O level Chemistry

Chapter: 2
The particles of Matter

Kinetic Theory:

 All substances are made of atoms, which consist of

protons, electrons and neutrons.

States of matter:
Solid:
 Strong forces of attraction between particles
 Have a fixed pattern (lattice)
 Atoms vibrate but can’t change position therefore
fixed volume and shape
Liquid:
 Weaker attractive forces than solids
 No fixed pattern, liquids take up the shape of their
container but have a fixed volume
 Particles slide past

Gas:
 Almost no intermolecular forces
 Particles are far apart, and move quickly
 They collide with each other and bounce in all

Changes of state:
Condensation and solidification:
Condensation is when a gas turns back into a liquid. When a
gas is cooled, the particles lose energy. They move more and
more slowly. When they bump in to each other, they do not
have enough energy to bounce away again. They stay close
together, and a liquid forms. When a liquid cools, the
particles slow down even more. Eventually they stop moving
except for vibrations and solid forms.

Evaporation and boiling:

Evaporation constantly occurs on the surface of liquids.
The high energy particles escape from the liquid, even at
low temperatures. Boiling occurs at the boiling point (I
bet you did not know that) and then the liquid
evaporates everywhere in the liquid (not just on the
surface) and is much faster. During a change of state the
temperature of the mixture does not change.

Diffusion:

The process in which particles mix/spread by colliding

randomly with each other, and bouncing off in all
directions. Particles travel in random zigzag motions, this
is how smells spread, solids dissolve, and dust particles
travel in a random way when suspended in air.

Evidence for diffusion:

In liquids:
potassium manganate (VII) in a beaker of water. (The
color will spread as a result of Brownian/random motion,
this is dissolving.)

In gases:
a gas jar of air and a gas jar of bromine are connected;
the bromine travels up the tube.
Factors that affect the rate of diffusion:
 Temperature increases → rate of diffusion
increases
 Particle mass decreases → rate of diffusion
increases
 Dissolving can be speed up by increasing
temperature or stirring