Control for

Maarten Steinbuch
Dept. Mechanical Engineering
Control Systems Technology Group
TU/e

Control for Dummies 1

Motion Systems

F
m

Control for Dummies 2

1
1. Introduction
2. Timedomain tuning
3. Frequency domain & stability
4. Filters
5. Feedforward
6. Servo-oriented design of mechanical systems

Control for Dummies 3

2. Time Domain Tuning

Control for Dummies 4

2
 x

Disturbance F
Servo force ? d
F Mass
s M

Control for Dummies 5

Mechanical solution:

x
k
F Disturbance Fd
Mass
M
d

Force spring- damper: F = −k ⋅ x − d ⋅ x&

1 k
Eigenfrequ
ency: f=
2π M

Control for Dummies 6

3
Servo analogon:

F
servo Mass
M

Servo Force: Fs = −k p ⋅ x − kv ⋅ x&

1 kp k p : servo stiffness
Eigenfrequency: f =
2π M kv : servo damping

Control for Dummies 7

Example:
x

Disturbance F
d
F Mass
s M

Slide: mass = 5 kg
Required accuracy 10 µm at all times
Disturbance (f.e. friction) = 3 N

1. Required servo stiffness?

2. Eigenfrequency?

Control for Dummies 8

4
How to move to / follow a setpoint:

x
h or x
s

Spring- damper: F = k(h − x) + d (h& − x&)

Controller: Fs = k p (xs − x) + kv (x&s − x&)

Control for Dummies 9

x
xs
Fd

Fdisturbance

controller process
xs +
e d F x
+
k p + kv Mass
-
dt +
Fservo

Kp/kv-controller or PD-controller

Control for Dummies 10

5
 controller
xs
+ e x
kp = ? process
-
kv = ? Fservo

kp
⇒ error ⇔ stability
kv
Trade off

Control for Dummies 11

Concluding remarks time domain tuning

A control system, consisting of only a single mass m and a

kp/kv controller (as depicted below), is always stable.
kp will act as a spring; kv will act as a damper
As a result of this: when a control system is unstable, it
cannot be a pure single mass + kp/kv controller
(With positive parameters m, kp and kv)

x
xs
kp
M
kv

Control for Dummies 12

6
 Setpoints:
x
xs

What should xs look like as a function of time, when moving the mass?
(first order, second order, third order,….?)

Control for Dummies 13

x
Apply a force F (step profile):

F (t ) = M&x&(t ) F M

x(t) is second order, when F constant

Second order profile requires following information:

- maximum acceleration
- maximum velocity
- travel distance

Control for Dummies 14

7
 Example

Pos = 2π ≈ 6.3rad
Velmax = 20π ≈ 63rad / sec
Acc max = 500π ≈ 1.6e3rad / sec 2

Control for Dummies 15

3 Frequency domain

Time domain:
Monday and Thursday at 22:10

Frequency domain:
twice a week

Control for Dummies 16

8
 x

F M

Frequency Response Function H

amplitude (log)

x -2
|H| =
F

frequency (log)
phase
H
o
-180

Control for Dummies 17

going from Time-domain to the Frequency-domain

x excitation force in N and displacement in m
0.2
excitation force (offset 0.1 &scaling 1e-4)

0.15
F
M
0.1
weak spring M = 5 kg
(f = 2.5 Hz)
0.05

F (t ) = 400 sin(2π 7t ) 0

-0.05
response
-0.1

-0.15
H (7 Hz ) ≈ 0.045 / 400 = 1e − 4 m / N 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
time in sec
∠H (7 Hz ) ≈ −180 0

Control for Dummies 18

9
finding a solution of the equation of motion: x

••
F=M x F M
choose input:
∧
F = F sin(ωt )
then:
∧
∧
x = x sin(ωt + ϕ ) x = ?;ϕ = ?
solution:
∧

x(t ) = − F 2 sin(ωt ) + c1t + c2

Mω
x 1 ∧
H= =−
F Mω 2 H = x∧ = 1 2
F Mω
log( H ) = log 1 − 2 log ω ∠H = ϕ = −180°
M

Control for Dummies 19

measurement mechanics stage

amplitude in dB

-20

-40

-60

-80
2 3
10 10
frequency in Hz
phase in deg
200

-200 2 3
10 10

Control for Dummies 20

10
 Derivation of transfer function

1. make a model of the dynamics: differential equations

2. substitute s=d./dt

3. rearrange the equations and get the transfer function e.g. H(s)

4. for sinusoids make a ‘Bode’ plot using s=jω

Control for Dummies 21

Transfer function:

x( s) 1
H (s) = = 2
F ( s ) Ms + ds + k

F 1 x
Ms 2 + ds + k

Control for Dummies 22

11
 consider sinusoidal signals ('Euler notation'):

x (t ) = xˆ (cos ωt + j sin ωt ) = xˆe jωt

x& (t ) = ω xˆ ( − sin ω t + j cos ω t ) = jω xˆe jωt

apparently: s = jω for sinusoidal signals

Frequency Response Function:

s → jω
1
H ( jω ) =
− M ω 2 + jdω + k

Control for Dummies 23

e d F
k p + kv
dt

F = k p e + k v e&

F ( s) = ( k p + k v s) e ( s)

transfer function:

F
C ( s) = ( s) = ( k p + k v s)
e

frequency response:

C = k p + jk v ω

Control for Dummies 24

12
 Amplitude: C = k p2 + kv2ω 2

ω→0 ⇒ C → kp
∠C → 0°

ω→∞ ⇒ C → kvω
∠C → 90°

ω →∞ log (| C |) = log kv + log ω

break point:
log k p = log k v + log ω
kp
ω=
kv

Control for Dummies 25

Bode plot of the PD-controller:

kp = 1500 N/m; kv = 20 Ns/m

amplitude in dB
100

80
+1
+0
60 0 1 2
10 10 10
frequency in Hz
phase in deg
100

50

0 0 1 2
10 10 10

Control for Dummies 26

13
 Block manipulation

e x
C(s) H(s) x ( s)
= C ( s) H ( s)
e ( s)

C +1 H -2
1
kp M

kp frequency
kv

-2
CH
-1
frequency

Control for Dummies 27

xs + e x
C(s) H(s)
-

x CH
Hc = =
xs 1 + CH

Control for Dummies 28

14
Four important transfer functions Fd
xs + e + x
C(s) H(s)
1. open loop: - Fs+
Ho ( s) = C( s) H ( s)

2. closed loop:
x C (s) H (s)
H c (s) = (s) =
xs 1 + C (s) H (s)

3. sensitivity:
e 1
S ( s) = ( s) =
xs 1 + C ( s) H ( s)

4. process sensitivity:
x H ( s)
H ps ( s) = ( s) =
Fd 1 + C ( s ) H ( s)

Control for Dummies 29

Fd
xs + e + x
C(s) H(s)
- Fs+

Derivation of closed-loop transfer functions:

• start with the output variable of interest
• go back in the loop, against the signal flow
• write down the relations, using intermediate variables
• stop when arrived at the relevant input variable
• eliminate the intermediate variables

Control for Dummies 30

15
 amplitude in dB
closed loop
20

-20

-40
2 3
phase in deg 10 10
200

Experimental results:
-200 2 3
10 10
stage servo
amplitude in dB open loop
20

-20

-40
2 3
10 frequency in Hz 10
phase in deg
200

-200 2 3
10 10
Control for Dummies 31

bandwidth: 0 dB crossing open loop

(cross-over frequency)

Control for Dummies 32

16
 The Nyquist curve

amplitude in dB Bode plot Nyquist plot

50 1.5

0 1

-50
0.5
amplitude (appr 0.7)
-100 1 2
10 10
0
phase in deg frequency
0 phase (appr. -175 deg)
-0.5

-100
-1

-200 -1.5
1 2
10 10 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
frequency

Control for Dummies 33

Stability:
The open-loop FRF CH(jω) should have the (-1,0) point at left side
Nyquist plot
1.5
Im

0.5

Re
0

ω
ω
-0.5

-1

-1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

Control for Dummies 34

17
 4. Filters Mimo

•Integral action
•Differential action PeeDee
•Low-pass PeeEye
•High-pass
•Band-pass
•Notch (‘sper’) filter

Control for Dummies 35

Integral action :

1 Y(t)
X(t)
τis

τI integral time constant τI =1/ki

-1

0° ω=2πf

-90°
Control for Dummies 36

18
 Differential action
+1

u u
H = ks = ; s = jω; = kω ω
ε ε +90°

ε u 0°
ks

1
= ωd = 2πfd
ks u τd
“tamme” differentiator :=
ε τ d s +1 ω
+90°
0°

Control for Dummies 37

“lead” filter
u 1 + τ 1s 1 + τ d s
H= = = τ1
ε 1 + τ 2s 1 + τ d s γ ≈ 2−5
γ τ2

γ>1 1
1 ω c = ω1ω 2 =
τ 1τ 2
ω

+90°

0°
1 1
ω1 = ω2 =
τ1 τ2
Control for Dummies 38

19
   P+I+D
 
u  1  1 + τ d s 
H = = k 1 + 
ε  τ i s  1 + τ d s 
 γ 
 -1 +1

1 1
ωi = ωd =
τi τd ω
+90°

0°

-90°

Control for Dummies 39

2nd order filter H=

u
=
k
2
ε s s
2
+ 2β +1
ω1 ω1 ω 1 ω1
ε(t) u(t)
- s s

2β 1 Top: ωo = ω1 1 − β 2 .
2β
1

-2 ε
0°
-90 °
-180°
ω = ω1

Control for Dummies 40

20
 General 2nd order filters

2
General: ω1≠ω2  ω2 
 
 ω1 
s2 s
2
+ 2 β1 +1 +2
u ω 1 ω1
H= = 2 1
ε s s
+ 2β 2 +1
ω 22 ω2

+180°

0°

Control for Dummies 41

ω1 ≥ ω 2 +2

 ω 22  -2
 2
ω 
 1 

0°

-180°
ω2 ω1
Control for Dummies 42

21
 “Notch”-filter :ω1= ω2

ampl.
β1
β2

fase 0°

-180°
Control for Dummies 43

W.B.E.

Control for Dummies 44

22
 Loop shaping procedure

1. stabilize the plant:

add lead/lag with zero = bandwidth/3 and pole =
bandwidth*3, adjust gain to get stability; or add
a pure PD with break point at the bandwidth
2. add low-pass filter:
choose poles = bandwidth*6
3. add notch if necessary, or apply any other kind
of first or second order filter and shape the loop
4. add integral action:
choose zero = bandwidth/5
5. increase bandwidth:
increase gain and zero/poles of integral action,
lead/lag and other filters

during steps 2-5: check all relevant transfer

functions, and relate to disturbance spectrum

Control for Dummies 45

Implementation issues

1. sampling = delay: linear phase lag

for example: sampling at 4 kHz gives phase lag

due to Zero-Order-Hold of:

180º @ 4 kHz
18º @ 400 Hz
9º @ 200 Hz

2. Delay due to calculations

3. Quantization (sensors, digital representation)

Control for Dummies 46

23
 5 Feedforward design

Control for Dummies 47

Why feedforward?

• Consider the simple motion system

1

F
m
Setpoint x s

x
0
0 t [s] 1.8

• Control problem: track setpoint xs

• Is this possible with a PD-controller?

Control for Dummies 48

24
 Analysis (IV)
-3
x 10
2

m = 5 [kg]
1.5
K v= 260 [Ns/m]
1

K p= 6500 [N/m]
error [m]

0.5

-0.5 K p= 65000 [N/m]

-1

-1.5

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

t [s]

Control for Dummies 49

Feedforward based on inverse model

ms 2

xs 1 x
K p + Kv s
ms 2

Control for Dummies 50

25
Example: m=5 [kg], b=1 [Ns/m], 2nd degree setpoint
1

xs [m] 0.5

1.5
vs [ms-1]

0.5

4
as [ms-2]

-2

-4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
t [s]

Control for Dummies 51

Example: tracking error, no feedforward

-3
x 10
2

1.5

1 viscous damping effect

0.5
error [m]

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
t [s]

Control for Dummies 52

26
 Example: tracking error, with feedforward
-3
x 10
2

1.5 K fv= 0.9, K fa= 0

1

0.5
K fv= 0.9, K fa= 4.5
error [m]

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
t [s]

Control for Dummies 53

feedforward structure

sign( x& s )
K fc

x&&s
K fa

x& s
K fv

xs x
C(s) H(s)

Control for Dummies 54

27
 3rd degree setpoint trajectory
1.5

xs [m]
1

0.5

1
vs [ms-1]

0.5

4
as [ms-2]

-2

-4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
t [s]

Control for Dummies 55

6. Servo-oriented design of
mechanical systems

Control for Dummies 56

28
Example of measurement:
mechanical system (force to position)

modelling understanding the dynamical

behaviour
Control for Dummies 57

Three Types of Dynamic Effects

- Actuator flexibility

- Guidance flexibility

- Limited mass and stiffness of frame

Control for Dummies 58

29
1. Actuator flexibility

k
F
s Motor Sensor
d

Control for Dummies 59

2. Guidance flexibility

F M,
s J
k

Control for Dummies 60

30
3. Limited mass and stiffness of frame

F
s
Motor

Frame

Control for Dummies 61

M1 M2

Positioning the load M2 (while using x1 for feedback):

Rule of thumb:
Optimal bandwidth with 0 dB crossing of open loop between the
antiresonance and resonance frequency of the mechanical system.

Control for Dummies 62

31
Concluding Remarks

• bit of control into mechanical design

• bit of mechanics into control design
• same language (‘mechatronics’)

Control for Dummies 63

32