014, biodiesel was sold at BRL 1.50 per liter, whereas as fossil
diesel cost approximately BRL 2.89 in the region);
 The project enabled the empowerment of a 50-people team,
including 39 undergraduates and 1 PhD holder, 1 environmental
engineer, and 9 mature program participants (Programa da
Maturidade), related to socio-educational knowledge;
 The plant became a learning environment for undergraduate
engineering students.
In the economic field can be mention the acquisition of biodiesel
by artisanal fishermen at a lower price than diesel that was used
previously. The association that manages the plant increased the
gains (100%).
4. Conclusions
The biodiesel production process at the plant located at Pinheira
Beach has contributed to the development of the local community,
providing environmental benefits, such as the appropriate disposal
of waste cooking oil, use of biodiesel on fishing boats, social gains
through environmental education programs, and increased income
associated with biodiesel sales.
The use of stainless steel scrap materials in the manufacturing of
equipment (reactors, distillers and washers) and the plant con-
struction was found to be a good strategy. In addition to reducing
costs, by avoiding spending associated with new materials in the
production chain, it was efficient.
The results related to Life Cycle Assessment e Carbon Footprint e
Collection stage (CS) Production stage (PS) Total emissions (TE)
4.17 0.36 4.53
3.13 0.36 3.49
 E.H.S. Moecke et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 135 (2016) 679e688
Graph 1. CO2 emissions equivalent by category as a percentage.
demonstrate that the category that most contributes to the emis-
sions generated in biodiesel production process is the collection
stage with 92.10% contribution, presenting a significant difference to
the productions stage which contributed 7.9%. However, considering
the fact that the vehicle collection also operates the collection of
recyclable materials from the region, the related CO2e value related
to collection stage is reduced by 25% (3,13 CO2e).
These results demonstrate that the biodiesel produced at the
local plant can be used in the activities of fishing and selective
collection without causing damage to the engines. Furthermore, it
should be emphasized that student participation in the project
played a major role, turning the plant into a teaching and learning
environment.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the National Council of Scientific
and Technological Development (CNPq) of the Brazilian Ministry of
Science, Technology and Innovation (Project N 560444/2008-7),
and the Santander University Solidarity Award.
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