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    psychology

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    10 views32 pages

    KIC Document 0001 1

    Uploaded by

    Wawire Wycliffe
    psychology

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 32
    ———=——— ll lhl 50 Chapter2 drinking wine makes people ke jaz me aire jazzor to another room in. which they will — the “water room” is windowless, dark, and ‘dingy. The most serious flaw in this a. is low in extemal validity bis low in intemal validity or bid not randomly select he partisipans om all sollege students in the country. 4. is low in psychological realism dk. Mary wants to find out whether eating sugary sacks befegean exam leads to better performance onthe cxam. Which ofthe following strategies would an- ‘swer her question most conclusively? ‘a Identify a large number of students who perform exceptionally low and exceptionally high in exams, Sak them whether they eat sugary shacks before ‘xams, and see whether high performers eat more sugary snacks before exams than do low performers bb. Wait for exam time in a big class, ask everyone whether they ate sugary snacks before the exam land see whether those who ate sugary snacks before the exam do better compared to those who didn’t ce Wait for exam time ina big class, give a random half ofthe students M&Ms before the exam, and see whether the students who ate M&Ms perform better. 4. Pick a big class give all students sugary snacks before one exam and salty snacks before the next exam; then see whether students score ower on average in the second exam. 6. A researcher conducts a study with participants who are college students. The researcher then repeats the study using the same procedures but with members of the general population (ie, adults) as participants. ‘The results are similar for both samples. The research. has established. through ‘a. extemal validity, replication b. intemal validity, replication . extemal validity, psychological realism 4. internal validity, psychological realism 6. Professor X wants to make su hissy of ied pours lage noe Walle Pei To dings coll hve en by eg other than the independent variable, which was. : method he introduced. He's concen new teachin ment. a, PS eh a. probability level pb. external validity «. replication ,_ internal validity 1. suppose a psychologist decides tojoin loca com- Sapo understand and observe its members’ said relationships. This is a. cross-cultural research, b. applied research. ce. anexperiment. 4. ethnography. 9, Thebasic dilemma of the social psychologists ha a. itishard to teach social psychology to students because most people believe strongly in personaly bb there isa trade-off between internal and extemal validity in most experiments. isnearly impossible to use a ranciom selectional the population in laboratory expe: ments, i almost all social behavior is influenced by the ccalture in which people grew 1 9. Which ofthe following is true about new frontiersit social psychological research? a. Social psychologists are intereste in the role of culture but not in evolutionary processes. b. Social psychologists are interested in evolutional processes but not the role of cul Socal psychologists use functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) to corres diferent Kn of brain activity with social information processing 4. The purpose of cross-cultural research is toshow thatall socal psychological findinss are univer with no cultural variations. 40. Allof the following except one are part of the guide lines fo ethical esearch. Which is 4. Allreserch is reviewed by an IR’ institutions review board) that consists of at least cne sie one nonscentstand one person unaffiliated wim the institution b. Aresearcher receives informed consent from’ participant unless deception is deemed news and the experiment meets ethical guidelines. When deception is used in a study, participan® must be fully debriefed. 4. There must be a cover story for every study because all stuies involve some type of dee" —— Chapter 3 Social Cognition How We Think About the Social World Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking Mental Strategies and Shortev LO3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages ; Bouin severe ae Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 10.3.3. Analyze how culture influences social thinking. ts: Automatic Thinking Controlled Social Cognition: High-Fffort Thinking, LO 3.4. Describe drawbacks to controlled thinking nd ways to improve its effectiveness. { Free Will Counterfactual Reas Types of Automatic Thinking LO 3.2 Describe the types of automatic thinking, 52. Chapter Social Cognition How people think about them- selves and the social world; more ‘specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judg: ments and decisions Rodin’s famous sculpture, The Thinker, mimics controled thinking, where people sit own and Consider something slowly and. deliberately. Even when we do not now it however, we are engaging, in automatic thinking, which js nonconscious, unintentional involuntary, and effortiess. ae eT WHAT DO YOU THINK? penne and SURVEY RESULTS. core feeling about how accurate it was? ave you ver rea your hrescope arias an ot feeling ab . 0 Yes ON te was an epic match on Jeopardy, the television aU show on which contestants are nd have to provide the correct question, Two ofthe three contestants roe falltime, namely Ken Jennings, who held the record for 74 consecutive games), and Brad Rutter, who given an answ ‘were among the best play’ the longest winning steak on the show ( dae all ime money winnet. What about the third contestant? Who would dare wa frie or her wits against these formidable opponents? ‘Actually, it wasn’t a "he" ar she,” but an “it”: supercomputer named Watson, developed by IBM and named after that company’s founder, Thomas J. Watsor. “The match was dose at fist, but by the third and last day Watson he built an Ineurnountable lead; Tne afer time, the superoumputer gave correct response wife cos. Ken Jennings, who described himself s "the Great Carbon Hope king machines,” conceded defeat by writing on his against a new generation of thin aan,“ for one, weleome our new computer overlords,” paraphrasing aie from an episode of Te Simpsons (Jennings, 2011; Markoft, 2011) vhs var no the first mean IBM computer had outwited human beings. In 1997 cary Kasparov, the reigning chess champion ofthe world, resigned in the sixth and leche yame against an TBM computer named Big Blue Should we all feel» litle es smart ke the commentator who remarked, after Big Blue defeated Gary Kasparow tht he felt “a twinge of IQ loss and an increase in hairiness” (Dunn, 1997) ‘Well, computers are getting smarter and smarter i's probably only a matte of time before they are driving our cars, cooking Our meal, and serving us atrestaurants (Rao, 2016). But they hove along way to go before they can match the human brain in recognizing and understanding the complexity of human behavior. Per}aps com puters will get there, as in the futuristic movie Ex Mache and the television drama Westworld, in which computers become *» sophis ticated that they have minds of their own and understans! human ‘beings astutely—so much so that people fallin Jove with them. But as for now, the human brain far outperforms the fastest computer in atleast one critical task: understanding other people. ‘The human brain has evolved to be a powerful, finely tures! instr rent for thinking about other people (Liebeman, 2013). More generally people are extremely good at social cognition, which, as we saw i Chapter 1, refers to the ways in which people think about themsel¥€s and the social world, including how they select, interpret and use socal information. Although no computer can match us in this kind of thinking, that’s not to say we are perfect social thinkers. Social psychologists have uncovered some fascinating mistakes to which we me pee, epi uno conve abies In this chaptes, We wills bo the pve aii of soci cogrition weno ulentand how people think about ther social wor ds and pecan oa ie mars a pee beaten distin guish between two different kinds of social cognition: automatic sus controlled thinking, Let's take a look at automatic thinkin; nembet, first Secial Cognition: How We Think About the Social Word 5S On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking Loot Explain the advantages and disadvantages of schemas. people are good at sizing up a new situation quickly and aocurately. They SEN out People ghere what is happening and what might happen next. When you atendid class, for example, you probably made quick assumptions about who your first coll Jeople were (the person standing at the lectern was the professor) and how to be- have. W reached these conclusions without even being aware that you were doing So “abt that you confused the class with a fraternity party. And you probably Imagine a different approach: Every time you encounter a new situation, 4o¥ stop and think about it slowly and deliberately, ike Rodin’s statue The Thinker. When you are in x, 2008) 50, you would be using the representativeness heuristic, which is 2 ™e ntal & Frederick, 2002; Kahneman & Tversky, 1973; Lien, & Yuan, 2015). thing to do. If we did not use the representativeness heuristic ee would we decide attempt to judge his similarity to our conception of students from New York Stale Vo out-of state students? Act tere is anather source of information we might Suppose yo! pu meet as y mellow, and Brian matches ‘ome state short case—such 2016; Kahnens® Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social Word 67 wwe knew nothing about Brian, it would be wise to guess that he was from New York ate students. If we Shee becouse at state universities there are more in-state than out freed New York State we Would be using what called base rte information, infor eon about the relative frequency of members of cferent categories in the popution top, the percentage of students at New York state universities who ae frm New York). ‘what do people do when they have both base rate information (@.~ Knowing that there are more New Yorkers than Californians at a university) and contradictory trsemation about the person in question (eg, knowing that Brian is blond and mel tiv and likes to hang out at the beach)? Kahneman and Tversky (1973) found that people do not use base rate information sufficiently, paying most attention to how Pepresentalive the information about the specific person is of the general category {eq Californians). Although this isnot a bad strategy ifthe information about the vy reliable, itcan get us into trouble when the information is flimsy. Given a ey eo Calforians atfending state universities n New Yorks low, you ipa id need to have very good evidence that this person is a Californian before ignor the bese rote and guessing that he is one ofthe few exceptions, And given that itis, ire pt ncal to Find people from eastern states who have blond hat, arelaic-back, vd like to goto the beach, you would be wise to use the base rate inthis instance Ve-cor ' meen to imply that people totally ignore base rate information (Koehler, to93, 1996, Obrecht & Chesney, 2016) Baseball managers consider the overall Ike Thaod of leithanded batters getting a hit off of left-handed pitchers when deciding ano to send up ag.a pinch hitter, and birdwatchers consider the prevalence of dif ferent species of birds in their area when identifying individual birds ("That probably ser bay-breasted warbler, because they've never been seen in this area”). The point is thot people often focus fo0 much on individual characteristics cof what they re peve (“But that bird did seem to havea chestnut-colored throat; hmm. maybe it Was aabay-breasted warbler”) and too little on the base rates. Trost history forexample, people have assumed thatthe cure fora disease must resemble. b sepresentative ofthe symptoms of the disease, even when this wast the one fre eating the lungs ofa f0x was thought to be a cure for asthma, Destuse fence have a strong respiratory system (Mill, 1843). Such a reliance on represenia Y= may even impede the discovery ofthe actual cause ofa disease, Around the turn of the eet century, an editorial in a Washinglon newspaper denounced the foolhardy we eee at to researc far-fetched ideas about the causes of yellow fever, such 2s the speurd contention of one Walter Reed that yellow fever was caused by, ofall things = me gut (whi of course, turn out tobe the cause; Nisbet & Ross 1990) How do heutis- vesnfluence your thinking? Take the quiz inthe following Try It to find out .SENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC PERSONALITY TESTS AND THE REPRE: ssuch as one of the many that are available Suppose you took a personality test, online, and received the following feedback: ‘You have a need for other people to ke and admire you, and yet ou tend vical of yourself. While you have some personality weaknesses Yo unused ‘erally able to compensate for them. You have considerable ity that you have not turned to your advantage Disciplined and self Fane yon gulcide, you tend to be worrisome and insecure on the a ae have serious doubts as to whether you have made the fer a certain amount of change ing, You pre red when hemmed in by restrictions and rand do not if as an independent thinker found it right decision or done the right thi and variety and become dissatisfis limitations, You also pride yourse aa ete g satemenrs without satisfactory proce Ba YOu TAY— aaa pe Gas asin ravealine Youmeeio Oeics sera extro- Verted, affable, and sociable, while at other times You are introverted, wary, ghd reserved. Some of your aspirations tend to be rat! is one of your major goals in life. fher unrealistic. Security Base Rate Information Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population 68 Chapter’ Try It! Reasoning Quiz ‘Answer each ofthe folowing avestons eee 4. Consider the letter rin the Engl teas the fitter of words (9 ten as het tr of wards (6, POW? Be ums Ya ART SN this letter occurs n rope) rm ‘8. More often as the fist letter b. More often asthe third letter ‘e. About equally often as the first and asthe thir lettr oii laipeee 22 nich of these do you think cause more fatalities the Se aa ao ee Ss nos 8 561 ME ¥OH WODY FOUN 9g pe oo pa fl On RU SOLE re J language. Do you tink sero = fom 9 a rersen ea ony 0 couse OF 2 8 1 9a ag ft Fs pve! HADI UO 620 ceca ro sia 00 0, AUS ao x ar039 2) OOO pov 60g 0% on onan aoa Re POR yr coed fu nO “pevaqe not 78 0 United States? : a. Accidents ec encore 20018 5 V0 205 2 ear rege mon ep at 0) LLIN Lp ee ie orpautsaes ous oo mr ¢. Accidents and strokes in approximately equal et a ony SeeUUOEUE 2 UO tl numbers Gyan ynde 0m, WEP 00 natn $3. Suppose you fipped afer coin sx times, Wich sequence Ce tenn marta ig mere likly to occur: HTTHTH or HHT? (= heads ae ge 02 COEF pe T= tals)? sot os s189p 1 ptina 9. HITHTH is mere ly pac fin 1 0886190) 6000 08 PU va oa en 9 HHHTTT is more tke ss ae ARP > AEE e494 Bee woe ys oped cp 18480 oe 4 dor noping can ad obsering cogs TTT ee Te ee a ree bea tr oowoea oro ase ae aiimoies ae) oon ncn 308 pereets “Wow,” you might think. “This test is amazing: it is uncanny low well tap tured who Lam.” Ifso, you are not alone. Bertram Forer (1949) feedback) a group of students and asked them to rate haw well it described «vem, on ase from 0 = very poor to5= excellent. The average rating was 4.26—a phenomenon tt has come to be known asthe "Barnum effect” after the circus owner and showman PT. Barnum Why do most people believe that this personality description «iescribes hen so well? One culprit is the representativeness heuristic: The statements are ¥a8t enough that virtually everyone can find a past beh. ny find a past behavior that is si-ilar to EP sentative of the feedback. Consider the sateen, "At times You have #8 doubts as to whether you have made the right decision or done the right iN” Es cof us can think of times this was true of us—that is, of examples that are "=?" sentir of iste ‘Who hasn't second-guessed themselves about an Portant deison, suchas where togo to college or what major to choose 2 Similar us can think of times when we were independent thinkers rnd times whe? we revealed too much about ourselves, The reason the feedback seems to descr 4s 50 well that we do not go mind and think go Beyond the repre: int ae this way.” a sentative examples ‘Actually ne “Actually, there are just as many tes when I cid’t fe! ora ba iy of magazine quizzes and horoscopes that give back, which could apply to just about anyone pes that § seneric feet ——— Zt ‘Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World 69 Review Questions 4. Which of the folowing s the best summary of research on ‘automatic goal pursuit? ‘eople can only salact which goals to work toward sing controlled thinking 'b. People offen pursue goals that have been recently without realizing that that is why they are pur the goal often pursue goals that have been recently ‘but only if they are consciously aware that the goal has been primed. ie never choose their goals consciously; they only automatically primed goals. 2. su ou have invited a new acquaintance over to apeviment end want to make a good impression in you want this person to lke you. Wich of the ‘should you do? fa. conve the person a warm drink and hope that he or she in their hands while you are taking to him or her b, conve the person @ cold drink and hope that he or she in their hands while you are talking to him or her. e ome bread before the person comes over 80 2 apartment smeli nice. 4 ve person a snack on a very heavy plate Over Thanksgiving break, your parents ask you if you ‘can think of 12 reasons why your colege is better than its arch rival. You find it hard to come up with mary, reasons and end up thinking, “Hmm, maybe the ‘schools aren't all that different.” Which of the folowing mental strategies cid you probably use to reach this 1. Tho representativeness heuristic b. Base rate information (G, The anchoring and adjustment heuristic <. The avallablity heuristic According fo research in socal psychology, why do. many people belive that the horoscopes are accurate descriptions of who they are and what is tkely to happen totham? ‘a. Horoscopes are written in a vague way so that ‘most people view them as representative of theit personales and past behaviors. b. Horoscopes trigger automatic decision making, «¢, People find it eificult to bring to mind examples that are similar to the horoscope. dd. Horoscopes automatically prime people's life goals. Cultural Differences in Social Cognition L083 Analyze how culture influences social thinking, itmay have occured to you to wonder whether the kinds of automatic hinking we ave heendlccussing are present inall people thoughout the world, or whether ey a AY aes altures than in others. Iso, you aein good company: Socal ps)

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