A n I n tro d u cti o n to

D IS AS TE R M AN AG EM EN T
N a tu ra l D i sa ste rs a n d M an m a d e H a z ard s
ii | An Int r oduct ion t o Disast er Management
 A n In tr od uc ti on to
D IS AS TE R M AN AG EM EN T
Na t ur al D is a s t e rs a nd Man mad e Ha zar ds

S. VAIDYAN ATHAN
Professor of Mathematics (Retired)
Anna University, Chennai

IKON BOOKS
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New Delhi, Hyderabad
India
iv | An Int r oduct ion t o Disast er Management

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 CONTENTS

Foreword ..................................................................................................... xv
Preface ..................................................................................................... xvii
Comments 1 ..................................................................................................... xxi
Comments 2 ..................................................................................................... xxiii
Appraisal ..................................................................................................... xxv
1. EARTHQUAKES ................................................................................................. 1
1.1 A brief outline on Earthquake Earth’s climatic variations .........................................
1.2 Earthquakes – Physical and technical description .....................................................
1.2.1 Measurement of earthquakes ...........................................................................
1.3 Seismic zoning ........................................................................................................
1.3.1 Seismic micro-zoning .....................................................................................
1.3.2 Creation of Awareness of Earthquakes ............................................................
1.4 Seismic micro-zonation ...........................................................................................
1.4.1 Importance of Microzonation to lessen potential
hazards due to earthquakes .............................................................................
1.4.2 Micro-zonation of Chennai city ......................................................................
1.5 Duration and strength of earthquakes .......................................................................
1.6 Mechanism involved in ground shaking ...................................................................
2. STRUCTURAL DESIGN ASPECTS IN EARTHQUAKE
DISASTER PREVENTION ................................................................................. 17
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................
2.1.1 Design characteristics of earthquake loading ...................................................
vi | An Int r oduct ion t o Disast er Management

2.1.2 Strategy to design to meet the requirements of minor

and major tremors ............................................................................................
2.2 Unpredictability of earthquakes ...............................................................................
3. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES AROUND THE WORLD ................... 20
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................
3.1.1 History of earthquakes occurred in the world ..................................................
3.2 Earthquakes in Asia .................................................................................................
3.3 Detailed account of earthquake in Gujarat on 26-01-2001
(Republic Day) in India ...........................................................................................
3.4 History of Earthquakes in peninsular India ...............................................................
3.5 Kashmir earthquake of October 8, 2005 ...................................................................
3.6 Earthquake on December 8, 2005 as a tragedy and as an
opportunity for India and Pakistan to come together .................................................
3.7 Prominent features and the lesson learnt from Gujarat earthquake of 2001 ................
4. MITIGATION PROGRAMMES IN INDIA
(PERTAINING TO EARTHQUAKES) ............................................................... 33
4.1 Mitigation programmes in India ..............................................................................
4.2 Satellite data application .........................................................................................
4.3 Creating awareness through earthquakes ..................................................................
4.4 Effects of earthquakes on buildings .........................................................................
5. EARTHQUAKE HAZARD EXPOSURE ANALYSIS ........................................ 38
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................
5.1.1 Earthquake exposure measures .......................................................................
5.1.2 Landslide hazard exposure analysis .................................................................
5.2 The approach to the framework of risk assessment of natural hazards .......................
5.3 Early warning system for disaster reduction .............................................................
5.4 Disaster recovery ....................................................................................................
5.5 Crisis management ..................................................................................................
5.6 Disaster management ..............................................................................................
5.7 National response system in India for disaster management ......................................
5.8 Assessing the needs when natural disaster strikes a developing country ....................
5.9 Earthquake mitigation programmes in India .............................................................
6. LANDSLIDES ...................................................................................................... 72
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................
6.2 Understanding causes for natural disasters ...............................................................
7. TSUNAMIS .......................................................................................................... 78
7.1 A brief outline on tsunamis ......................................................................................
7.2 Tsunamis
7.2.1 Causes of Tsunamis ........................................................................................
7.2.2 Definitions .....................................................................................................
7.2.3 Internal structure and composition of Earth ....................................................
 Cont ent s | vii

7.2.4 Plate tectonics theory......................................................................................

7.3 Earthquakes and tsunamis .......................................................................................
7.3.1 Sources of plate motion ..................................................................................
7.4 Tsunami formation ..................................................................................................
7.4.1 Underwater slides ...........................................................................................
7.4.2 Tsunami velocity in relation with seawater depth .............................................
7.4.3 Tsunami wave appearance ..............................................................................
7.4.4 Tsunami propagation ......................................................................................
7.5. Causes of tsunami in detail ......................................................................................
7.5.1 Earthquake – generated tsunami ......................................................................
7.5.2 Seismic waves ................................................................................................
7.6 Various types of magnitude scales for earthquakes and tsunamis ...............................
7.6.1 Teleseismic tsunamis ......................................................................................
7.6.2 Other tsunami magnitude scales ......................................................................
7.7 Types of faults giving rise to tsunami .......................................................................
7.8 Theories used to model the formation of tsunamis along faults .................................
7.9 Volcano – induced tsunamis ....................................................................................
7.9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................
7.9.2 Mechanisms concerning volcanic eruptions to generate tsunamis .....................
8. OCCURENCE OF TSUNAMIS AROUND THE WORLD ................................. 98
8.1 A global list of some historical tsunamis ..................................................................
8.2 A detailed account of the July 17, 1998 Papua new guinea tsunami ..........................
8.2.1 Earthquake description ...................................................................................
8.2.2 The tsunami background .................................................................................
8.2.3 Bathymetry ....................................................................................................
8.2.4 The tsunami ...................................................................................................
8.3 A detailed account of Sumatra Andaman Islands Earthquake off the
West Coast of Northern Sumatra, 2004 December 26 which
unlashed a devastating tsunami ................................................................................
8.3.1 Magnitude, date-time, location of preliminary information data .......................
8.3.2 Earthquake description ...................................................................................
8.3.3 Anatomy of tsunami disaster ...........................................................................
8.4 A detailed account of the 17 July 2006, tsunami java island, Indonesia .....................
9. TSUNAMI FORECASTING ............................................................................... 110
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................
9.2 Unfolding of tsunami measuring, monitoring and forecasting ...................................
9.3 Tsunami forecasting system .....................................................................................
9.4 Real - time tsunami monitoring ................................................................................
9.5 The development of tsunami warning system ...........................................................
9.6 Ingredients to unfold the warning system .................................................................
9.7 The function of the warning system .........................................................................
9.7.1 Tsunami watch ...............................................................................................
9.7.2 Deep sea tsunamis alarm system .....................................................................
9.8 Looking carefully on guard for tsunamis ..................................................................
viii | An Int r oduct ion t o Disast er Management

9.9 Tsunami warning .....................................................................................................

9.10 The Pacific tsunami warning centre .........................................................................
9.11 Japan tsunami warning system .................................................................................
9.12 The Chilean tsunami warning system .......................................................................
9.13 The west coast and Alaska tsunami warning system ..................................................
9.14 UN tsunami early warning systems extended to Mediterranean,
North East Atlantic ..................................................................................................
9.15 Tsunami warning system for India ...........................................................................
9.15.1 Scientific background on the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami ..............
9.16 Forecast flow of tsunami warning process ................................................................
9.16.1 Seismic observation network .........................................................................
9.17 Lessons learned from Chile, Hawaii and Japan as how to survive a tsunami ..............
9.18 Hurdles to be crossed on tsunami rehabilitation work in TamilNadu .........................
10. THE ROLE OF PUBLIC EDUCATION AND AWARENESS
PROGRAMMES IN TSUNAMI MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT .......... 140
10.1 Impact and awareness from earlier history ...............................................................
10.2 Public education .....................................................................................................
10.3 Organizations ..........................................................................................................
10.4 Tsunami recovery and rebuilding coastal areas .........................................................
10.5 Assessing the risk of tsunami ...................................................................................
10.5.1 Tsunami risk reduction .................................................................................
10.5.2 Individual requirements when exposed to risk from tsunami .........................
10.6 Determination of the critical variables which aid in tsunami
mitigation and emergency planning ..........................................................................
10.7 Tsunami hazard mitigation ......................................................................................
10.8 Tsunami rehabilitation programme in Tamil Nadu ....................................................
10.9 New research indicates that earthquake swarms are not always
linked to volcanic, geothermal activity.....................................................................
11. FOREST FIRES ................................................................................................... 158
11.1 A Brief outline on Forest Fires ................................................................................
11.2.1 Forest Fire ....................................................................................................
11.2.2 Fire and Professional Forestry.......................................................................
11.2.3 Kinds of Forest Fires ....................................................................................
11.2.4 Land Clearing for settlement .........................................................................
11.2.5 Forest Fire behaviour characteristics .............................................................
11.3.1 Fuel Treatments – Thinning and prescribed Fire. ...........................................
11.3.2 Using Scientific Principles for adaptive Fuel Management. ............................
11.4.1 Fire Danger Rating and Remote sensing ........................................................
11.4.2 Wild Land Fire. ............................................................................................
11.4.3 Fire Risk Management ..................................................................................
11.4.4 Remote sensing enhances Wildland Firedanger Rating. ..................................
11.4.5 Future Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS ............................................
11.5 Fire Detection using Remote Sensing. ......................................................................
 Cont ent s | ix

12. CYCLONES ......................................................................................................... 176

12.1 Understanding cyclone ............................................................................................
12.1.1 Types of cyclones ........................................................................................
12.1.2 Areas Prone to cyclones ...............................................................................
12.2 Cyclones are part of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra and
other Indian Coasts .................................................................................................
12.2.1 Andhra Pradesh cyclone disaster history ........................................................
12.3 Tropical cyclones – An effective approach to warning systems – Andhra Pradesh .....
12.3.1 Cyclonic storm in Andhra Pradesh ...............................................................
12.3.2 The tropical cyclone programme (1980-1994) – Implementation
of an effective warning system ......................................................................
12.4 Super cyclone in Orissa- a national calamity ............................................................
12.4.1 Unprecedented devastation of super cyclone .................................................
12.5 Threat of Cyclone blows over Tamil Nadu ...............................................................
12.5.1 Flood relief – work in Tamil Nadu ................................................................
12.5.2 Action taken to prevent flooding ...................................................................
12.5.3 Detailed plan to tackle floods. .......................................................................
12.6 Detailed plan to tackle floods and coordination ........................................................
12.6.1Central team for plan to mitigate damage caused by calamities .......................
12.6.2Weathermen debate on rainfall records ...........................................................
12.6.3Coordination between the Central and State Government
to assess the magnitude of cyclone disaster. .............................................................
12.6.4Action plan for Chennai city ..........................................................................
12.6.5Precautionary Measures Taken By Chennai Corporation .................................
12.7 Coastal zone management in India ...........................................................................
12.7.1Problems constituting major issues
12.7.2Management perspectives in India .................................................................
12.7.3Research and development programmes
12.7.4Integrated coastal zone management plan for India
12.8 Cyclone rehabilitation .............................................................................................
12.9 Forecasting, Evacuation, Rescue and relief ..............................................................
12.9.1Evacuation ....................................................................................................
12.9.2Rescue and relief
12.9.3Rehabilitation and development .....................................................................
12.9.4Evolving a better response mechanism
12.9.5Vulnerable points gathered from households ..................................................
12.10 Rehabilitation and development ..............................................................................
12.11 Use of Remote Sensing (RS) ...................................................................................
12.12 Role Of Geographical Information System (GIS) .....................................................
12.13 Cyclone safety rules – precautions ...........................................................................
12.14 Coastal zone management .......................................................................................
12.15 Anti-disaster plan for Tamil Nadu ............................................................................
12.15.1Measures under pre-disaster planning ...........................................................
12.15.2Measures under emergency relief organization .............................................
12.15.3Post disaster programmes ............................................................................
x | An Int r oduct ion t o Disast er Management

12.16 Second Master plan for Chennai for solution to flooding ..........................................
12.17 Cyclone exposure analysis .......................................................................................
12.18 Building disaster resistant structures ........................................................................
13. CLIMATES .......................................................................................................... 206
13.1 A brief outline on climates .......................................................................................
13.2 Variations in climate................................................................................................
13.2.1Climate mechanism .......................................................................................
13.2.2Variations in the climate system .....................................................................
13.3 The atmosphere ......................................................................................................
13.4 The ocean ..............................................................................................................
13.5 Elnino
13.6 Southern oscillation and the Indian monsoon ...........................................................
13.7 Ocean -atmospheric coupling and the Bjerknes hypothesis .......................................
13.8 Elnino – the warm phase of enso .............................................................................
13.9 Lanina the coolphase of enso ...................................................................................
13.10 Normal scenario for enso ........................................................................................
13.11 The delayed oscillator .............................................................................................
13.12 The relationship between Elnino and the Indian ocean .............................................
13.13 Desertification ........................................................................................................
13.14 Ocean warming threats to wild life in Antanctic .......................................................
13.14.1Need to gear up to face global warming .......................................................
13.14. 2Arctic warming trend still continues ............................................................
13.14.3Global rise of 3ºC in temperature would destroy half of nature reserves ........
13.15 Saving earth from irreversible adverse effects of Global Warming ............................
14. FLOODS ............................................................................................................... 224
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................
14.2 Flood hazard exposure analysis ...............................................................................
14.3 Gujarat state swamped by floods .............................................................................
14.4 Floods in coastal areas in Andhra Pradesh ...............................................................
14.5 Typhoon
15 DROUGHTS ......................................................................................................... 231
15.1 Droughts
15.2 Effective response mechanism .................................................................................
15.3 Mitigation strategies ................................................................................................
15.4 Early warming and drought management .................................................................
15.4.1 Short term drought management strategies ....................................................
15.4.2 Long term mitigation ....................................................................................
15.5 Drought hazard distribution exposure analysis .........................................................
16. FAMINE ............................................................................................................... 236
16.1 Understanding famine .............................................................................................
16.2 Prediction versus prevention of famine ....................................................................
16.3 Description of famine early-warning systems ...........................................................
16.3.1 EWS as Information Systems ........................................................................
 Cont ent s | xi

16.4 Famine prevention and relief response .....................................................................

17. HURRICANE ....................................................................................................... 242
17.1 A brief outline on Hurricanes ..................................................................................
17.1.1 Measurement Of Hurricane Dimensions ........................................................
17.1.2 Hurricane Season
17.1.3 Structure of A Hurricane ...............................................................................
17.1.4 Observation And Measurements Of Hurricane ...............................................
17.1.5 Tracking Hurricanes
17.1.6 Effects Of Hurricanes
17.1.7 Secondary Effects Of Hurricanes
17.2 Hurricane – meaning ...............................................................................................
17.2.1 Storm Surges ................................................................................................
17.2.2 Storms Vary With Cycles ..............................................................................
17.3 History of major hurricanes including costly catastrophic events ..............................
17.4 A detailed account of Hurricanes Katrina Aug 2005 .................................................
17.5 Rescue effects .........................................................................................................
17.5.1 Ways to help those hurt by the Hurricanes Katrina .........................................
17.5.2 Damages to economy
17.5.3 Insurance ......................................................................................................
17.5.4 Hurricane Katrina dearling with displacement as geography ..........................
complicates levee repair ................................................................................
17.5.5 Effect of storm on agriculture ........................................................................
17.5.6 Draining the city as floods receding the in New Orleans ................................
17.5.7 High-Tech control of natural disasters with Nature’s help ..............................
17.6 Effect of Hurricane Katrina in ecosystems, economy and American social systems ...
17.6.1 Economy ......................................................................................................
17.6.2 Vulnerability of Natural disaster ....................................................................
17.6.3 Market Economy Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the Hurdle
in the Food Production Market .......................................................................
17.6.4 Regional economic growth ...........................................................................
17.6.5 Stake in oil and natural gas production in the Gulf of Mexico ........................
17.6.6 Statistical details of Hurricane Katrina Aug 2005 ..........................................
18. TORNADOES ...................................................................................................... 272
18.1 A brief outline on tornadoes ....................................................................................
18.2 Tornado description ................................................................................................
18.2.1 Physical features ...........................................................................................
18.2.2 Technical details ...........................................................................................
18.2.3 Scale intensity of tornadoes
18.2.4 Using Radar to detect a tornado
18.2.5 Other Methods of Tornado Detection Currently Being Researched .................
18.3 Occurrence of tornadoes around the world ...............................................................
18.4 A detailed account of tornado Topeka, June 8, 1966 .................................................
18.5.1 Disaster Response ........................................................................................
18.5.2 Mobilization of collective behaviour and emergence of leadership .................
xii | An Int r oduct ion t o Disast er Management

18.5.3 Feedback and secondary strain ......................................................................

18.5.4 Curtain call ..................................................................................................
19. VOLCANOES ..................................................................................................... 283
19.1 A brief outline of volcanoes .....................................................................................
19.2 Volcano – Description
19.2.1 Physical features ...........................................................................................
19.2.2 Component parts of volcano .........................................................................
19.2.3 Grouping of rocks ........................................................................................
19.2.4 Distribution of volcanoes ..............................................................................
19.3 Volcano formation ...................................................................................................
19.3.1 Tectonics environments of volcanoes ............................................................
19.3.2 Kinds of volcanic activity and eruptions ........................................................
19.3.3 Prediction of volcanic eruptions ....................................................................
19.4 Historical trends about volcanoes ............................................................................
19.5 Forecasting volcanic eruptions ................................................................................
19.6 Volcano monitoring .................................................................................................
19.6.1 Volcano Warnings .........................................................................................
19.6.2 Volcano emergency plan ...............................................................................
19.7 Volcanic and seismic hazards on the island of Hawaii ..............................................
19.7.1 Hazard zones for lava flows ..........................................................................
19.8 Living with volcanic and seismic hazards ................................................................
19.9 Volcano exposure analysis .......................................................................................
20. MANMADE HAZARDS ...................................................................................... 297
20.1 A Brief outline on various Manmade Hazards ..........................................................
20.2.1 Air Pollution .................................................................................................
20.2.2 Land Pollution ..............................................................................................
20.2.3 Water Pollution ............................................................................................
20.2.4 Coastal Pollution ..........................................................................................
20.3 How Pollutants Attack the Body ..............................................................................
20.4 Natural Defences Against Pollutants ........................................................................
20.5 Laboratory Studies in Determining the Effects of Air Pollution .................................
20.6 Community Studies .................................................................................................
20.7 Pollution Due to Automobiles ..................................................................................
20.7.1 Pollution Due to Automobiles-Tables ............................................................
20.7.2 Preventive measures to stop and control vehicular pollution
20.7.3 Emission Sources .........................................................................................
20.8 Exhaust Pollutants ...................................................................................................
20.8.1 Hydro Carbons .............................................................................................
20.8.2 Carbon Monoxide (CO) ................................................................................
20.8.3 Main Sources of Carbon Monoxide ...............................................................
20.8.4 Threat to the Atmosphere due to CO .............................................................
20.8.5 General Effect of CO on Human beings ........................................................
20.8.6 Nitrogen Oxides ...........................................................................................
20.8.7 Carbon Dioxide ............................................................................................
 Cont ent s | xiii

20.9 Evaporative Emissions ............................................................................................

20.9.1 Control of Automobile Emissions .................................................................
20.9.2 Contribution of Emission Control of Air Quality ...........................................
20.10 Photo-Chemical Oxidants ........................................................................................
20.11 Recycling of Household Materials ...........................................................................
20.12 Pollution Due to Heavy Metals ................................................................................
20.12.1 Lead ...........................................................................................................
20.12.2 Mercury .....................................................................................................
20.12.3 Cadmium ....................................................................................................
20.12.4 Chromium ..................................................................................................
20.13 Heavy Metals as Sources to Waste ............................................................................
20.13.1 Lead .............................................................................................................
20.13.2 Mercury........................................................................................................
20.13.3 Cadmium ......................................................................................................
20.13.4 Chromium ....................................................................................................
20.14 Pollution Due to Tobacco Smoke ..............................................................................
20.15 Alcohol ....................................................................................................................
20.16 Ozone ......................................................................................................................
20.17 The Green house Effect ............................................................................................
20.17.1 The Green house Gases .................................................................................
20.17.2 Global Warming ...........................................................................................
20.17.3 Deforestation ................................................................................................
20.17.4 Acid Rain .....................................................................................................
20.17.5 Possibilities for Rearrangement of Earth’s Environment on a Large Scale .......
20.17.6 Geo engineering Studies for wider Applications .............................................
20.18 Industrial Hazards ....................................................................................................
20.19 Industry wise Analysis ..............................................................................................
20.20 Industrial Ecosystem ................................................................................................
20.21 Hazardous Wastes ....................................................................................................
20.22 Climate change due to Increased Global Pollution .....................................................
20.23 Nuclear Radiation ....................................................................................................
20.24 Nuclear work ............................................................................................................
20.25 The threat of biological and chemical weapons ..........................................................
Bibliography .......................................................................................................... 391

References .............................................................................................................. 397

Appendix ................................................................................................................ 401

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