LANGUAGE STRATIFICATION

- It is the series of language hierarchy linked together.

1. PHONEMES- the smallest unit of sound
Phonology- Phono- means voice or sound
logy- speech or discussion
- Phonology is the study of sound
- It is the study of how sound are organized and used in a natural language.
Phonetics- the study of sound production
- It deals with the production of speech sound by human.
Basic Purpose of Phonetics
- It is taught and learnt to get in communication skills.

BRANCHES OF PHONETICS

 Articulatory Phonetics- Production of sound (Production)

 Acoustic Phonetics- Properties of sound (Physics)
 Auditory Phonetics- Reception of sound (Perception)
2. SYLLABLES- combination of sounds or phonemes
Parts:
 Onset- the consonant sound or sounds at the beginning of syllable
 Nucleus- the central part of the syllable, most commonly a vowel
 Coda- the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the nucleus

Example: /p/ /a/ /t/ //- virgules

onset nucleus coda

- it has 3 sounds thus, monosyllabic

- vowel is always in the center

3. MORPHEMES- the smallest meaningful unit of words

Morphology- Morph- meaning shape and form
- ology- means the study of something

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 - the study of the internal structure of words and forms a core part of linguistic study today

- Morphology as a sub-discipline of linguistic was named for the first time in 1859 by the
German linguist August Schleicher who used the term for the study of the form of words.

TYPES OF MORPHEME:
 Free Morpheme- a morpheme that can stand alone; a simple word and consisting of one
morpheme
- close class word
 Bound Morpheme- a morpheme which need to be attached to something else;
morphemes that must be attached to another morpheme to receive meaning.
- It cannot stand alone.
- open class word
- depends on the root words

- Root words- is a morpheme, usually but not always a free morpheme that serves as a
building block for other words and carries the main meaning of those words.

PRINCIPAL DIVISION OF MORPHOLOGY

 Derivational Morpheme- is an affix that is added to a word to create a new word or a

new form of a word.
- It change the lexical category of a word
Examples: -adding –ful to beauty changes the word from a noun to an
adjective (beautiful)

Affixes

- Prefix- in front/ beginning of the word

- Suffix- last/ ending of the word
- Interfix- between/ middle of the word
- Circumfix- beginning and ending of the word
 Inflectional Morpheme- serve as grammatical markers that indicate tense, number,
possession, or comparison
- do not change the essential meaning of the grammatical category of a word.

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 Examples: Kill- Kills
Kiss- Kissed
Fall- Falling
Lovelyn- Lovelyn’s
Cool- Cooler
Sweet- Sweetest
4. WORD- a sound or combination of sounds that has a meaning and is spoken or written

CLASSES OF WORDS:

 Content/Lexical words- it has a clear lexical meaning, considered also as open class

Examples: Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverb

 Functional words- it has no clear lexical meaning but it has a functional purpose on
language, considered also as close class

Examples: Conjunction, Preposition, Pronoun

5. PHRASE- group of words which does not express complete thought

- act as a single unit
- usually, starts at preposition, attach with either a noun or a pronoun

Example: in the car

preposition article noun

6. CLAUSE- a clause has a subject and a predicate that may or may not express a complete
thought.
TYPE OF CLAUSE
 Independent Clause- can stand alone
Example: Jessica loves watching movies.
S P
 Dependent Clause- cannot stand alone
Example: Because it entertain her.
S P

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7. SENTENCE- a string of words that is grammatically complete with at least two components, a
subject and a predicate.
 SENTENCE STRUCTURE- It is the way a sentence is arranged, grammatically. It includes
where the noun and verb fall within an individual sentence.
 Simple Sentence
- A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object
and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.
Example: Rhea loves Uranus.
 Compound Sentence
- A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two
independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or
with a semicolon.
Example: She loves Uranus, but he loves Themis.
 Complex Sentence
- A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at
least one dependent clause.
Example: Because he does not love Rhea, she despise him.
 Compound-Complex Sentence
- A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at
least one dependent clause.
Example: When we won the state championship, the team captain jumped for joy,
and the fans cheered.
 TYPES OF SENTENCE

 Declarative Sentence

- These sentences are used to state information. They are the most commonly used
sentence type. Most academic writing employs simple or declarative sentences. Declarative
sentences end with a period.

Example: Research on the topic suggests that grammar is essential to success.

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  Imperative Sentence

- These sentences give commands or make requests. Imperative sentences end with
a period.

Example: Open the window.

 Interrogative Sentence

- These sentences ask questions. Accordingly, they end with a question mark.

Example: Did you complete the assignment?

 Exclamatory Sentence

- These sentences express emotion and, as such, end with an exclamation mark.

Example: She is going to fall!

8. PARAGRAPH- a paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all
related to a single topic.

 TOPIC SENTENCES

- A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which

is expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

- Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and

conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing,
comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an
important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

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 Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any
other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or
provide a transition.

 Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments,
analysis, examples, and other information.
 Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information
discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS

 Descriptive paragraph: This type of paragraph describes something and shows the
reader what a thing or a person is like. The words chosen in the description often appeal
to the five senses of touch, smell, sight, sound, and taste. Descriptive paragraphs can be
artistic and may deviate from grammatical norms.
 Narrative paragraph: This type of paragraph tells a story. There's a sequence of action
or there's a clear beginning, middle, and end to the paragraph.
 Expository paragraph: This type of paragraph explains something or provides
instruction. It could also describe a process and move the reader step by step through a
method. This type of paragraph often requires research, but it's possible that the writer is
able to rely on his or her own knowledge and expertise.
 Persuasive paragraph: This type of paragraph tries to get the reader to accept a particular
point of view or understand the writer's position. This is the type of paragraph that many
teachers focus on because it's useful when building an argument. It often requires the
collection of facts and research.