Earth electrode resistance

When you find that your earth electrode resistance is not low enough, there are several ways you can
improve it:

3 good ways to improve earth electrode resistance (photo credit: cubis-systems.com)

1. Lengthen the earth electrode in the earth

2. Use multiple rods
3. Treat the soil

1. Effect of Rod Size

As you might suspect, driving a longer rod deeper into the earth, materially decreases its resistance. In
general, doubling the rod length reduces resistance by about 40 percent. The curve of Figure 1 shows this
effect. For example, note that a rod driven 2 ft down has a resistance of 88 Ω.

The same rod driven 4 ft down has a resistance of about 50 Ω. Using the 40 percent reduction rule, 88 × 0.4
= 35 Ω reduction.

By this calculation, a 4-ft deep rod would have a resistance of 88 – 35 or 53 Ω —

comparing closely with the curve values.

 Figure 1 – Earth resistance decreases with depth of electrode in earth
You might also think that increasing the electrode diameter would lower the resistance. It does, but only a
little. For the same depth, doubling the rod’s diameter reduces the resistance only about 10 percent. Figure 2
shows this relationship.

For example, a 10-ft deep rod, 5/8 in. in diameter, has a resistance of 6.33 Ω. Increasing its diameter
to 1-1/4 in. lowers the resistance o to 5.6 Ω.

For this reason, you normally only consider increasing the rod diameter if you have to drive it into hard
terrain.

Figure 2 – Diameter of a rod has little effect on its earth resistance Curve A, from Ref. 19 Curve B, average
of Underwriters Laboratories tests at Chicago Curve C, average of Underwriters Laboratories tests at
Pittsbur

2. Use of Multiple Rods

Two well-spaced rods driven into the earth provide parallel paths. They are, in effect, two resistances in
parallel. The rule for two resistances in parallel does not apply exactly. That is, the resultant resistance is not
one-half the individual rod resistances (assuming they are of the same size and depth).

Actually, the reduction for two equal resistance rods is about 40 percent. If three rods

are used, the reduction is 60 percent, if four, 66 percent (see Figure 3).

Figure 3 – Average results obtained from multiple-rod earth electrodes

Figure 4 – Comparative resistance of multiple-rod earth electrodes. Single rod equals 100%
When you use multiple rods, they must be spaced apart further than the length of their immersion.
There are theoretical reasons for this, but you need only refer to curves such as Figure 4 above.

For example, if you have two rods in parallel and 10-ft spacing, resistance is lowered about 40 percent.
If the spacing is increased to 20 percent, reduction is about 50 percent.

Go back to ways to improve earth electrode resistance ↑

3. Treatment of the Soil

Chemical treatment of soil is a good way to improve earth electrode resistance when you cannot drive
deeper ground rods because of hard underlying rock, for example. It is beyond the scope of this manual to
recommend the best treatment chemicals for all situations. You have to consider the possible corrosive
effect on the electrode as well as EPA and local environmental regulations.

Magnesium sulfate, copper sulfate, and ordinary rock salt are suitable non-corrosive materials. Magnesium
sulfate is the least corrosive, but rock salt is cheaper and does the job if applied in a trench dug around the
electrode (see Figure 5).
Figure 5 – Trench method of soil treatment
It should be noted that soluble sulfates attack concrete, and should be kept away from building
foundations. Another popular approach is to backfill around the electrode with a specialized conductive
concrete. A number of these products, like bentonite, are available on the market.

NOTE! Chemical treatment is not a permanent way to improve your earth electrode resistance.

The chemicals are gradually washed away by rainfall and natural drainage through the soil. Depending upon
the porosity of the soil and the amount of rainfall, the period for replacement varies. It may be several years
before another treatment is required.

Earth electrode
Chemical treatment also has the advantage of reducing the seasonable variation on resistance that results
from periodical wetting and drying out of the soil. (See curves of Figure 6 below)

However, you should only consider this method when deep or multiple electrodes are not practical.

Transformer Oil: Testing, Types & Properties

What is Transformer Oil?

Transformer oil (also known as insulating oil) is a special type of oil which has excellent electrical insulating
properties and is stable at high temperatures. Transformer oil is used in oil-filled electrical power transformers to
insulate, stop arcing and corona discharge, and to dissipate the heat of the transformer (i.e. act as a coolant).

Transformer oil is also used to preserve the transformer’s core and windings – as these are fully immersed inside
the oil. Another important property of the insulating oil is its ability to prevent oxidation of the cellulose-made
paper insulation. The transformer oil acts as a barrier between the atmospheric oxygen and the cellulose – avoiding
direct contact and hence minimizing oxidation. The level of transformer oil is typically measured using a MOG
(Magnetic Oil level Guage).

Transformer Oil Types

There are two main types of transformer oil used in transformers:

1. Paraffin based transformer oil

2. Naphtha based transformer oil

Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than paraffin oil. But the product of oxidation – i.e. sludge – in the naphtha oil
is more soluble than the sludge from the paraffin oil. Thus sludge of naphtha-based oil is not precipitated in the
bottom of the transformer. Hence it does not obstruct convection circulation of the oil, means it does not disturb
the transformer cooling system.Although Paraffin oil has a lower oxidation rate than Naphtha oil, the oxidation
product (sludge) is insoluble and precipitated at the bottom of the tank. This sludge acts as an obstruction to the
transformer cooling system.

Another problem with paraffin-based oil that the dissolved waxes inside of it can lead to a high pour point.
Although this is not an issue in warmer climate conditions (such as India).

Despite the disadvantages mentioned above, paraffin-based oil is still commonly used in many countries (such as
India) due to its high availability.

Transformer Oil Properties

Some specific properties of insulating oil should be considered to determine the serviceability of the oil.

The properties (or parameters) of transformer oil are:

1. Electrical properties: Dielectric strength, specific resistance, dielectric dissipation factor.

2. Chemical properties: Water content, acidity, sludge content.
3. Physical properties: Interfacial tension, viscosity, flash point, pour point.

Electrical Properties of Transformer Oil

Dielectric Strength of Transformer Oil

The dielectric strength of transformer oil is also known as the breakdown voltage (BDV) of transformer oil.
Breakdown voltage is measured by observing at what voltage, sparking strands between two electrodes immersed
in the oil, separated by a specific gap. A low value of BDV indicates presence of moisture content and conducting
substances in the oil.

For measuring BDV of transformer oil, portable BDV measuring kit is generally available at site. In this kit, oil is
kept in a pot in which one pair of electrodes are fixed with a gap of 2.5 mm (in some kit it 4mm) between them.
Now slowly rising voltage is applied between the electrodes. The rate of rising voltage is controlled at 2 KV/s and
observe the voltage at which sparking starts between the electrodes. That means at which voltage dielectric
strength of transformer oil between the electrodes has been broken down.

This measurement is taken 3 to 6 times in the same sample of oil, and we take the average value of these readings.
BDV is an important and popular test of transformer oil, as it is the primary indicator of the health of oil and it can
be easily carried out at the site.

Dry and clean oil gives BDV results, better than the oil with moisture content and other conducting impurities.
Minimum breakdown voltage of transformer oil or dielectric strength of transformer oil at which this oil can
safely be used in transformer, is considered as 30 KV.

Specific Resistance of Transformer Oil

This is another important property of transformer oil. The specific resistance of oil is a measure of DC resistance
between two opposite sides of one cm3 block of oil. Its unit is ohm-cm at a specific temperature. With increase in
temperature the resistivity of oil decreases rapidly.

Just after charging a transformer after long shut down, the temperature of the oil will be at ambient temperature
and during full load, the temperature will be very high and may go up to 90oC at an overload condition. So
resistivity of the insulating oil must be high at room temperature and also it should have good value at high
temperature as well.
That is why specific resistance or resistivity of transformer oil should get measured at 27oC as well as 90oC.

Minimum standard specific resistance of transformer oil at 90oC is 35 × 1012 ohm–cm and at 27oC it is 1500 ×
1012 ohm–cm.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor of Tan Delta of Transformer Oil

Dielectric dissipation factor is also known as loss factor or tan delta of transformer oil. When a insulating
materials is placed between live part and grounded part of an electrical equipment, leakage current will flow. As an
insulating material is dielectric in nature the current through the insulation ideally leads the voltage by 90o. Here
voltage means the instantaneous voltage between live part and ground of the equipment. But in reality, no
insulating materials are perfect dielectric in nature.
Hence current through the insulator will lead the voltage with an angle little bit shorter than 90o. Tangent of the
angle by which it is short of 90o is called dielectric dissipation factor or simply tan delta of transformer oil.
More plainly, the leakage current through insulation does have two component one capacitive or reactive, and
another one is resistive or active. Again it is clear from the above diagram, the value of ′δ′ which is also known as
loss angle.

If the loss angle is small, then the resistive component of the current IR is small which indicates a high resistive
property of the insulating material. High resistive insulation is a good insulator. Hence it is desirable to have loss
angle as small as possible. So we should try to keep the value of tanδ as small as possible. The high value of this
tanδ is an indication of the presence of contaminants in transformer oil.

Hence there is a clear relationship between tanδ and resistivity of insulating oil. If the resistivity of the insulating
oil gets decreased, the value of tan-delta increases and vice verse. So both resistivity test and tan delta test of
transformer oil are generally not required for the same piece of the insulator or insulating oil.

In one sentence it can be said that tanδ is a measure of the imperfection of dielectric nature of insulation materials
like oil.

Chemical Properties of Transformer Oil

Water Content in Transformer Oil

Moisture or water content in transformer oil is highly undesirable as it affects the dielectric properties of the oil
adversely. The water content in oil also affects the paper insulation of the core and winding of a transformer. Paper
is highly hygroscopic. Paper absorbs the maximum amount of water from oil which affects paper insulation
property as well as reduced its life. But in a loaded transformer, oil becomes hotter, hence the solubility of water in
oil increases.

As a result, the paper releases water and increase the water content in transformer oil. Thus the temperature of
the oil at the time of taking a sample for the test is critical. During oxidation, acids get formed in the oil the acids
give rise to the solubility of water in the oil. Acid coupled with water further decompose the oil forming more acid
and water. This rate of degradation of oil increases. We measure the water content in oil as ppm (parts per million
unit).

The water content in oil is allowed up to 50 ppm as recommended by IS–335(1993). The accurate measurement of
water content at such low levels requires very sophisticated instrument like Coulometric Karl Fisher Titrator.

Acidity of Transformer Oil

Acidic transformer oil is a harmful property. If oil becomes acidic, the water content in the oil becomes more
soluble in the oil. The acidity of oil deteriorates the insulation property of paper insulation of winding. Acidity
accelerates the oxidation process in the oil. Acid also includes rusting of iron in the presence of moisture.

The acidity test of transformer oil can be used to measure the acidic constituents of contaminants. We express the
acidity of oil in mg of KOH required to neutralize the acid present in a gram of oil. This is also known as
neutralization number.

Physical Properties of Transformer Oil

Inter Facial Tension of Transformer Oil

Interfacial tension between the water and oil interface is the way to measure the attractive molecular force between
water and oil. in Dyne/cm or milli-Newton/meter. Interfacial tension is exactly useful for determining the presence
of polar contaminants and oil decay products. Good new oil generally exhibits high interfacial tension. Oil
oxidation contaminants lower the IFT.

Flash Point of Transformer Oil

Flash point of transformer oil is the temperature at which oil gives enough vapors to produce a flammable
mixture with air. This mixture gives momentary flash on the application of flame under standard condition.
Flashpoint is important because it specifies the chances of fire hazard in the transformer. So it is desirable to have
a very high flash point of transformer oil. In general it is more than 140o(>10o).

Pour Point of Transformer Oil

It is the minimum temperature at which oil starts to flow under standard test condition. Pour point of transformer
oil is a valuable property mainly at the places where the climate is icy. If the oil temperature falls below the pour
point, transformer oil stops convection flowing and obstruct cooling in a transformer. Paraffin-based oil has a
higher value of pour point, compared to Naphtha based oil, but in India like country, it does not affect the use of
Paraffin oil due to its warm climate condition. Pour Point of transformer oil mainly depends upon wax content in
the oil. As Paraffin-based oil has more wax content, it has higher pour point.

Viscosity of Transformer Oil

In few words, the viscosity of transformer oil can be said that viscosity is the resistance of flow, in normal
condition. Resistance to flow of transformer oil means obstruction of convection circulation of oil inside the
transformer. Good oil should have a low viscosity so that it offers less resistance to the conventional flow of oil
thereby not affecting the cooling of a transformer. Low viscosity of transformer oil is essential, but it is equally
important that the viscosity of oil should increase as less as possible with a decrease in temperature. Every liquid
becomes more viscous if the temperature decreases.

Transformer Oil Testing

Transformer oil needs to be tested to ensure that it works for today’s standards. Testing standards and procedures
are defined by various international standards, and most of them are set by the ASTM.

Oil testing consists of measuring the breakdown voltage, and other chemical and physical properties of the oil,
either through portable test equipment or in a laboratory. Through proper testing, the transformer’s lifespan is
increased, reducing the need to pay for replacement.

What Factors Are Tested

Here are the most common things to look for when performing a transformer oil test:

 Standard Specification for Mineral Insulating Oil Used in Electrical Apparatus (ASTM D3487)
 Acid number (ASTM D664)
 Dielectric breakdown voltage (ASTM D877)
  Liquid power factor (ASTM D924-08)
 Interfacial tension (ASTM D971)
 Specific resistance (ASTM D1169)
 Corrosive sulfur (ASTM D1275)
 Visual examination (ASTM D1524)

Note: ASTM stands for the American Society for Testing and Materials.

These tests will help determine if the oils are clean and will create a baseline of properties that need to be tested
periodically. Although there are a large number of tests that are available, they are expensive. So it’s best to use
them as diagnostics if an issue occurs during primary testing.

The recommended frequency is dependant on the power and the voltage. If the results from the test are showing
some red flags, the frequency will have to increase. Even if the cost of testing is high, the expense should be
compared to the cost of replacing a transformer and the downtime associated with losing the transformer.

It’s important to understand the difference between excessive and normal gassing rates. The amount of dissolved
gas in transformer oil can be found using a dissolved gas analysis (DGA) test. The gassing rate will vary based on
the loading, insulation material, and transformer design.

Common Problems When Testing

The table below shows the most common issues that can occur when testing transformer oil:

Fault Key Gas Results

Corona Low energy discharges create methane and hydrogen and smaller quantities of
Hydrogen
discharge ethylene and ethane.

Large amounts of hydrogen or acetylene or minor quantities of ethylene and

Arcing Acetylene
methane can be produced.

Overheated Carbon
If cellulose is overheated, then it will produce carbon monoxide
Cellulose Monoxide

Overheating oil will produce methane and ethylene (300 degrees F) or methane
Overheated Methane and
and hydrogen (1,112 degrees F). Traces of acetylene might be created if the unit
Oil Ethylene
has electrical contacts or if the problem is severe.

Why is Transformer Oil Testing Important

Transformer oil testing is important to:

 Determine essential electrical properties of transformer oil

 Identify if a certain oil is suitable for future use
 Detect whether regeneration or filtration is needed
 Reduce oil costs and enhance component life
 Prevent untimely failures and maximize safety

Keep in mind, and transformer oils can last for up to 30 years. So taking the proper testing procedures now will
save you thousands of dollars in the long run.

Dielectric Strength Test of Transformer Oil

Leave a Comment / Transformer / By Ajay Sharma
The transformer oil or insulating oil is used in transformers as well as some electrical equipment to:
 insulate the live parts,
 maintain insulating properties of the material such as paper, winding, etc. used in the machine,
 protect the machine parts from rust and corrosion,
 increase the heat dissipation of the machine by convection.
This oil should be clean, free from moisture and other harmful contaminants and possess the following
characteristics:

Dielectric strength (one minute)- 40 KV (RMS) with a 4 mm gap.

Viscosity at 27oC in centistokes-max.– 27
Pour point-max. – minus 10oC.
Flash point-min. – 145oC.

Specific gravity – 0.85 to 0.88

Acidity at 27oC max. 0.05 mg KOH/g
Sludge value (using n-heptane)% by weight-max. – 1.2

Dielectric Strength Test of Transformer Oil

Oil stored in drums does not retain its original dielectric strength and should be tested and treated before use in
electrical equipment. The following tests can be adopted before using the insulating oil.

The oil test in which spark occurs and the testing set trips is known as dielectric strength test of transformer oil.
This test is performed in the oil testing set. Suitable oil testing sets, stationary as well as portable, are available for
testing the oil under the specified conditions. A sample of the oil is drawn from the transformer and tested in the
oil testing set. A lower than 30 KV dielectric strength for a 4 mm gap of electrodes would indicate the presence
of moisture in the oil.

The recommended size of the glass test cell is 55 x 90 x 100 mm. The diameter of spheres or test electrode has
been specified as 12.7 mm and air-gap between the spheres as 4 mm. the quantity of test sample should be drawn
from the bottom of a drum, transformer, or other apparatus. The oil in the test cell shall be at least 40 mm above
the electrodes and it should be allowed to stand for 20 minutes before performing the test to let air bubble escape.

Dielectric Strength Test of Transformer Oil – Procedure

The actual testing is done as follows:

The gap of the electrodes is first checked with a gauge. The cup is then filled with sample oil to be tested. The cup
top is covered with a clean glass plate. Supply is switched on and the voltage is raised gradually by the Variac.
A stage comes when the final breakdown oil takes place and the circuit breaker is tripped which disconnects the
testing set from the mains supply. This value is noted down which must be 30 KV (RMS) for 4mm gap and 20 KV
(RMS) for 2.5 mm gap. The test is performed with two or three consecutive samples of oil turn by turn.

In the dielectric strength test of transformer oil, the test voltage should be raised to the specified value (or the
breakdown voltage if it is less) at a uniform rate in 10-15 seconds and maintain for a one minute. Preliminary
arcing should be ignored. The breakdown voltage is that voltage at which sustained arcing takes place. Test
voltage should not be raised beyond 55 KV as flashover through the air may take place.

The need for taking samples in a manner to avoid contamination of the oil with dirt and moisture cannot be
overstated. Only glass bottles with tin or aluminum foil caps which have been rinsed previously with oil under test
should be used. Cotton waste or any other fibrous material for cleaning should be avoided. Dirt should be wiped
from taps and covers before taking samples.

As we know, the water traces, sludge, dust particles, etc. are heavier than the oil so they are get collected at the
bottom. Therefore, the dielectric strength of the oil at the bottom may be lower.

Therefore, the oil should be taken from the bottom of drums with the help of a glass tube or ‘oil thief oil
sampler’ sufficiently long to reach the bottom. To take the sample, the glass tube is lowered in the drum, and it’s
open end is closed firmly with the thumb while withdrawing the tube.

The sample containers should be kept tightly covered throughout the period before the test. Proper record of
breakdown strength of oil will be a good guide to the state of oil as oil with moisture and impurities has low
breakdown voltage.

Moisture Test of Transformer Oil

The presence of moisture in a transformer is very harmful. It decreases the dielectric strength of oil and
other insulating material such as winding insulation, paper, etc. significantly. It may be remembered that
the presence of only 0.06% of the water will reduce the dielectric strength of oil to about one half..

Insulating paper is very hygroscopic material. It absorbs moisture content from the oil thereby decreasing the
overall dielectric strength, insulation resistance and the life of the machine.

As water solubility of oil increases at higher temperatures, therefore, the dielectric strength of oil may be lower at
higher temperatures. So it is a good idea to take out oil samples from the machine at higher ambient
temperatures.

Presence of free moisture in oil can be easily detected by pouring sufficient quantity of sample in test tube about
125 mm long and 12.5 mm in diameter, to fill it to a quarter of its depth and heating it rapidly in a silent flame
until the oil begins to boil. Any audible sharp sounds during heating should be noted.

The oil shall be considered to have passed the test if no sharp sounds occurs with two out of three quantities
tested.

Another simple way of checking the presence of free moisture in transformer oil is with the help of metal rod
about 12.5 mm in diameter. The rod is heated to dull redness and the sample of oil is stirred with the heated
rod. Sharp sounds distinct from sizzling would indicate the presence of moisture.

Periodic tests for acidity, sludge and flash point are very essential in the case of large-sized transformers. As even
highly deteriorated oil will pass the dielectric strength test of transformer oil if it is dry. Careful recording of
the oil of test samples and their comparison will help in anticipation of the impending trouble and adoption of the
remedial measures.

Neutralization Test of Transformer Oil

Acids are formed in a transformer during operation. Their formation is particularly rapid at operating temperatures
above 75oC. Acids are corrosive and damage the windings, core, tank, etc. They are also responsible for sludge
formation.

To see that the oil is free from organic and inorganic acids, the neutralization test of transformer oil is performed.
It is expressed in terms of the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the total
free acids in one gram of oil. This test is carried out in the laboratory or with the help of tests kits in the field. The
recommended limits for acidity are as follows:

 Acidity below 0.5 mg. KOH/gram is permissible if the oil is satisfactory otherwise.
 Keep the oil under observation if acidity is between 0.5 and 1.0 mg. KOH/gram.
 Discard the oil if acidity is above 1.0 mg. KOH/gram.
The acidity of oil should be checked every two years for transformers up to 1000 KVA capacity, and annually for
transformers above this size. The actual period may be varied depending upon the severity of the service and
observation of results.

Filtration of Transformer Oil

If the breakdown strength of transformer oil is lower than the specified value the oil should be treated in a filtration
plant. A plant which provides for heating filtration and drying under vacuum is to be preferred as filtering alone
cannot remove moisture and dissolved air. Cold treatment of oil through the plant helps in removal of sludge.

In a filtration plant, first of all, oil enters the heating chamber where it is heated by immersion heaters. It is then
passed through the filters for removal of suspended impurities and finally goes to the vacuum chamber where
moisture is removed over a series of trays. The entire oil is circulated through the plant several times till
satisfactory results are achieved.

The oil should be drawn from near the bottom and delivered back into the transformer tank at the top. The
processes should be continued until the oil can withstand 30 KV for seven consecutive tests performed 4 hours
apart.

Thanks for reading about “dielectric strength test of transformer oil”.

Types of fire extinguisher – all you need to know in 2020, explained in our simple guide.

There are 5 main fire extinguisher types - Water, Foam, Dry Powder, CO2 and Wet Chemical. You should
have the right types of fire extinguisher for your premises, or you may not meet current regulations.

The various types of fire extinguisher put out fires started with different types of fuel - these are called 'classes' of
fire. The fire risk from the different classes of fire in your business premises will determine which fire
extinguisher types you need.

You will also need to make sure that you have the right size and weight of fire extinguisher as well as the right
kind. You can read more about the current UK extinguisher regulations here.

Whilst there are 5 main types of fire extinguisher, there are different versions of both the Water and Dry Powder
extinguishers, meaning there are a total of 8 fire extinguisher types to choose from. The 8 types of fire
extinguisher are:
- Water
- Water Mist
- Water Spray
- Foam
- Dry Powder - Standard
- Dry Powder - Specialist
- Carbon Dioxide ('CO2')
- Wet Chemical

There is no one extinguisher type which works on all classes of fire.

Below is a summary of the classes of fire, and a quick reference chart showing which types of extinguisher should
be used on each. We then provide a detailed explanation of each type of fire extinguisher below.

The classes of fire

There are six classes of fire: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, 'Electrical', and Class F.

- Class A fires - combustible materials: caused by flammable solids, such as wood, paper, and fabric
- Class B fires - flammable liquids: such as petrol, turpentine or paint
- Class C fires - flammable gases: like hydrogen, butane or methane
- Class D fires - combustible metals: chemicals such as magnesium, aluminium or potassium
- Electrical fires - electrical equipment: once the electrical item is removed, the fire changes class
- Class F fires - cooking oils: typically a chip-pan fire

Which fire extinguisher types are used for each class of fire? - quick guide

Types of fire extinguisher - a detailed guide

Water Extinguishers

Overview:
Water extinguishers are the most common fire extinguisher type for class A fire risk. Most premises will require
either water or foam extinguishers.

Label Colour:
- Bright Red

Use for:
- Organic materials such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal

Do not use for:

- Fires involving electrical equipment
- Kitchen fires
- Flammable gas and liquids

How water extinguishers work:

The water has a cooling effect on the fuel, causing it to burn much more slowly until the flames are eventually
extinguished.

Types of premises/business who may need water extinguishers:

- Buildings constructed of wood or other organic materials
- Premises where there are organic materials to be found such as:
o Offices
o Schools
o Hospitals
o Residential properties
o Warehouses

In fact, most buildings need either water or foam extinguishers.

Where to locate water extinguishers:

- By the exits on a floor where a Class A fire risk has been identified

Water spray extinguishers - what's the difference?:

Water spray extinguishers are equipped with a spray nozzle, rather than a jet nozzle, meaning a greater surface area
can be covered more quickly and the fire put out more rapidly.

Water mist extinguishers - what's the difference?:

Water mist extinguishers have a different type of nozzle again which releases microscopic water particles. These
particles 'suffocate' the fire and also create a wall of mist between the fire and the person using the extinguisher,
reducing the feeling of heat.

Contact us to buy water fire extinguishers

Foam Extinguishers

Overview:
Foam extinguishers are most common type of fire extinguisher for Class B fires, but also work on Class A fires as
they are water-based.

Label Colour:
- Cream

Use for:
- Organic materials such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal
Plus:
- Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol

Do not use for:

- Kitchen fires
- Fires involving electrical equipment
- Flammable metals

How foam extinguishers work:

As with water extinguishers, foam extinguishers have a cooling effect on the fuel. On burning liquids, the foaming
agent creates a barrier between the flame and the fuel, extinguishing the fire.

Types of premises/business who may need Foam extinguishers:

- Buildings constructed of wood or other organic materials
- Premises where there are organic materials to be found such as:
o Offices
o Schools
o Hospitals
o Residential properties
o Warehouses
- Buildings where flammable liquids are stored

In fact most buildings need either water or foam extinguishers

Where to locate foam extinguishers:

- By the exits on a floor where a Class A or Class B fire risk has been identified

Contact us to buy foam fire extinguishers

Dry Powder Extinguishers

Overview:
Standard dry powder extinguishers are also called 'ABC' extinguishers because they tackle class A, B and C fires,
however they are not recommended for use in enclosed spaces. This is because the powder can be easily inhaled,
and also the residue is very difficult to clean up after. ABC powder extinguishers can also be used on some
electrical fires. Specialist dry powder extinguishers are used for flammable metals.

Label Colour:
- Blue

Use for:
- Organic materials such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal
Plus:
- Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol
Plus:
- Flammable gases, like liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and acetylene
Plus:
- Fires involving electrical equipment up to 1000v

Specialist dry powder extinguishers are only used on flammable metals, such as titanium and magnesium.

Do not use for:

- Fires involving cooking oil
- Fires involving electrical equipment over 1000v
- or in enclosed spaces, such as offices or residential properties

How dry powder extinguishers work:

Dry powder extinguishers smother fires by forming a barrier between the fuel and the source of oxygen.

Types of premises/business who may need Dry Powder extinguishers:

- Businesses using flammable gases for chemical processes
- Premises where welding and flame cutting takes place
- Garage forecourts
- Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) dispensing plants
- Premises with large, commercial boiler rooms

Where to locate Dry Powder extinguishers:

- Place dry powder extinguishers near to the source of the fire risk.

Specialist Dry Powder extinguishers - what's the difference?:

Specialist dry powder extinguishers work in the same way as standard dry powder extinguishers but are for use
with flammable metals only. There are 2 types of specialist dry powder extinguishers - 'L2' which only tackles
lithium fires, and 'M28', for all other flammable metal fires.

Contact us to buy dry powder fire extinguishers

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

Overview:
CO2 extinguishers are predominantly used for electrical fire risks and are usually the main fire extinguisher type
provided in computer server rooms. They also put out Class B fires (flammable liquids, such as paint and
petroleum).
Label Colour:
- Black

Use for:
- Flammable liquids, like paint and petrol
- Electrical fires

Do not use for:

- Kitchen fires – especially chip-pan fires
- Combustible materials like paper, wood or textiles
- Flammable metals

How CO2 extinguishers work:

CO2 extinguishers suffocate fires by displacing the oxygen the fire needs to burn.

Types of premises/business who may need CO2 extinguishers:

- Premises with electrical equipment, such as:
o Offices
o Kitchens
o Construction sites
o Server rooms

All work vehicles should also carry a smaller 2kg CO2 extinguisher.

Where to locate CO2 extinguishers:

- Place near to the source of the fire risk and/or near the fire exits.

Contact us to buy CO2 fire extinguishers

Wet Chemical Extinguishers

Overview:
Wet chemical extinguishers are designed for use on Class F fires, involving cooking oils and fats. They can also
be used on Class A fires although it is more usual to have a foam or water extinguisher for this type of fire risk.

Label Colour:
- Yellow

Use for:
- Cooking oil/fat fires
- Organic materials such as:
o Paper and cardboard
o Fabrics and textiles
o Wood and coal

Do not use for:

- Flammable liquid or gas fires
- Electrical fires
- Flammable metals

How wet chemical extinguishers work:

Wet chemical extinguishers create a layer of foam on the surface of the burning oil or fat, preventing oxygen from
fuelling the fire any further. The spray also has a cooling effect.

Types of premises/business who may need wet chemical extinguishers:

- Commercial kitchens
- Canteens

Where to locate wet chemical extinguishers:

- Place near to the source of the fire risk.

Contact us to buy wet chemical fire extinguishers

132kv /33kv sub station
St

Step potentials & Touch Potential

When a fault occurs, the fault current flow to the ground due to which the potential gradient near the electrical
equipme developed. This potential gradient may affect a person in two ways, either by step-to-step contact or by
touch contact.

Step-Potential – Step potential is the potential difference between the feet of a person standing on the floor of the
substation, with 0.5 m spacing between the one step, during the flow of fault current through the ground system.
Touch-Potential – Touch potential is a potential difference between the fingers of a raising hand touching the
faulted structure and the feet of the person standing on substation floor. The person should not get a shock even if
the ground structure is carrying fault current, i.e.; the touch potential should be very small.

The resistance of the human body is highly variable, and the current that may pass through the body depends on
the resistance of the body and the position in which it touches the ground. The resistance of the body is taken as
1000 ohms.

Mesh potentials

"Mesh voltage" is a factor calculated when a grid of grounding conductors is installed. Mesh voltage is
the potential difference between the metallic object connected to the grid, and the potential of the soil within the
grid.

Transferred potentials

“The term transferred earth potential refers to the voltage-to-earth of grounding systems that will appear on
conductors as a result of the source system grounding electrode being above normal earth potential. The larger
voltages are usually developed by ground fault currents returning to their source through earth.

Earth mat

An Earthing Mat is the interconnection of Horizontal and Vertical electrode. ... The vertical Electrodes are for the
dissipation of fault current into the ground while horizontal electrodes are laid for suppressing the dangerous
Touch and Step voltages which are generated due to heavy fault current.Jun 3, 2017