COSCOHKBSMONNRHNBDOODADNANDBOHODOBM9ONVDIAIDDA Boy a New , 20+b= «x O- [x- Abe, -2denG= wA- fp snlerference Consbuctives, Now ee diffe action , ee | > Veet AS 6 p kee ke + G.. ae Gen Lae Eqpattone a o) ag diteciin le frente to : Fe le plane of, Uffraction coe ee Tt Cables Reciprocal a Latuice Vveckos , Se Ihe Uke (GI + 28.6 5 (Gi 2c2=0of ~ (CE eer 2m Jn Ce (4076), =O = Abo mote (2) iA A) ee . : k a en i) (for I" odes (MY intecforce Tools 4 Coup, tot shoucte _Avtermi nation Optical [ Comentional Mitrorcopy not iffident a Ira, Atz buing peur & Gite Laer, Remember that Resdlving Pomex 4 A = 4000-180 4 ¢ ¢ fox €> Ucatlawng » AG Guilt hors 29 Aacbvirg power © & B by There cee ww Ayer + o> Te Owcopy Meet On seater TAaremission 67 PM Cresety a deanning > mulrescefy 7 Renn bore thar AL @_ tre Ordon el A ac. Me shouta be’ Of Order of 2 Atrudure Ww be de Dee ae A & haw Assctving power, rhruchurs Cant be dotesmunca | ¢ P Aehertis solids 3 (D Magnetic Padestier CK pane, Magnetism » Dia Cevmeasitity abeBrOOCCHBHOKHSC ECVE HORSHAM ANH A SFAMDFRM ANDO Greritler Merninall Jo Common to bath pu & oulput . Ad. O Medium — input Umpdance oi oulljut ae an #Also (allect gonittin follower. Kcairs the ae om a Bo ns at te emitth. With 4 robag po ar ne © bein _oulhat_irfeben be CWrsent Fam vot i oat ae mec @ in pig «Tes IerTe “Vac = O-FV » Be(Ze\ d-(E eee { z we E sen = (02025 ( pts] Uinall - 2eigral Epacalees ee |) BIT Fist, fina @ pov Vea BC Analy mall Sarl Ten Aeploue De ky for BITS 4 wrod and fe uk i Ron Rout. edDOMOFCHCHOLCSCOSOOSCE DOHSOOO OBST INGI2BIOGG| : ‘ohh @ Cube Copiale a () Aorple Cubic % Coodinalic, aa = ae % Piutring Fraction > ‘Voluora qf Atiorna witn Unit cele ee ‘Vetume of Unit Gu CO neem 2 Uo : : > Pp-F-= fasixt : - 4eh) ; Gye] (ioidanati, numer = 8 aa ; MN x ng_FAadtion pre [2b baw a = ee ava Oe 2 cu ay ut 4th) a In “a fe Fe s Pr- - [Ul Lae Cy, A 212 = ion 232 = 3 «ABC ABC ABC...e@ecocoeen@aeonvoecneccon i) = Conbu I Layer Dita Oxabhy Oven ees 2 baer. R > Conk Spe ond spore, 4 2 Layer B Axe tr touch eae 2A ees oa OH Ga “uh ay =AZ.- 4 xk 7 Vetume of Cipnt = Or # _ = Gx Rx Ax Wh a oDee Vdumme a abons = 6x baw? afte 447]© oO © e ce Cc 2 & axe) © © © 6 © © © © G © © © . @ a) 6 © -@ ° © -@ e e ° © e © Low Lattice / pac dathe - oo» ms q Unaginary fount tn 3-dirwnsional Space , each Aanrag adentical Br nDtrding © Pabterm Unit + dative Containg Small group uf points cally patlerm Unit - Which Atfeat ateet bam diredios, | arama of & Ee trotaltin _Opreter a T- 18+ mPtuc © (Mn) € LZ PPaimitie Ransletion vectur > PPimitive Unit cell A fraction 2 ben- primitive © Unit GU» Puildery block ons (oi hattic , Pamittive Unit Ge ae Smallest avolume poll i, itz Join near, Lattice point ° anegrer- Ae Cole : a = Velie erclgecd Wreyrer- Fert= Ge SB gc baie ce ox Cappatat AKts 7 Aho batiice (14) © Compornt Of Cypial_Labion & b,c fe ob ee ‘ fp (Be Gans Colt ) IL (body CPritired Cool )@ piumbem of effetive Lattice point belonging ta ce ©© 7. @ = ° we Ne * A) + (89 | a © © oo AAbtice direction a g aoe orale ara dsherg - © eee GR. © Teraaeres : ee 2s e © [Ry [aX Kany . ae . : k = Cnientabion gen by Milles Indices ee o KALE KL ad Ge Minflified ey Oe © ts Cuptal nes, Dritrtep, Are Wtssund vo G4 Jeni 1 einen Upetng be ie Ogre : i Oe ' Trtrplonar spauing LS e ° ° [Rikake : fo ubee falatee (a-b=c) zg @ i ° - P Loose Pachicl, e e [ace] e ce fe | i? Cnet ow.'68 [Akamerd Gubee (do gtrwetural e 4 € 1 Packing Hpcciony, 34% (of bot» abms are came) ‘ V7 Ceotdinatie umber: Y V Newest muythour dis tame = A? &) 4 "Yd Rosie jo. fee peruian (effetives, 4 atom. LA: Y atom at alterna, telraedred svoles (pes 9 oe CBetm basis: St Atom ) to Ge Cc oD a oy) ce a ae > c -2ne (anil, 5:2™) z (Zine Blea) . VY Te (an Glo be Sten Unberpenetration 4 2 fee 9 Lattices. —_———_—— vy Coordinate, Number: 6 oe Bt. fee por, C4) 2 Odkedral yoda (4) tne Viturd 0+ Urkerbenabeating foc LehicesAtl angle (46,0 -40 Lad or) : Iv Oxdro rhembee Cee ( atte oy) (ave) 7 (a=b#0) i QA bore mate prtercepts of 2, 2 ond O-5 A. om te Coyle pene axes En ee Cops tal ine ee Determin tre Mille Trica o 7 2 tre More Sa os Bc es ees [) AY pole! ie es 3 foe Lose anes “Vector be 3A, 2A ora LA a ee ae a Mill Dod ces of Pane Are (3, 1,2) 2D Deoy (Scattering + Interferencs) Jeter Gn aberric eleetvon is Larackiatteh by a bom of amonothremal'c X-Aage ee Stab — vibtating talr pees oe yt bm Ret of treident beam, Aimee an Accelarated ° emis tadcations , Be vibrating Elecbrony eesent © iscde a Logstal become Seue. of fecomduy tadrati se having Same rewire, Qs Orudlent Mo raga. Huse Secomeru, e2eeeaoeeceeooea0oosgsgn ago 00 ecoi 1% Spread ut in all Aiaediens , Its Called cattery” | of Xe Aug Vise Steorceany Cuante Unteatoe Come fructive erly Ly Cestaln directions , beabsy fb fee oy & . callin LAue’s PATTERN, diffrcadibn pattern, © Anavysiy Obras igs _Tacatrurd | ( Ref tooo + Drtexfenncs) aks divin of Ciffeacion Aime can Me 4ccouet fom - gon Comcdentd ble Aeftruk froma tet paralal atric a by COs hructrive hype 4 Avsulling ee a 2 dsin@ = na Bragg fans Inet, puta Bones dersanes lst» Arcreace th vl ee max ford & srOat 12 Nea on Late’s Treatment} : Ven “Laue Chracdoca te catteny x Ly € Undinidual atoms, & be cuted , fiettowwca freer Ae “Wt du rot Considers . batter ference, Note brad y Aapestion fe 5 place ee | Jexecdrnind, eaeO v= #2 RRR) EB © © (Whe Ae m7 7) ° le oF AP= es (2. N) © Ina B-d ana, H may Conude Guth avy Of be 2 Cyptalle Geatic ax, A+ am & fe Octurence of Oi fieadon Tranima Qn (a-N = 2x hk! = Jank [ k , n aw (TN) = 2xk 2n a on C@a) : ee = aan bk aA tohee bk LO Aehreseny 3 wntgon, hairy HOF as n, @0220000000098 eoeeeveeeceecoeeec es WZ) aibeon dre ee Wace a plane | afteas tke & Aalecbiog Hane C pres, om noxt pag? ad Wrese THImel “45 WV. tableqapce UK DOME, zi Honte We Cam lareite 2A SHO Cosck= nNaA Luner 2b cin6 Lapa nkRA Spations nha al 2) 217i 2 20 #8 Cosy = 1) We ino eleylaman sacing pe fore (h,4 2) US gtren by oT all a f a oe Cesx = - ep = < tay & - Hire, pe ° 2) For 2 0, Airediinal Csi cron, Cob, py ccatteniy Trak ane peporberad t» (4) A) a (£) ¢ Ales. we tren, Caectlonl Costints of ral bo ary (hk 2) Are prsporttoral tb bh he oe Hence fuatlaniy Tweed Nob Sarre Norms & te Hone Un kg Ot Pe Arhelray plane Chis) Prahfina te be Aiflesing flare. © ExterimenTar MetHooS () dae Mebod ; i fod Metered. . 2) Rotating 2) Powder Malhed es mice ae [+ SO Ley) 7 ges) G2)1,2 ® ReCPRO CAL LATTICE @ * aie Oct yariou sets pesabtel "ge chasis, de, Era dhretigped Reciprocal Lattice sl. 1) Ear Port In Aeufrocal Satta COueyera, to particular Sek 4 feral Planes a De keer Lapee . 2) Distonte 1 Aelprocal Lattice pov fren Cuabibarecty . fe Ouyin , Curcssct, ” prportional to be valiplonan tpaacing 4 Chrerespordiing parattal pares of de dex tat 2 Atcifrocal Mattice @ Civereet balestind! tp Velline of COrrexpenday Unit Coll of of dive eee eG o Reciprocal Lattes Vector Cinetion = ritremat 19 Ake) Mane Anne Not brat & Veetox Lamon Oe be poo tn te AeecpoceD Lattice ts a Kecprueat Lattice nate ax= 2x [eee] cr “ae ao) eee 27 Exh ] nb, aos &. (Exo) ®@ecoeooeeeececaneoeooon «lone, ever Crystal Us Omowakd Gtr 2 byes of Lattice ¥ diner Lattice and Aeciprocal Labiice . t fe ° Che) Tz 4+ nb +H Gea eee ee ea Go yD axl mrtmb os meth 4 Suiryple Gabe. Chic | BCC Lattice] ce 2 ' a Mea Za |e a= 4 (t+ f-/ @ Lp ge a(t) a. 2 . ee eee eo KO ee ac iss) c ( aaa ora pa ute dim Jvae iS ae) : is > b aot etzatl, || 27 Ke ne Gap a - 2c (Lore print Be £ (jth) a Ge Ac pt) 04 Fee pee ai eerenaniaiaTt EO Brogye Lars tn Reciprocal taitie In Aéciprocal Labticg lhe an, poor O (net Nee ontly, a Aashice pont) dian, OA o Hoag FX) tn derectien Of vaevdens Ay bean ft kt Hrmnate, om G baltic port A Maw cxcle from DO wir OA Aadivs Grd dthrk Conrdinate fm AB A at Orpen) aa Unters the circle , ee oe (AL key re (&.) Stee = (nhrban) Ohne Oa oe ectas 4 OF fe as A‘o'= G4) wate A'U'= k fg’: Fucprocal Latin “vector G oo lolz Jo's’) > EGP ko [Gr 2kG 0 g@aannegeeseeosv Oe Oe aHeeaD| | © Basitheuin Zones ees © From Eval Contuction , Lic bow abe Pe pore Unttracer Be_Evalel Amik frectppocet Lattice all Prese k ~ value, Poa Bag afc A bavtlouin Pou Low of A Croce frolic Or te Ateprocad Battice CAA am Brags baton + fe guano oo) a a: SS G= 2a KE +h) # a Consider att o hos), be > ke FG). be a4 a hoo, bet bye 26g), bE i 7 6,5 |eF99000 ; "6 © © 1 a) © © eo © © © , a e @ e ° a 7) ° © ° @ ° @ e a e ie cry Aarrdrmber lun are Taking Aavifroced Labzee) ane (7%)¢ ory) ( va thy 7, ute by) (FP ie pezo) ce ry oD) 2x ( (yet) b+ kbd 7 Like &),00) , O41, 0,6 ¥ Combination © ; ae : wef), 26 eh) 2 fate io AT con vig. 28 (#¢ ji, (Fh ( a devasd Or Ge (12 feed) Ece gee an Cif = a ite we tof ee bs ( ifr 2 [ Qk e+ Brkt); * (Btke2) z) soy (aus Seat © Alta bird values for sefled ire chimp (whic + AL Owib valu hke pet at cei fia 28 4: BCC : Owen voblite h+k+h Mh cue ? he (nd O29 (ety Foe: aM odd Ot all Wr Value, Of Ake Veeco a Sete OP 290,40 (310{ ; 4 Ptr db0r OD done + a. fe uke Crytals i [Berkel a: Batice parsmetin, @ @&= nM) 1's efperive atime te 4 Cubic | N f Crystal CFEC 4) c Me Méeutas Wert ta vt) ) et on brystal Bord Peony of Holi to ae Qture Dawe em be. n& b0v0d Polirtkal , Tron : ee ae | Ee @*) , KE(-~, #) But fr ors tp Undenetond Bond Bbructine 4 Lolicle | ue ane ot a fatty IS MEM get attndiol) c | (ma) FS 9-- -@ --@ - ote manent : : | ; ! ! | \ { ‘ —Y @ Read, Bord Aadune fram Hee Urn 7 - aint cE Om P (cin bea?) 4 cos (KA) = Cos (ka a Orly Presse values 4 ajar alldourd wack LHS fis bebunin 1 Oat “tL yy frien, Do te fodlning Contos Ge dtaum - wale ee we. ee ? Spectiusro Consia 4 ene ot : x (sed 4 bards Ancreases witty X COR remy), Gakacat Cor discontinuity) 27 ka= tne DRinds Qu dstenbinue, ar ke 2E +2e tan, plate > | CG io . ye : NY LB — e » E-k ‘ : te Brullouin Domes Yo brag Afar At Pitre Loumdanies Jatt ba duscontinuilés i E-k Gwe. TMb An(4a) + Coe (4a) LHS. Cuswe LEO RP abou Et extended 200 sclom)te puiow Ek Cie Un for cndcamuate Botra @ Fes Leesely bound ,» Vib 0 Ee LO mem k Fos te : Vibo © 5) wm ka =0 Ka ann abe (tht (m-1,2,3,... ) Poa) Ue Cndeperdint of be = ee UbZrma*) fh ) ek 4 f S E v ® x by, Brillouin Zorus We imon for diffrachion 2k-G+ G*= 0 Fox one -dimunsion Case, Paimitie Lattic atten a, = A lose > Recpuocal Lattice ecto, OF = Gz z 7 Recifweet Late vet. G = War = 2AM x ht us ite k= kets ky Gt dee 2 2h.G+ GeO 2 2. 2EM%kKe + (2an9"s0 9 ky = (MX “a . a CCOMOHSHSCOOCHOOOC COCO H8OF90000999999090999| No.9) Worehnetion i a bord i eee i pled = pd ee ee cy Se > [k= (234) Nes : G4). (4) = (2). » dk: GE) an > dn= & dk > Total me. ctalas - form = fF ke dk ie ax a oe ae ae 1 78y } ae (Ey) But each state con Oyo, 2 electrons 2 bah bawh fas a manirwm 2N elechen stale te. Gn Qtupmodale 2 elections. 8 Effective Maus (B)- 6 @eoeoeeeeeve@ceeeeoseeoeeeoone 8290999999908,» m*e Foe Ch : ee it = AY : = gqe fe @ ° Coney of rugatrve reaey Bi op a a Ben ae Abese +(z) Due bw 4 Ofplid vs Gre Cisedtion witt Lead to gun ae * fe opposite diaectien | sing = gals rtd . Fo, Albabe metals , et ae & Condinctiin (bing place Prashl, boegh electrons. Hourmer * i ol for Whtch Cntr, bOndk tr Cee eS excspt for electron Veedneies ak Tp of bord, Drese Megalive Charge ae mats Vadintin Mag be Coraidercd As porttive Charge A positive mass posticle, Called HOLES wher Gt a Ove \ Aeigsl Cami, b produce Condu af : dae ¢ le [rat eae | 7 ‘ Affection 0. fue electrons Ba ce ey, ‘ 3 Soe : dze : : fir 1 % (ee) aoe tb UA electran ee ee ee cleclaen a © behaves toll a& : 1 Aehaves a heany a : fae is 5 ae ain le eee De i ‘ BONE ae fey a fh 5 = mie a eo Aettean' @ Cerductor @ T-OK FOr Compleisd, flea fond, (4) 50 3 NY=O 2 brtulaten > Fp maxinwm Nay » bond Shedd be {cea apto onfbonion powt haraclen > Paslly filed Bord has “rut Lic Viapoata ti in Sobeds aoregnchan : 9 Magroksm , om graral in tolide is due : — Ubin sof eledvons = esta “melin af elecbons . he AL we etn SOL? Utah dle nak Contin fesmranans agra 2° orb eee re Of elections 3 dliveted Poppa to | . Tngateh Cures due to change q tléctin motion, Ateordns te jen gs ta but © © Ditannagretim Cris im al matinee i ee oT peace anger eff Lile fasenegratin, frbomget dus. Manipal by matt & ngalie elue of F.Hargis Camical Deo lat Ceebron ule Asan Wuttleus vn a Cirtulan Ort bicbr (of zadtus f) fein lw. 2 on p2 Ze f bce -p* 2 7 oo bane mp? Nos On external anagretic filets Bo appeed , Pe e (xe) = eC poB 7 Net fom = Fe Ose a OUP = Ze> — eph8 une = 770 ba," - efo8 ? w+ (eb pO om Se Ge Ce (mee? 2m We >7 eB ex he 2m 4 Ay = Leb 2x 2m Due tb dang > frgnsy, Cus Ald » te © exp int Leof jee) 2) Magnetic Mamet = - teFor 2 elednow , total trdived x nA @ ao é coe ZA mudt eal zc mot erat, jf , bub Aare, ee ee — Aensider & passmagretic Ok dn E- - jub= pe Cos fi >» E: - pb ps Con oft Luett LOlkimdnn cabribulton, ae Now Lub Ces @ of é ey) ra dieing Onion 9 heb cn cob des Uigey Whar 2 Neg 4 wa 5 ot gods, axe (sce) hs ce (sg) 2x sv8 dB dren kk & 6 Constert.w Each Gre Cortedul memint cert G @) 2 M= [ree dn = nf nese dn [dn - ns cee) N gin@ e ree pn [ {oe é es ae Cab dé : - : . (is : A}: fe ioe, fOr: Lawgprin finctubn snot 2], £0 = B) = it) aa) Smee = Be) Ct Cut? cont me BES) =) Re ian aee f(D x4 Fessoragnetiion (Fe, Ne, Co) © Alto Cuiocialsa cuir Mimarant cifole Amemint, but here : magnetic moments Adjacent Atoms Are Abigred tr a partiata direction Oem cy tH aleence of applied rare pe do Satin kat extsb Wen Be Ahsne Applica Pict, vs Called SPONTANEOUS = MAGNETIZATION, Tr bxios Vib a Carihcal tonpersdbue “Te , Celle Curie TEMPERATURE 6 Aiare Guin Temprcboa , Pwemel Offs offset tre shen = abigrmirk — Ona feromegratic bulstana S&ems, paramniq - De ts barge And posthie , VAues Corb Prperatine ae sell as Applied pes Chyaterais Loop) Z Auypodrsois : Oo fe ng malin Contain & 6 Gf Small Aiytena calles : Lghcth Axe hee, nagrozead - Masritude q spertineite Aonteg mele Later i Sumer ds 6 t E i: presince 2 Gh “eld BE, Wik ferde te prod a parallel Ahgmmt Ca athorve difeles . Field be tb Groumed to be pispoxtional to x Omepetiatio mM 4 eatk CLomatn . Be 2 Weess Feta / Erchane Res) Di Weis Fietd Contant — (wndependonk of trperatton te be qpite roy a+ Compares be apsticd fous (xl000T) (x 17) From quanitm Peon, we Can deacver 2 Cares Ms(0) S OST Te co) O, Ti, ~~ ic ae Fz)i raphy a, eis Ret Lot brflaina ty Hasrtery ite [ ee cxcsing trderadion beltixe, atoms. Tmtoradtin arises due th Pavll exchuion Prcible Ong Change tr Aedatiie Oritrtaliey 2 Shing Csmdd — Aisturs * slatixe Oe Charge, Date Jroduang rlevaution betuen tye atoms ) Mince, De orchdnge » Uileradtion bellice, neigshouny, dipoles 1 & (c dubslan ce — Yeraral, On Urttrmal cotenye fd Be, Wher —Abigne Pim tn a particulars divection’. Domain eBbnutire Aucosdiy NGL, Aoman shuchira pee eee as q beat crengy Conapratic fet i Greciogie ergy + Doman tall encigg,) “Tan Pagretiraion Produad to Kromet materiel ts D pooh airy | Some at ee ge pasts dematie dirt. Opplcea 8 2) botatibr 4 disc, | Ma pebeain, along free ana = A PZ aP3 eg —— region snap a fa ae» Apacs bee ae Ani baie (Mno) ‘att Marin are eal & Ofpeatic b tar Bder DI Coraptite Cancellation Y tee o Me ) for T7 Iw T+8 -8 ( fel) @ Ldandicat i Orbifernemagrction ex capt magrahicalhon us 4 met Completely Cancelled, - | 8 Atsemble foromagrai & = bes poses Be Cemst (Gna not Zero) te. dohin Cerduutor is Cskd th te sc fied Until cs ese tomce becornes OC (hetomee Corduuctor) , : tre « & tn te matenal fom ao, & : oS A sats pechive afplued held. Comat Ainge bedi Coole fea Lx a oa Aomeca UL a7 eee —] (#0 p-O Conductor Peseot Concho Penetration Itt aa Conacdir 0 Superconductor Carr a 2 plaw eee c : fw he © aeting point s Laos Pus Faem Arrperes Las , 14 He (A8®) = Dane (oe! o Horne =O due te Mtinmw) Mh , c Tene Or Surfer Camere fer tnit Mirybr = He We Cirens prods & zee M cahich exact, Cobbs FR vrsida tufer Conductor, Dut tO Atsisrily, Ths Uvvent Wh Aman almisst Constant definitely € UWA Wrmrb ve known a4 [Bupercuren ts] » —— Keopoy AB Constant, Lene Atmaine Same,4 4 nis fs cars AC of be Le Acdued, Corer ima 2 Cut dimly Or F crcrease (Aom te po Poe b 1 sPanface Cirning) . FOX Zor dp ar Curunt dinetly t}proare, @, WALK @ nt possille biyatcat 9 Arpereairunt Cannot berome absolule Zexs he one more pe fusdfce & drilinor . Ao 2 posible Orly i Offic mragretic ha fenelnal, the Suferco ousohs ug bb a Small Wiirrtss "eu be Sef Pag LLL Av: Aersctirwatic Ang on ey 7 Londen Pertration dopo LE ~ 10° A Experainerta lly He(xy = Hela) e@ (scbical free Uahercondiscling + tage be fees a Gr Some Afni, 449, { Tempesabine 7 Fra. Hd) Nem He (> Me ye . fea eD 1 Tye 4 Ora__ Type 2 Siassfrcalien Afending behavieus ty txttrnel maprele feo ke how Sbyetl, Cry fallen Teismer fetSpeen Jorma Heer Nomat OP wee, 0.6 . : ®) Peg Ha © — Tie ~ Tote 2 - ow — PL-b Alte, | — opt — — Rard — dfercorduucton — due fe Wy - : yer Dimiba Cepeda © Pace oats = Miler He, fltine begins to Me De Tae tn ee H=He lux Peretrali, Compleed Enbray © PT tum Bie ee ee alll 5 mI Gime is fo Cu) PT oe exated elxtrena in Be mormal te au gadered” tr [he Peberconducting uttage. vie omay Kind Up tp aA debne Pearder ua 1" tn The 2 Ssperconctuctors Ihe Seange ma tage] (6) [Paladin tw pag ge Sls oman Kangen regrets field, SQUID Con be Used Os a Very Sensitive FP encrreter ddr to Characlon'zel a a Ware Lier Laperarunt bakes [lac belivee,, Ony 2 porrt, luhere re Wave bas ‘erent phases. Kan Aare phase Can Also be stabs, Applied electric & moe fe tates hang diferas price Can be wm LQuios. Flows » BCE _ = Eltetren- Prenen- Electre, Lriteraction is the fden of : fpmater qs Cooper paix Which rusube, ix Sporenduclidn Whtr On eleetren mreves oo Kt pro duce. Aattin distortion & seb hebicn. tr dle Ot cildations . Aowe De eleutnon ames vey fat, tt Leaves te Aegon anus before Osccltations Coutd ie opp Mbbrcshile, f| Grobdus eleetaen Asffens to Ades Praough Dis distortey Aegion, jk experimen, Om attradin force. Ths atbractd Note Prat Achubire beture, Clectren és small? ee Pee tohile alr aclian ah Ay Lablice abictortion Cs Ally Aelarded vn tt ~ malls te mar of oe a de bhenens CrmiltdA & hinn Lager Shed ke bRanilio, erpratiy Same Crchusion ia Ataun from Ltolipe Gye he Ueoiahe Spe eigpetca thas Atbala SGurconduutsity b Aen tee = ferrdatin ~ be Peo ke oe kit Rk: 2 eloctrens he v fa G: Lattice dirtretic k A Zz re (Chee phentn- elece» production (rtuactin Tors Terrbenatiixe Phtrerrenon_ Binaing Crengy of Casper four , cattad Oni gap Sp = 10 ey Hone Vrrperatin =< ORM # lok Mave trad Comper par will e Lesko if Laperconductivity duet Confer far Lbupertonductivily Aue PN Eleclnan br & COsper pais have Ophesile shen = Teal choc Pom Can Exist Un Same i = Boson ce Oy Tunbte ' poke ulate at Be ra ime, A SE Cyan Runchion Atprtsert i, Feu Bren frat a System of Came vo. of ‘e- antty ftrm“enengy distriluliv.Za ot sae a Snpercomeluetor _ ne "y @ & Lo Unit Te Alter suc A Curent, Auge Amous a oregy ee A Oe at Pusigh, ds Uy normal Conductors) 27 (lrent purse sagt CAitical : : pe PO as ya ee Superrerdictnr for Mebssrur ee Boond Cuilical — Velue, Cooper past ts Altsaciates Meissner Effeor — Fobloniy dings fa, Looper pain move cui rnebiin erate? maxon a on bo predue a mragnec i Ofpesile t» applied pew Aes 2 tanceCarductiity 7 @ @ Pemitiity &E Arscept bhity ve matty if Q_ Thermal Paqportuc, Cag (Girtecr , Pebyes, Dulery ) @ Opbech PAspertie, Adfradive Order (ay © Mherctorductrrity —— Matssren Effet i Tose fhson Cece Hoh Temperature Aeper Conducts inby @ Checturah Prpertes (kamertings Onnes) {Fu jk. Orne Gag t W2k — — Tt we then Chservet for ober material, aleg 7 TML N9S% | Urore twas ro Mrtory 1 expan ik i Josep Barain Gore Partum to explain Cres. i Ie Callen BCS troy or Ban Corpor & Lhyctfe, it Offre Gpentum mectantal Xbleralien fo Daperiondcvt by @eeereeeoeeoeoeoooeoeceoenoeooso F999 0 29 90 > Thee dre rmultchle properties lt We are Anterestea ond, in fens ies| A In arbeecerductos , Writ has been seen tor fons fos yeas. hom Gblbicalier of Spercondintor. (nclude - Stosage Client in Morne, ¢ Computer Oo Design ct Magnes Dose Veny Fensctive tométing alo” Teste, & ® % 2 a meassirgmert © OD) Criticad Magnetic Feta < Ey abies meget field, cebescontuctiity Con be oe BCT) = Cortical mepatic Bets at Tend "T” to abr, Supereerduch ily be (0) = Cathcak Pnagratic fee Come Ok bo deshay Seber Conductiiity B. (= Belo) [ Le LAGe ¢ Blo) J & Parabolic Curve : —> 2aF 8 ta ee wine ~ Utter cornduetor a gains Hf : Ce Aligrmnt 8 Chany. a emy | CO Moinsren Effyet 1 Whorever Sheermins of 44ers corduiding matentabs in : 3 Cocker doum to Lowen temfuatures, Magnetic poe : i i inode the SUprtardudig mlowad » Atmeres . ve fee T< Te, Bensccee = O eefo Ay t © @ lo i. / _ . KC oO) B (asc spe] e pe VK Te . ° Mapretic feel bint, dace "OB2¢K Gut" of e Soh rcaetuceting Amalencal elon T=T? e “ye ben , ;° ech = R be +M) © new B=0 — bdew Te oO > jMe. -1 M ° - rh be called Matgetc vec e Oe oe 6 X= -1 (a dimenxonltrs poy) o © usual, X> WS IOP but here % 4 barge 7 ° ee Ven Cy : Mategcab are Classified On dascc 4 Juncepli b fad 0 | Os Passmapratic, diamagnetic, Ferromagnetic. 2 @ Sed 2 = lok tp toe: Aihobs au Ab Gnd Obhosile b ° 1 ehitea Pets ° They dre Diemagnohic Malentat as Ke 16S te 16%: dihdes ane Abigner prrattet & P. : Opplicd fyeld : They Ate AAbmnagneli Malewal b » %. Lage Ore ° FetemapaticKet 2 Rerect Deemanatic. [Abs braperty Superconductivity ts exhibited do Messner ehfet (On Be bass of Mbasnea, Clee oe hee bUprerducbor Opes : ) i Mie4 Thor Gu th peremelin, Ayrarcating oo @ Ch percendiic bors Porebabem Dep ° A Coberemte Lingth * & [2 fatzumcncs wheben Pralerial 4 Tye Tar Typel 2) DHE superconductor & THR ke L Wyfe TL Matoruict AXXO 27 k Very Smale az co + Tye © Matesiad = gc. Thos WL Succesopll, Cnplarn Where Macssres oo 8S 7. oO © © e © e © 6 7 © © ‘9 ° ° ° e e on. Lmction @® Tosephson Eger on Josephs : Se our Lo Superconductors (Aderbicas) Tee es Coc tn bekwscen, typical, « (Amimicsed) — Agta Othe We Obscure Diver Curent Wired blicaber 4 Portal . Thi b C+ Losephs be abbces wee th fone E ox GE DC & Crerted. bs tla tare (Bi lewis fer) ya. toine Electaic fieta, « bAllbsy is afpbica1 AC Jephson Ebect ® ft GP 2% Ge gonad), > {ler Zev, AC Josephoon Effect : z he Veo , bg20 2B DC Tlosephaom € ffect c j > : € e satiate” Ve? Medsuscunt ry fer» Potislial differences ~~ Lip=§ vets) é Pow Tp, Ww have ye Rx tex lolx ERIE a : Lo Ce 10-4 “ vw ® x o ee Ha ae 483.2 Miz Monte VY LT Carnet disbriminals tin pv nek 2pv bur : an 3 [lan diffgmntiote 2 UEREMBE OM 2Y- ‘ nm 7 Sensily dowice Can be Lreated, : P77 Mest stmsitive médsuromers Gf & con te done j i &)- (2% (nis Con. they, say, 2)| Sp te aowee ey elie Bape @ @eeeee@eetcaoeceecoecooeoooes90 90909009 oo The, bb Beplicmad on bases 2 fran a Quantization A@ [Gears ween P= low! Tesla (@ fo ate (10°? fans) =o we! tn S-L- Um Ly, we emake a Chesca Losp 4) Setherdenduscting will be Sportized . a Che) Ss é€IN . 2e ‘ 22.) Qe B= 2s = dua b Pau barn with ke 2e 2K, 4n 6x. Vou demottive Aiperrcordudnrs : tn Odes bo make | andgmetorotird Wore ie 2 jerphson fUrelivna ” parallee Um Gree, bs fer a sung ve Chesed Loop Hence partied few Be “NOM Abb, eadlermaline Fes} So) - 6] wre £y : Ge t Cus pono In alee ops i c : = O € te wf HO * $8 | be re tun pratte Oe eal © Bis Am omagreti'e fle : 3 eth (riterference be apbies . fe td mal pee) rere —e—_ ie > Je Ts 2im Slo) hos () Ce & a = : ad : oo Dee is Waitt beeause We Q Imoty phase. differtnce ¢ O.- 0, Gro a lend © Civuit WHA encenah ate re mo Bes € [eee] Wmce ne fare Cfrivel Dat fom tn hese Lap : cs Mwhercorduclor zed, Gra Cissenr Lecorne, € : Zt A me tse tient @ G-= CS) b/w é ce wo @ ge ‘es ¢ \" Ge)ie : 2 Wepace chsemation Cuttent Manima nite gn © pe Tumical Vales, © ge few loo? weten = 10 Maxwell, © 2e ( [Manet io we) (seessdection pioréa x lg lom : vie : ee oe De Ge aie B= 10% lo-* tree Use 4 Sqpad : Brat,_of AC Teabivon Cher VY Me%y Semattiee Amagnetomalin 2) GL prrspecnr: D fe deve Brant | im oy boy [BES Theory), V : Resistivily % duo to Carlums Aepublen o foe ee! ee ee alle to CAdrm Contumbs “Ae fusbston at attastive intensctin » Om FM Getic : ae Prod by Urdirect Uniceccticn pete oe eo ie. e-- battce snlitailion ae 6 - Coltide, Gr nterach : ae Ue el nee Cues Allaacten Now tre Unroliredual eae formers) beter, 4 par pi = do of e- (besen) Whe piz-fp Om & @esgeoesnse eee eoe C8 CoO SeoFtoge Fe GgadcsThe bo caller Cowper Pain 4 Chectnons | Now subestoducliiiy 4 fleas of Casper pain @ e- uo Ead Coops pate b G see. Ale the prehote, dre Cxpltinea Via thi model . Fo iain altima, Hew g- 2e : fportium & Cooper parr ET dn ee neal 0 = 6 <8, Wik mm : Quntim Alin dnp > ey Non Abtimery state Heromonon a Fos Agu 1, Tes eo. & TR Wy 2 £ TV - VY fprteractiin Aerng é hegiin 2 & \ ul oe 7 ) . pecabre i ig. teen dotentiie, \ * mE / op 4 ce rey) © ee [ lS for OC. Lose boon ie , Cotter boraing Cypetliong Ore - cw = Ty, Ei ot ‘ c2Uh TY * ot© In @ @4@, Aeplanng ‘P from @.@ ~ defi lie oo o “0 x, /et& ( 2Tfry tt. du eit + j Aw : e “de -eveet a, e RK . O.-6, ° co) | dnt ao dri abr - = eve vn, + Tim & | 2 ee Th & ° 2yn, at . Lo a .@ at ° _ @ e mn © ain, e ‘ = oo. ln, On) - eVern a ° dé KR - Tyr. Cad ° 8 = Oe ° ot K . e toy yo wilt be -D) E% Uontal, © yield. Cv dt ie e Ty mF —-© Aye ee = Vv Wy -Vo Se ym OF 0 obs . ae -8 ° do. ee VE i : 4 ° a e e| Now ee) ee) belie Clirneny 25 Same Abe Cam Le Se0r prem Compariy @ aaO© Labvating OD from © 4 (0.-0) = “4g do - Aileen ht. Oe few a Phase of fjeretis Da |us= +2e¥ a sty t a6 = ~ Beef se 7 —2eVe t Sl x te A » Se & brn (#0) ~ agit). YW Ve = Eroyy 44) ba jer, € gC = Slo) - 2eeb &deorcian Copaire_ { Cipealiiona explain tre phenommen 4 maple fim penerralicon tstde @ Alperterdischor | Pan SD yy be Ant 8 velocity superconducting electrem | 4 Ne ad ee om (de | = ef -@ @ -0 Abo i: -nev > di - - dee) - @ egpalion aren Tahing Gut I" eatin 4 eee Fe (af). 1 OO! sem mecurll pallor, de> fone 0 « (22) on nei(o6 a fort oe we pation Ex Fag Max iwent Cipalions, gx B- pot Faking Osel, GxGxd WO (fren Lencior e4patiion) G8) VE wf P ge (mney B om ae [FR a coe a eg ie a WS A oes Baa g.e° 4 yh Bee Be fee p Lob de apy anette Superconductor . = @198 Solid State Physics LONG QUESTIONS State and prove the Bloch theorem. Discuss theory. 2. Discuss the formation of allowed and forbidden energy bands on the basis of the Kronig-Penney model. Discuss the extreme conditions when energy levels are either diserete or continuous. What is the effect of changing the binding energy of electron on the energy bands ? 3. Prove that the motion of eleétrons through the periodic potential in solids gives rise to the band structure. 4, What are Bloch functions? Explain the origin of allowed and forbid- den bands for electrons in solids. What is the number of érbitals in an energy band ? 5. Describe the periodic zone scheme, extended zone scheme and re- duced zone scheme for representing E-k relationships. 6 Discuss the motion of electrons in one-dimension according to the band theory and show the variation of energy, velocity and effective mass as a function of wave-vector. importance in the'band 7. ‘What is meant by the effective mass of an electron? What is its significance? Show that the effective mass of an electron in a crystal is inversely proportional to the second derivative of the E-k curve. Discuss the conditions when the effective mass of an electron be- comes positive, negative and infinity. PROBLEMS 1, The potential of an electron in a one-dimensional lattice is of the same type a8 that used in the Kronig-Penney model. Assuming, Ve ab << p2/m, prove that the energy band gsp at k = nla is 2V,bla, 2. Aone-dimensional lattice of spacing a has a potential distribution of the type as considered in the Kronig-Penney model. The value of the Potential is ~V at each lattice point and abruptly changes 10 22r0 at ‘a distance of 0.1a on either side of the lattice point. Determine the width of the first energy gap in the electron energy spectrum. fh -aeheal ian @37 Vy eg eal. ones Hoch i to Ms flO | we eee eee eee eee eee eee tate loteio™ — ot? = de 2 K tho calles Forbidden Cro Joh OX ae204 Sold Stote Physics np = np, = 2, 72) r aie the intrinsic values of the carrier concentration, scatensip 1 fll slaw of massac and wil be dived Mast.) 7.3.2. Acceptor or p-type Semiconductor Ifa trivalent impurity atom of Group IIL, such as bor ini trivalent imy ron, aluminiu allium or indium, is introduced into silicon, it forms three covalent Bonds the neighbouring three silicon atoms while t completed due to the deficiency of one el i jown by broken line in Fig. 7.4a where the small circle (marked ‘a') resents leficiency. Thus the trivalent impurity ator jency to accept one electron (éay b) from a neighbouring silican atom aac to complete the fourth coyalent bond. This process reaui at bond. quires a small amount ‘of energy which is easily provided by the thermal agitation in the crystal. The transferred electror hind i.e, a hole, at ition "b' on the silicon atom whit Sana wherd nj and g hd Condition bang: V (ay (bo) 7.4, (a) A trivalent impurity atom (B) in a silicon crystal (0) Energy level diagram ofa p-ype semiconductor, ‘The energy level corresponding to the electron defici is cted st abo Pad and sll nce Td ‘The acceptor levels are located ata distance of about 0.01 eV above the top d in Ge and at about 0.046 to 0.16 eV in Si, Anplectrop trivalent impurity. atom can accept an electron from a neighbouring silicon atom to produce # hole iu the semiconductor. Such impurities ase, therefore, known as/dcceprors or p-type impurities and the semic cont ‘Bown a9/dc he ductor ‘Geiinpingy sons own meenducton In ese semicon Semiconauciors: ductors, holes are the majority carriers and thermally generated electrons 2f° ° ths minority carriers. In this case, p is quite large as compared to 2 but the jaw of mass-action still holds, ie.. np = np; =n. ILmay_also-be noted that ieaither type of semiconductors, the overall charge neutrality is maintained ae no chan to or removed from the material. 74 DRIFT VELOCITY, MOBILITY AND-CONDUCTIVITY OF INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS (At finite temperatures, due to thermal agitation and lattice vibrations, some of the valence band electsans are_always-present_in the conduction, band, i... at ordinary ‘temperatures, an_insfinsic_semiconductor_always contains some free electrons in the conduction band and an.equal number Sf holes in the valence bandin the absence of any applied electric field, these electrons and holes move in random directions and constitute no current, When an electric field is applied. these electrons and holes # et ttcelerated towards the opposite ends of the field and their velocity begins iely because of the collisions of these eastiors with the various types-of “obstacl63 )usteatsavomic-anniei-phonaita-alespensontieainrenetioondveior E incnaioiepuninstesictenrcteripaincsedeneuoncaailision, This extra velocity acquired by the cartiers in the presence of an applied electric field is call Tif velocity and is denoted by vq. It is proportional to the strength Zlof the applied electric field, i wee where the constant jis called the mobility of the charge carrier and is defined ie the drift velocity acquired by a carrier per unit electric field strength) or qn an intrinsic semiconductor; since the electrons move in nearly empty conduction band while holes nove in nearly full valence band, the properties such as mobility, conductivity, etc. of electrons are, in general, different from those of holes. Let vgs Hy and n denote the drift velocty> mobility and concentration of electrons respectively in.the conduction band. (Then current density due to electrons is given by In = ney, a) where ¢ is the elecironic charge. We can write (7.3) for the elect Yay = Hy206 Solid State Physics * ‘Therefore, from Eq, (7.4),,we obtain Comparing it with Ohm's law, ie. I= 9,8, where ¢,, represents the electronic conductivity of the material, we get 7 Oy = Ne, (7.6) Similarly, we can’write the expression for the conductivity due to holes in the valence band as 9, = Pty an where p and p, represent the concentration and mobility of holes respectively. Thus the totaf conductivity of she material is : =o, +5, C= on + = (mm, + PH) as) For an intrinsic semiconductor, ‘Therefore, Eq. (7.8) becomes as) tis important to note thatcin semiconductors, the movement of carriers og.the flow of current is, in fact, the consequence of the following two processes drift of carriers under the effect of an applied field; the resulting current is called the drift current, ii diffusion of camicrs under the effect of concentraiion gtadient lopants presen ee Se Semiconductor: the corsspons- ing WC ie diffusion current. In the above treatment, we have considered only the drift current contribu- tion The diffusion current contribution is absent in semiconductors having a_uniform distribution of impurities. ‘Vatintion of Conductivity with Temperature Assuming mobilities to. be independent of temperature, the temper- ature dependence of conductivity arises because of the variation of intrinsic carrier concentration, n,, with temperature. It will be proved that nis given by 22RKTYY? 7g a y3ie E, p= POR (nme) eo Ee ay ym We FQ al SE (7.10) wn Semiconductors ore m,* and mt sepresent the effective masses ofan elesizon and a hele ooonely, Ei the band gop, kis the Bolsemann’s-sonsant and T's) ear enapsiafare, Subsiiwing ny from Eq. (7.10) into 7.9), we ae : a any inant term. The plot of Ing is» stcaight Ting)as shown in Fig, 7.5 The slope of the line gives an estimate of the band gap of the semicon- ductor. a 2 7.8 CARRIER CONCENTRATI e FERMI LEVEL FOR INTRINSIC ae SEMICONDUCTOR aad Fig. 7.5. Plot of ie versus 1/7. (Fe concentration of electrons and holes in_a semiconductor can_be ot Knowledge of the densities of av: ee ion band as the Fermi-Dirac the valence band and the conductios Sn aa fom ‘ution function) The expression for the Fermi en‘ these carrier concentrations. 7.5: Electron Concentration in the Conduction Band Referring to Eq. (5.44) the number of free electrons per SN unit volume ‘in_an ener range E and E + d£ can be written as a oe = DO AH ab gO 7.13) is the density of states defined as the total number of allowed where DE) of sts = jectronic states per unit volume oi a aa ‘oan functron representing the probability of occupation of astate with energy E. The expression for () is given by Eq. (5.26) 2 1 MO= TRE exp ar 7.14) wnereas that fo5-D(E), which is strictly valid for free electrons, is obtained from Eq. (5.40) a8209 Solid State Physics Semiconductors For £ = E,.x=0 ' 4m, b Co dn = a (amy? BY? sear I: is apparent from Fig. 7.6 that an electron the conduction band, in fact, possesses the kinetic (E-E,). Therefore, in Eq, (7.15), E must be replaced by (E-E,), Thus ‘ng an energy state E in ). Eg. (7.16) becomes ay) wheté m,* is the effective mass of the electron in the ‘cones ti elec in the conductic is ing Eq. (7.17) from E = E, to E = @, i, SEAR AEN) from E = E, to B= ©, ie, conduction band: The E,-E; 1 = exp (EX) se (E-£,)! aE FED = E,-Ep rT (2m) [7a Keo f ere Bem E=Ee) 1 Sie] |e ae = ‘Therefore, Eq. (7.19) becomes (7.18) . 3 2 onameonngenmesreoans Sf coe ame] sE2) eV. Therefore, for energies greater than Za e E,, we have Fig. 7.6. Band modét of an , active density of \e first the right hand side must gent the eff ti 2 cimecmainanal ‘ster of slecons ste cndution band edges Denoting 1 Dy Ne, we have ‘see L ‘ably 7.20) 2 where. one words aay icon, M Disthicalion ot omer lata Gata ae yy t dinaby 4 Stale, WE Are Unters tet > Cusco, bend loved A feaA AW F ste Valin bed, Lovee are ATT EtPeete Solid State Physics oc ,= 28 x10 (Z) mw 7.8.2, Hole Concentration in the Valence Band An expression similar to (7.13)Tor the num! Nowtar in the energy range E and E + dE can be written as ave dane tabberg "do = DEM ~ ROME (7.22) abot Prine we have repiaced 7) by [1-AEN which Tepresents the probabi ty bond of an energy state E not to be occupied by an electror n ie., the probability Ave of finding a hole in’ the energy state how om z Rx 1-f®) reap E=EE tsexp{ = In since E my* and 7.8.4 Law of Mass Action and Intrinsic Carrier Concentration Since for an intrinsic semiconductor, : n=p= REPS My conductor affects the Perm! the Eqs. (7.20) and (7.26) yield. - energy, the carrier concentration and the conductivity of the semiconductor. We consider the following cases : (a) Netype Semiconductor ‘The energy level diagram for an n-type semiconductor is shown i : ‘i Lown Fig. 7.7, AtOK, all the donors are in the Sy ae levels are occupied with electrons. As the temperature increases slightly, eee (er 7.32) some of the donors get ionized and contribute electrons to the conduct fand. Also, some of the valence band electrons may jump to the conductich band. Also, some of the valence band electrons may jump to the conduction , :© band leaving behi : brouced in this process is, however, quite small. Therefore, the Fermi level ist Li i Solid State Physics r ‘the.conduction band, We determine the equilibrium carrier concentration at temperature 7; Let there be N ddnors per unit volume occu jing the donor tevels with eneray E,. Assuning that By lies suming that Ey lies more than few kT bel c because, at very high temperatures, the ‘assumption of suppressing the holes does not hold good. The oflly valid information obtainable from this equation is that the Fermi level lies some- where near the middle of the donor leyel and the conduction band edge at moderate temy . This is particularly crue fe f Land 'N, for which’ the second term on the right hand side is negligible. As T iiicreases, the Fermi level moves downwards and crosses the donor level. sufficiently Targe temperatures, it drops to E,/2, ic., coincides with the ‘of minority carriers (holes) is given by (7.39) ion of ionized donors is calculated as Ni = NU - fe) = Nz fi nN intrinsic level Ej, This is, however, not apparent from Eq. (7.41). Ii such a case, the extrinsic setniconductor behaves like an intrinsic one. The variations of (E,-E)) with temperature for both n and p type silicon are shown in Fig. 7.8 for different impurity concentrations,216 06 Conduction band 4 = Intrinsic T(K) -0G LZ Valence band Varkctions of Fern lve with temperature ond ~ impurity concentain for $. ge ea . : and the position of the Fecmi level relative to the intrinsic level, as obt as from Eqs. (7.20) and (7.28), is (7.42) Itis obvious from this {ppfoaches the intrinsic carrier concentration as Ep approaches £, Al electron concentration in: isvel_moves away from &; towards the conduction band) A similar relation for the hole Concentration will be obtained Tater, The free. electron concentration in the conduction band is obtained by substituting the value of Ep from Eq. (141) into (7.20), (7.43) Solid State Physics Semiconauctors oy D = 12 exp (- 4) | WN"? exp {- 3 @. ‘ where AE = E,-E, represents the ion- ization energy of the donors. This shows ce that the carrier concentration at moder. ate temperatures varies as /Ng & ‘The electrical conductivity of an a cul wT —> j. 7.9. Conductivity versus (7.45) Temperature for a typical n-type A ‘germanium ae Mere i been assumed that the = Knowing the electron concentration, A, and the electron mobility, H,, at any ven temperature, the el (Z45)) The temperature dependence of electrica! conductivity for an n-type germanium is shown in Fig. 7.9. The following conclusions can be drawn fiom this curve : “Starting from the v come: sponding to the point A, the tivit 38 with rise ‘in temperature. This is due to the increase in the number of conduction electrons as a result of jonization ofthe donors. The conductiyi jint B) when ali the donot ar onze Te temperature coerponding 1 is about 50 K for a moderately d germanium. ‘The condu vith The conduini- esac with Cunha nase a ome Gap but son npr micas to the decrease in the value of mobility with rise in temy ‘them SaaS Te noes ee le conductivity but to a lesser extent. 9 ‘The sharp rise in conductivity from C to D is due increase in intrinsic conductivity which offsets the decrease in mobility (b) P-type Semiconductor ‘The case of a p-+t 1s that of an n-type semiconductor: The energy level diagram for a p-type semiconductor is shown in Fig. 7.10. The acceptor impurity atoms occupy the acceptor levels, E,, which lie above the valence band. For T > 0 K, a eae eae ype semiconductor can be treated in the same wayse Ss 218 : i Solid State Physics 4 Semiconductors 219 art of hese ecepon i knized by LOO wiring electtons from the valence : Ree RRR band, thus creating holes in the valence fr eas e, BY S band which cause p-type conduction. ‘As described earlier, the Fermi level at moderate temperatures lies near the middle of the acceptor level and the top of the valence band. It moves upwards with increase in temperature and finally ‘coincides with the intrinsic evel as shown in Fig. 7.8{"The expression (7.49) is not valid at very temperatures where n cannot be neglected. ie Using Eas. (7.26) and (7.28), we obtain an expression identical to Fa (7.42), ise Apart from these holes, some thermally generated holes are also present in the valence band. If n, p, N, and Ng rep- ‘esent electron concentration in the con- duction band, hole concentration in the valence baind, total acceptor concentra- tion, and concentration of ionized ac- ceptors respectively, then pantNa (7.50) Fig. 710. Band mode! fora electing » in comparison with Ng : (p-type semlcondutsor. for a p-type vem Ya | indicates that the equi approaches the intrinsic sel iret type semiconductor, we get | carrer concentration as Ey approaches E, Also, p increases sally peNg cae) | Ep moves away from E, “Towards the valence band. An expression for the ficsoncentration in the valence band can be obtained by using Eq. (7-49) into (7.26) as in the previous case. (Fhe electrical conductivity of a p-type semiconductor is given y Op = Ply NG ty si) ‘The concentration of ionized acceptors is given by Na = Naf Eq) can | where thecor ies is ion Fonductivity with temperature is similar to that for the n-type se/DiCO ae ductor) os oc tae 1g (E,~Ep) to be large as compared to kT, Eq. (7.47) can be written (Gi also follows from Eqs. (7.45) and (7.51) that the increase in cqncentration of either type of impurity atoms increases it S ductor) For impurity concentration ranging from 10°° to 107 m3, Ny exp (Fst) a emrasivity of Si and Ge varies from 10° to 10"! ohm-mif dopifg is iT (7.48) heavy 13), the conductivity of semiconductors becomes ‘The hole concentration in the valence band is given by Eq. (7.26) as ~ ; ee Using Eqs. (7.48) and (7.26) in Eq. (7.46). we obtain comparable to metals. Such semiconductors. legenerate semicon- iretors and find applications in high power and high frequency devices.) (©) Mixed Semiconductor In a semiconductor containing both and p-t wurities, thé law of electrical neutrality is written as NaepeNetn * 7.52) Taking Nt = Ng" and using Ba. (1.24), cbse. eel ‘This shows that, for equal_concentr sumionduétor behaves as pure or intrinsic semiconductor. All the ionized (7.26) N, exp ( which, on simplification, gives28 Soitd Seote Physics | 22ceptors combine with fee electrons of the donors and ali rhe ionized donors 4 ‘combine with free holes of the acceptors to produce no net free carriers. Ko, jf #N," or simply N,N, (donors and acceptors are assumed to be ionized), the semiconductor behaves as n-type or p-type depending on the relative magnitudes of N, and N,, and the cases described above-hecome applicable, SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 7-1. The electron and hole mobilities in a Si sample are 0.135 and 0.048 m2/V-s respectively. Determine the conductivity of intrinsic Si at 300 K if the intrinsic carrier concentration is 1.5%10'S atoms/m?. The sample is then doped with 103 phosphorus atoms/m?, Determine the equilibrium hole concentration, conductivity and position of the Fermi level relative to the intrinsic level. Solution. Given By = 0.135 mvs Hy = 0.048 mvs : ny = 1.5 x 1016 ae In the case.of intrinsic semiconductors, n=p ‘Therefore, the conductivity is given by o = ey, +H) 1.6 x 10-19 x 1.5 x 1016 x (0.135 + 0.048) 439 x 104 (Q-myt In the extrinsic case, since N >> 2), and assuming all the donors to be ionized, we have 4 a 15 Nj = 10% atomsim? ‘Therefore, the equilibrium hole concentration is n (15109) n 108 ‘The conductivity is given by o = em, = 1.6.x 10-19 x 1079 x 0.135 21.6 x 10? (Q-m)- = 2.25 = 10° m3 Semiconductors 221 From Eq. (7.42), = 8.62 x 10-5 x 300 (3 ] a 15x10 = 0.406 eV The position of the Fermi level in the band diagram is shown in Fig, 7.11. | Example 7.2. In intiinsic GaAs, the , electron and hole mobilities are 0.85 and 0.04 m?/V-s respectively and the Fig. 7.11 corresponding effective masses are 0.068 1m, and 0.5 m, respectively where m, is the rest mass of an electrot. Given , the energy band gap at 300 K as 1.43 eV, determine the intrinsic. carrier concentration and conductivity. Solution. Given, Hy = 0:85 mi2/V-s = 0.04 m4/V-s = 0.068 m, 1m,’ = 05m, E, = 143 ev T = 300K From Eq. (7.36), the intrinsic carrier concentration is given by no CEP baa (ts) pes 38x10" x 300 an? f* 143 ~ [0.06ex0.5x(0.1010 Y | | -aea ee. = 1.94 x 1012 m3 comic asses: 2 2a Ha cna tre nae capguenSolid State Physics ‘The conductivity is given by © = en; (4, + Hy) 1.6x10-19xc1.94x10!2x(0,854+0.04) 2.761077 (Q-myt : Example 7.3. The resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 4.5 ohmn-m at 20°C and 2.0 ohm-m at 32°C, What is the energy band gap ? Solution. For an intrinsic semiconductor, we have oR en 4 Using Bq. (7.36), we get ae c= 2ey (25) (ming) J a and op are the conductivities at temperatures T, and T, respectively, thee Lhe BY" ox oe aa \h 2AM 7 where p represents che resistivity. The above equation can also be expressed E, is a2, 3,2 =| =n 224 3nd (3 x) oor Now, we have 7, = 20 +273 = 293 K, Py = Vo, = 43 ohm-m P2 = Woz = 2.0 ohm-m Semiconductors i - Bay (555 - oh) = (4) + 2 (B) 2x1.38x10-7 (293 305, 2.0. 2 305. or Eg = 154 10719 7 = 0.96 eV SUMMARY - 1, Semiconductors are materials which have electrical conductivity lying between those of conductors and insulators. They exhibit band gaps of the order of I eV, and negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Examples of these materials are Si, Ge, GaAs, InP, CdS, etc. 2. In a semiconductor, two types of current carriers are presént, viz., electrons and holes. Electrons conduct in the conduction band and holes conduct in the valence band. 3. In a pure or intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes aré thermally generated and are equal in number. 4, In a doped or extrinsic sémiconductor, the conduction is mainly by either electrons (n-type conduction) or holes (p-type conduction). ‘The electrons in the n-type and holes in the p-type semiconductors aré Called majority carriers, The holes it the n-type and electrons in the p-type material are termed the minority carriers. 5. Mobility is the velocity acquired by a carrier in a unit electric field. Electrons have greater mobility than holes. Hence devices with atype conduction are mostly preferred to those with p-type conduction. 6. In general, two types of currents flow in a semiconductor — the drift current and the diffusion current. The motion of carriers in an electric, field constitutes the drift current, The diffusion current arises from the motion of carriers under the effect of concentration gradient Of the carriers. In a uniformly doped semiconductor, the latter contribution is absent. 7. The conductivity of a semiconductor, in general, is given by o = en, + PH) 8. The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductot increases with temperature. The plot of In & versus 1/T is'a straight line and can be useid to determine the band gap. 9. The concentration of electrons in the conduction baitd and holes in the valence band are given by the expressions‘The intrinsic carrier concentration'is 2nkr\? i f w ] ( 10, The faw of mass action, ie, np =n? _holds for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies in the middle of tH€conduction band and the valence band edges. At moder astures_and impurity concentrations, the Fermi level of an n-type semicon ductor lies almost in the middle of the donor level and the conduction band edge, Whereas in a p-type semiconductor, ities in the middle of the acceptor eerie acta ge VERY SHORT QUESTIONS What is an intrinsic semiconductor? . ‘What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Explain the concept of hole, ‘What type of carriers is present in a semiconductor? Define mobility of a charge carrier. . What is doping? : a Noe eee ‘Draw the energy level diagram for an n-type semiconductor and label it, 8. Draw the enrgy lovel diagram for a p-type semiconductor and label it peo = 10. nh. 12, 13. 14. What are majority carriers and minority carriers? Define law of mass-action. For what type of semiconductors does it hold? Define drift velocity of a carrier? ‘What are degenerate semiconductors? Which has greater mobility, electron or hole? Can a semiconductor containing both n-type and p-type impurities behave as intrinsic semiconductor? Give reason, SHORT QUESTIONS Give the properties of holes vis-a-vis electrons. Explain che conduction mechanism for n-type and p-type semicon. ductors. ‘What are donors and acceptors? Give two examples of each. Derive and discuss the law of mass action, Explain the concepts of drift current and diffusion current. How are they different? Obtain an expression for conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor. ¢ Yes Nf = Naw How does it vary with temperature? cr Show a typical variation of conductivity with temperature for an extrinsic semiconductor and explain the different regions, Define the Fermi level. What is its importance in electronic grade ‘materials? LONG QUESTIONS Discuss the current. conduction in semiconductors. How do conduc- tivity of a semiconductor and a metal change with impurity content? Explain the difference in behaviour of these two materials due to change in conductivity. Derive expression for density of frme electrons and holes in an intrin- sic semicondactor. Show that tHe Fermi level lies halfway between the valence band and the conduction band. ‘What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Discuss the variation of the Fermi level with temperature for an n-type semiconductor. ‘dona state Physics Derive an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band for an n-type semiconductor. ‘What are mobility and conduetivity? Obtain an expression for con- ductivity of doped semiconductors. Derive expressions for electron and hole concentrations for an intrin- sic semiconductors. Use these results to obtain intrinsic carrier con- centration. ‘Show that.the product of electron and hole concentrations in a semi- conductor is constant at a given temperature, How is the energy gap determined from the measurement of electrical coductivity of a semi- conductor? PROBLEMS ‘An intrinsic germanium crystal has a hole density of 10!9 m~3 at room temperature. When doped with antimony, the hole density decreases to 10!7 mr at the same temperature. Calculate the majority carrier density. a0"! m3) ‘The band gaps of diamond and silicon are 5.4 and 1.1 eV respectively. Estimate the temperature at which diamond has the same conductiv- ity as Si at 27°C, (120°C) ‘The conductivity of intrinsic Si ig 4.17 x 10° and 4 x 10-4 (Q-my! at O°C and 27°C respectively. Determine the average band gap of Si. (11 eV) The conductivity of n-type germanium semiconductor is 39 Srl). If the mobility of electrons in germanium is 0.39 m? V-lsrl, then find the concentration of the donor atoms. (6.25 x 1029 m-) How many’ donor atoms should be added per cubic metre of pure germanium crystal such that an n-type semiconductor is formed whose ‘conductivity is 500 mho/em. Given that the mobility of electrons in n-type semiconductor is 0.385 n2v-!s-1, B12 x 1074) The conductivity of a semiconductor changes when the concentra- tion of electrons is varied by changing the position of impurity level. Show that it passes through a minimum when the concentration of electrons becomes "Yip /Hn where nis the intrinsic cartier con- ceritration, 1,, and H, represent the mobilities of electrons and holes respectively. Dtermine the minimum value of canductivity.(2ney,) 207 Semiconductors 1. ‘The mobilities of electrons and holes in intrinsic Ge are 0.39 and 0.19 m?/V-s respectively. Determine the intrinsic carrier concentration and conductivity of Ge at 300 K if the band gap of Ge is 0.67 eV and thé effective masses of electrons and holes are 0.55mig and 0.37img respec tively, mig being the electronic rest mass. How many dopants must be added per cubic metre of Ge to increase its conductivity by a factor of 1087 (.81x10!%m-3, 1.68 Q-l-met, 2.69x10%m™) In an n-type semiconductof, the Fermi level lies 0.5 eV below the ‘conduction band. If the concentration of donor atoms is tripled, find the new, position of the Fermi level, given kT = 0.03 eV. . (0.48 eV below the conduction band) eeeee 2 (MC 16 Witty reed becaue : IS e Es Dejwt Auipin, ~O-oley| E, th seach Conducivs Bond © stable Grok et eae ond beiome Amchile 7 Le difomerd’ Bere Oe Ate alton ka femucoaie © CApehle Ws Sal i: ae H acceptor Lovee #4 orgy Cheat : Coat illic Gl et ene eee b Ahindarl , Clertren uM : Vallone band fin A & Re oes @ Cheap “eT TET ih Ordos, ty beter a hol Ao bevome mobil