Structural Studies Bridges

Figure 1 The George Washington Bridge1, New York City

Suspension Bridges I:
Towers and Anchors

WContents
1. Form: The Suspension Bridge
2. Forces: Deck, Cables, and Towers
3. Tower Reactions: Main Span
4. Tower Reactions: Back Span
5. Total Tower Reactions
6. Anchor Reactions

Princeton University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering May 2019
Professor Maria E. Moreyra Garlock
Structural Studies Bridges

1. Form: The Suspension Bridge2

A suspension bridge is a bridge in which the deck is supported by cables that are suspended
from (typically) two large towers (Figure 2). Vertical suspenders attach the deck to these
main spanning cables. These cables are continuous over the tower supports and are firmly
anchored at the ends of the bridge by, for example, huge blocks of concrete. The towers
typically rest on concrete caissons in the water. The George Washington Bridge (Figure 1),
designed by Othmar Ammann, is an example of a suspension bridge. It was completed in
1931 and spans 3,500 ft between its two towers over the Hudson River3.

Figure 2
Main elements of a
suspension bridge

2. Forces: Deck, Cables, and Towers

The dominant loads in this structure are gravity loads, the dead load of the bridge deck,
and the live load from the traffic carried by the bridge. Wind loads, though important for
the analysis, history, and design of suspension bridges, will be neglected in this study for
simplicity. The loads from the deck are transmitted by the vertical suspenders through
the cables to the tower foundations and the anchor supports. This analysis will focus on
the reactions on the tops of the towers and the anchors. Because of the great number of
suspenders, we can approximate the short-spaced gravity loads as a uniformly distributed
load, q (lb/ft or k/ft), on the main cable.

3. Tower Reactions: Main Span

The total vertical reactions acting at the tower are due to loads that act on the main span
(between the two towers) and on the back span (between the tower and anchor). First, we
will examine the effects of the main span and then we will examine the back span.

The applied gravity loads on the cable are acting downward; therefore the towers need
to resist these forces with upward reactions. The vertical reaction due to the main span,
VM (lbs or kips), at each tower is:

Equation 1 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
Vertical Reaction at Tower 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 =
(main span) 2

where q is the uniformly distributed load applied to the bridge (lbs/ft or k/ft) and L (ft)
2
is the length of the main span of the bridge 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
defined as the distance from tower to tower
𝐻𝐻 = 𝑀𝑀
(Figure 3). 8𝑑𝑑

𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft Suspension

+ 8 k/ft Bridges I — 2
Structural Studies Bridges

Figure 3
Loaded Cable with reactions

In addition, the loads on the bridge act to pull the tower tops toward each other; these
forces are resisted by horizontal reactions in the
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 cable at the top of the towers to keep the
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 to
towers vertical. The horizontal reaction due = the main span, H (lbs or kips), at each tower
2 M
is4:

Equation 2 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
Horizontal Reaction at Tower 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
(main span) 8𝑑𝑑

where d is where the vertical distance from the top of the tower and the cable is greatest. It
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is called the sag of the cable (ft) and it is located + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =(center
at midspan 39 k/ftof+the
8 k/ft
main span). Once
again, q is the distributed load and L is the
𝑞𝑞 =length of the main span (Figure 3).
47 k/ft

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 47 k/ft ∙ 3,500 ft

𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = =
Example 1 2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 ≈ 82,300 k
Main Span Tower Reactions of the George Washington Bridge

Determine:
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2 47 k/ft ∙ (3,500 ft)2
The vertical reaction in each tower and𝐻𝐻horizontal
𝑀𝑀 = =reactions in the cables at each tower
8𝑑𝑑 8 ∙ 325 ft
of the George Washington Bridge due to the main span dead loads plus live loads
(Figure 4). 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,400 k

Given5:
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
Dead load of the bridge, qdead = 39 k/ft
Σ𝑀𝑀 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Live load on the bridge6, qlive = 8 k/ft
2
The main span, L = 3,500 ft
The sag of the cable, d = 325 ft
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + ( )
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 =
Figure 4 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
George Washington Bridge 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 =
Elevation 2

𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2 𝑞𝑞 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
Solution
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
8𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
Step 1: Calculate the total load acting on the bridge.

𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft

𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000 k
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 k

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 47 k/ft ∙ 3,500 ft

𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = =
2 2 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + ( ) Suspension Bridges I — 3
2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 ≈ 82,300 k 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 =
 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
8𝑑𝑑2
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
Structural Studies Bridges 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
8𝑑𝑑

𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft

𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞 =
= 𝑞𝑞
47 k/ft+ 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Step 2: 𝑞𝑞Calculate
= 47 k/ftthe vertical reaction at each tower due to main span loads.

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 47 k/ft ∙ 3,500 ft 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = = 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 =
2
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀
47 k/ft =
2
∙ 3,500 2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = = 2 ft
2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 ≈ 82,300 k 2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 ≈ 82,300 k 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2reaction
Step 3: Calculate the horizontal 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = at each tower.
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = 8𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2 47 k/ft ∙ (3,500
8𝑑𝑑 ft)2
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = =
8𝑑𝑑2 47 k/ft
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 8 ∙∙ 325
(3,500 ft ft)2
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = =
8𝑑𝑑
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,400 k 8 ∙ 325𝑞𝑞ft= 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,400 k 𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
Σ𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 47𝐿𝐿2𝐵𝐵 k/ft ∙ 3,500 ft
Σ𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 − 𝐻𝐻 𝑑𝑑=
𝐵𝐵47 −
𝑎𝑎 k/ft =∙𝐵𝐵3,500
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 =
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀
= 2 2 ft 2
2 2
4. Tower Reactions:𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿Back 2 Span
𝑉𝑉 ≈ 82,300 k
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + 𝑉𝑉 (𝑀𝑀 ≈ 𝐵𝐵
) 𝑀𝑀 k
82,300
2
The gravity loads on the 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = back2 span must also be supported by the towers. This analysis
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) 𝐿𝐿+𝐵𝐵 ( 𝐵𝐵 )
assumes𝑉𝑉that no other external 2 horizontal force acts on the tower (such as wind). Therefore,
𝐵𝐵 =
𝐿𝐿 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2top 47 ∙ (3,500 ft)2
k/fttower
the horizontal reaction in the cable
𝐵𝐵
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀at47
=the of the
k/ft =∙ (3,500 ft)2 for the back span, HB , is equal
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = reaction = from 8𝑑𝑑 the main 8 ∙ 325 ft
and opposite to the horizontal
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 8𝑑𝑑 8 ∙ 325 ft span, HM .
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,400 k
By summing
𝑞𝑞 the moments 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 about
≈ 221,400 k
the anchor, the vertical reaction due to the back span,
𝑞𝑞 =
= 𝑞𝑞
39 k/ft
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ++𝑞𝑞8𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
k/ft
VB (lbs or k) at each tower is:
𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞 =
= 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
47 k/ft
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft Σ𝑀𝑀 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉 𝐿𝐿 − 𝐻𝐻 𝑑𝑑𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
Σ𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
= 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝐵𝐵− 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎 2
2
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000 k
𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000
≈ 221,400 k k 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2
Equation 3 (𝐻𝐻𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 2
𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 ) + ( 2 )
Vertical Reaction at Tower (𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + ( )
(back span) 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 k 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 2
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + ( 𝐵𝐵 )
where HB (k) is the horizontal 22 in the cable due to the back span, da (ft) is the vertical
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵reaction𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
(𝐻𝐻 𝑑𝑑
distance from the top of𝐵𝐵 𝑞𝑞 ) +
𝐿𝐿 (
the ) q is the uniformly distributed load applied
𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎
=2tower
𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 to
+ the anchor,
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 =
to the bridge (lbs/ft or𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵k/ft) and L𝑞𝑞B (= ft)39is the
47 k/ft k/ft + length8 k/ft
∙ (650 )2 back span (Figure 5).
offtthe
(221,000 k𝑞𝑞 = 39 k/ft
∙ 377 ft) ++(8 k/ft )
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
47 k/ft ∙ (650 ft)2
(221,000 k𝑞𝑞 = ∙ 377 ) + (ft
ft650
47 k/ft )
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 =
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ≈ 143,700 k 650 ft
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ≈ 143,700 k 𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000 k
Figure 5
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈𝐵𝐵 221,000 k
Loaded Back Span with Σ𝐻𝐻 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 −𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 k
Reactions 𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 k
Σ𝐻𝐻 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

2 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2
(𝐻𝐻𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝑎𝑎 ) + ( 2 )
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + ( )
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
47 k/ft ∙ (650 ft)2
(221,000 k ∙ 377 ) +∙ ((650 ft)2
47 ftk/ft )
(221,000 k ∙ 377 ft) + ( 2)
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 650 ft
650 ft
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ≈ 143,700 k Suspension Bridges I — 4
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ≈ 143,700 k
Structural Studies Bridges 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 =
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 =
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 =
2
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
Example𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =2 2
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
8𝑑𝑑
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = 2
Back Span
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
8𝑑𝑑
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =Tower Reactions of the George Washington Bridge
8𝑑𝑑
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
Determine:
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
The horizontal and vertical reactions in one of the towers of the George Washington
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
Bridge𝑞𝑞due
= 47 k/ft back span dead plus live loads (Figure 6).
to the
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
Given: 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 47 k/ft ∙ 3,500 ft
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = =
Dead load of𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 47 k/ftq2
2the bridge, ∙ 3,500
= 39ft k/ft
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = = dead
Live load on 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
2 bridge
the 47 k/ft, q∙23,500
6 ft
= 8 k/ft
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀
𝑉𝑉 ≈ 82,300
𝑀𝑀 = = k live
The back
𝑉𝑉 span, 2
≈ 82,300 L = 650
k ft
2
𝑀𝑀
Vertical𝑉𝑉distance
𝑀𝑀 k tower to anchor, da = 377 ft
from
≈ 82,300
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2 47 k/ft ∙ (3,500 ft)2
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = 2=
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
8𝑑𝑑 47 k/ft
8 ∙ 325 ft ft)2
(3,500
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = 2=
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
8𝑑𝑑 47 k/ft
8 ∙ 325 ft ft)2
(3,500
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,400
= = k
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 8𝑑𝑑
≈ 221,400 k
8 ∙ 325 ft
Figure 6
George Washington Bridge 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,400 k
Back Span Elevation 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
Σ𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝐿𝐿2𝐵𝐵
Σ𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝐿𝐿2𝐵𝐵
Σ𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
2
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + ( )
22
Solution𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = (𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = (𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝐿𝐿 2
Step 1:𝑉𝑉Calculate
𝐵𝐵 = the 𝐵𝐵total load acting on the back span of the bridge.
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑞𝑞 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑞𝑞 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
𝑞𝑞 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
Step 2:𝑞𝑞Calculate
= 47 k/ftthe vertical reaction at each tower due to main span loads.
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000 k
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000 k
𝐻𝐻 ≈ 221,400 k
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000 k
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 k
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 k
Step 3: Calculate 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2 reaction at each tower due to backspan loads.
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑the
𝑎𝑎 ) +vertical
( )
22
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = (𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = (𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 ) + (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 47 k/ft ∙ (650 ft)2
(221,000 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵k ∙ 377 ft) + ( )
2 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = (221,000 k ∙ 377 ft) + (47 k/ft ∙ (650 ft) )
650 ft 2 2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = (221,000 k ∙ 377 ft) + (47 k/ft ∙ (650 ft) )
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
≈ 143,700 k 650 ft 2
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ≈ 143,700 k 650 ft
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 ≈ 143,700 k
Σ𝐻𝐻 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Σ𝐻𝐻 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Σ𝐻𝐻 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Suspension Bridges I — 5
 𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
Structural Studies Bridges

𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000 k

𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 k
5. Total Tower Reactions
The total vertical force that the towers support equals
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 the
2 sum of VM and VB , that is, those
(𝐻𝐻 𝑑𝑑 ) + ( 𝐵𝐵
𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎 )
loads brought on by the main span plus the 2 Therefore, for this example, each
back span.
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 =
tower carries 82,300 k + 143,700 k = 226,000 𝐿𝐿kips
𝐵𝐵 of load in compression.

47 k/ft ∙ (650 ft)2

(221,000 k ∙ 377 ft) + ( )
2
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,000 k
6. Anchor Reactions 650 ft
𝑉𝑉 ≈ 143,700 k
To maintain horizontal equilibrium,𝐵𝐵 the horizontal reaction in the anchor must have the
Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
same value as the horizontal reaction of the back span,
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
Σ𝐻𝐻 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 − 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

Equation 4
Horizontal Reaction 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵
at Anchor

To maintain vertical equilibrium, the vertical reaction

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿
in the anchor must balance the
upward vertical reaction from the𝐻𝐻towerΣ𝑀𝑀and
= 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 −
= 𝐻𝐻the≈downward
2 4 k gravity loads of the back span.
221,000
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵
V𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
The vertical reaction in the anchor, 𝐻𝐻 anchor
(lbs
= or k≈)2is221,000
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 thus: k
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
8𝑑𝑑
Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝐻𝐻 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 −=(𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 ) 221,000 k
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵=
Equation 5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Vertical Reaction at Anchor
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 143,700 k − 47 k/ft ∙ 650 ft
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿the
where VB (k) is the vertical reaction on𝑉𝑉the tower
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉due
𝐵𝐵 − to 𝐵𝐵 ) = 113,150
back span, kq is the uniformly
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵
distributed load applied to the bridge (lbs/ft or k/ft), and LB (ft) is the length of the back
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
span (Figure 5).
= 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,000 k
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿
Σ𝑀𝑀 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 −
2 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
4 𝐿𝐿
Σ𝑀𝑀 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 −
2 4
Example 3 0 = 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
Σ𝑉𝑉 = 𝐵𝐵 𝐻𝐻 (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 )= 2
8𝑑𝑑𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
Anchor𝑉𝑉Reactions (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 )
= 𝑉𝑉of−the George Washington 8𝑑𝑑 Bridge
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵

Determine: 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 221,000 k

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 221,000 k
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
The horizontal 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵vertical anchor
and reactions
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 −of(𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
the𝐵𝐵George Washington
) = 143,700 k − 47 Bridge.
k/ft ∙ 650 ft
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 143,700 k − 47 k/ft ∙ 650 ft
Given:
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 113,150 k
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 113,150 k
Horizontal 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 −HB = 221,400 k
Σ𝑀𝑀 =reaction
2 4
Vertical reaction VB = 143,700 k
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
Solution 8𝑑𝑑

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,000 k

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 221,000 k

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 143,700 k − 47 k/ft ∙ 650 ft

Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 113,150 k
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵
Suspension Bridges I — 6
Structural Studies Bridges

w Summary of Terms

Term Description Unit

d sag ft
da vertical distance from the top of the tower of ft
the anchor
LM main span length ft
LB back span length ft
q distributed load lbs/ft or k/ft
qDL distributed dead load lbs/ft
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 or k/ft
qLL distributed live load 𝑉𝑉 =
𝑀𝑀 lbs/ft or k/ft
2
HM horizontal reaction at tower, and tensile force lbs or k
in cable due to main span
HB horizontal reaction at tower, and tensile force lbs
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿or
2 k
in cable due to the back span 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
8𝑑𝑑
Hanchor horizontal reaction in the the anchor lbs or k
VM vertical reaction at tower due to the main lbs or k
span 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft
VB vertical reaction at tower due to the back lbs or k
span 𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ft
VB vertical reaction of the anchor due to the lbs or k
back span
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 47 k/ft ∙ 3,500 ft
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 = =
2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 ≈ 82,300 k

w Summary of Equations
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2 47 k/ft ∙ (3,500 ft)2
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 = =
8𝑑𝑑 8 ∙ 325 ft
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
Vertical Reaction at Tower (main span)
𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,400𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑉𝑉k == 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
𝑀𝑀 2
2

2
Horizontal Reaction at Tower (main span)
Σ𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵=
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐻𝐻−2 𝐻𝐻
𝐵𝐵𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 − 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵k
≈𝐵𝐵221,000
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑀𝑀 == 𝐵𝐵
𝑀𝑀 8𝑑𝑑
8𝑑𝑑

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − (
Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 2 − 𝑉𝑉
=𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝑉 𝐵𝐵
(𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 )𝑞𝑞+𝑞𝑞=(=𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
) + 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 ==3939k
Vertical Reaction at Tower (back span) 2𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵= 47
𝑞𝑞 k/ft
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 𝑞𝑞 ≈
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
= 221,000
𝐵𝐵
47 k/ft k

Horizontal Reaction at Anchor

𝑞𝑞 = 𝑞𝑞𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =
+𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝐵𝐵 4747k/ft ∙ 3,50
𝑉𝑉 = ==− (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 k/ft ∙ 3,
Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝑀𝑀𝑉𝑉− 𝑉𝑉
𝑀𝑀 2=𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵2) 2
𝑞𝑞 = 39 k/ft + 8 k/ft 2
Vertical Reaction at Anchor 𝐵𝐵𝑀𝑀−≈(𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝐵𝐵 ) 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿
82,300 k
𝑞𝑞 = 47 k/ftΣ𝑀𝑀 =𝑉𝑉0𝑀𝑀=≈𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻82,300 − k
2 4

𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻 =
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 𝑀𝑀 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 8𝑑𝑑2 2 47 k/ft ∙ (3
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 ≈ 221,000𝑀𝑀 == k ==
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 47 k/ft ∙
𝑀𝑀 8𝑑𝑑 8 8∙ 32
8𝑑𝑑 ∙3
𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,400 𝐻𝐻 k
≈ 221,400 k
𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 = 221,400
𝑀𝑀𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿≈
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝐻 = 221,000
k𝐵𝐵 k
Σ𝑀𝑀 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 − 𝑀𝑀
Suspension2Bridges
4 I—7
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
2
= 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 14
𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿 2
Structural Studies Bridges

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𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 ≈ 221,000 k

Notes
1 Photo credit: Maria Garlock Σ𝑉𝑉 = 0 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
2 Parts of this Structural Study are based upon𝑉𝑉Structures and the Urban Environment, Structural Studies, by David
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 )
P, Billington and Robert Mark, 1983, with contributions from Tracy Huynh.

3 David P. Billington, “History and Aesthetics of Suspension Bridges,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE Vol. 103,
no. 478 (August 1977): 671-687, with discussions.
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵
4 To calculate the horizontal force, we use the free-body diagram shown in the figure below and sum the moments
about the top of the tower:

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝐿𝐿
Σ𝑀𝑀 = 0 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 −
2 4

𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻𝑀𝑀 =
8𝑑𝑑

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝐵𝐵 = 221,000 k

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 143,700 k − 47 k/ft ∙ 650 ft

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 − (𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵 ) = 113,150 k

5 The values used in this analysis are taken from Power, Speed, and Form; Engineers and the Making of the Twentieth
Century, by David P. Billington and David P. Billington Jr., Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2006, p. 166 and 167.

6 Ammann realized that the likelihood of all the lanes on the bridge being completely full with the heaviest vehicles
decreased as the span of the bridge increased and as more lanes were added. With these considerations in mind he
developed a series of equations that reduced the live load that the bridge needed to be designed to carry. The live
load, qLL , before reduction was 46 k/ft. Ibid., p. 166

Suspension Bridges I — 8