Capsicum and chilli information kit

Reprint – information current in 1999

REPRINT INFORMATION – PLEASE READ!

For updated information please call 13 25 23 or visit the website www.deedi.qld.gov.au

This publication has been reprinted as a digital book without any changes to the content published in 1999. We advise
readers to take particular note of the areas most likely to be out-of-date and so requiring further research:
• Chemical recommendations—check with an agronomist or Infopest www.infopest.qld.gov.au
• Financial information—costs and returns listed in this publication are out of date. Please contact an adviser or
industry body to assist with identifying more current figures.
• Varieties—new varieties are likely to be available and some older varieties may no longer be recommended. Check
with an agronomist, call the Business Information Centre on 13 25 23, visit our website www.deedi.qld.gov.au or
contact the industry body.
• Contacts—many of the contact details may have changed and there could be several new contacts available. The
industry organisation may be able to assist you to find the information or services you require.
• Organisation names—most government agencies referred to in this publication have had name changes. Contact
the Business Information Centre on 13 25 23 or the industry organisation to find out the current name and
contact details for these agencies.
• Additional information—many other sources of information are now available for each crop. Contact an
agronomist, Business Information Centre on 13 25 23 or the industry organisation for other suggested reading.
Even with these limitations we believe this information kit provides important and valuable information for intending
and existing growers.
This publication was last revised in 1999. The information is not current and the accuracy of the information
cannot be guaranteed by the State of Queensland.
This information has been made available to assist users to identify issues involved in the production of capsicum and
chilli. This information is not to be used or relied upon by users for any purpose which may expose the user or any other
person to loss or damage. Users should conduct their own inquiries and rely on their own independent professional
advice.
While every care has been taken in preparing this publication, the State of Queensland accepts no responsibility for
decisions or actions taken as a result of any data, information, statement or advice, expressed or implied, contained in
this publication.
 Growing
Growing the crop 

THE CROP
This section is our recipe for growing and marketing a commercial crop
of capsicums or chillies for the fresh market. Where the term ‘capsicum’
is used it refers to both capsicums and chillies. To keep the section as
brief as possible and easy to follow, we provide little explanation with recom-
mendations. Where more information may help, we refer you to other sections of
the kit. Symbols on the left of the page will help you make these links.

Getting the crop started 3

How to get ready for planting, and planting the crop

Planting to early fruit set 24

Things to do from planting to early fruit set

Early fruit set to first harvest 36

Things to do from early fruit set to first harvest

During harvest 39
Things to do during harvest

Fruit handling and marketing 43

The steps from harvesting to marketing

Capsicum and chilli

  Growing the crop

The capsicum plant

flower

fruit, just set

young fruit

mature fruit blossom end

lateral branch main stem

roots

Figure 1. Parts of the capsicum plant

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Growing the crop 

Getting the crop started

To give yourself the best chance of success, you need to start planning your crop and
preparing the land at least six months before planting. This involves 12 key steps.

Decide when to plant................................................................. 3

Decide whether to buy plants or grow your own........................ 4
Select varieties........................................................................... 5
Work out number of transplants needed and order.................... 5
Choose an irrigation system...................................................... 8
Prepare the land......................................................................... 9
Lay out the field....................................................................... 15
Apply fertiliser......................................................................... 17
Control weeds......................................................................... 19
Form the beds and lay the mulch............................................. 19
Look after transplants until planting........................................ 21
Plant........................................................................................ 22

Decide when to plant

Recommended times
The timing of a capsicum or chilli crop depends on the seasonal tem-
peratures to be experienced by the crop and the market to be supplied.
The main planting and harvesting times are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Main planting and harvesting times
District Transplant Harvest
Dry tropics late February May – December
– early September
Bundaberg January – April April – August
mid-July – September October – January
South-east Queensland late August – February November – May
Granite Belt October – December January – April

Growing times in south Queensland can extend out of these main

seasons but yields and quality are reduced due to problems with pol-
lination in cold and hot weather.
In north Queensland crops grown in hot weather, after the main

Capsicum and chilli

  Growing the crop

season, may suffer from sunburn and wind and rain damage, leading
to increased pest and disease pressure.

Temperature
Growth is inhibited below 10°C. Avoid increasing application of water
and fertiliser in an attempt to boost growth at low temperatures as
this can damage plants.
Capsicums are particularly sensitive to cold. Temperatures below 4°C
may result in freezing of the foliage and fruit in the field. When grow-
ing seedlings, the use of plastic-covered igloos or any similar structure
covered with plastic will reduce frost risk.
Temperatures below 15°C or above 32°C for prolonged periods reduce
pollen viability and pollination. This leads to small and/or deformed
fruit.

Crop cycle
Table 2 shows the normal time range for each stage of plant growth.
The short intervals occur in the hotter weather while each stage takes
longer in cool conditions.
Table 2. Normal time range for each growth stage
Plant stage Time
Sowing to germination 5 – 21 days
Emergence to field planting 4 – 8 weeks
Field planting to first flower 3 weeks
First flower to harvest 9 – 14 weeks
Duration of harvest 3 – 6* weeks
* Chillies may be harvested for much longer

Decide whether to buy plants or grow your own

Unless you are experienced in growing seedlings we recommend that
you buy transplants from an established nursery. There are several
nurseries that supply plants in each district.
Nurseries
Section 6 page 5 Nearly all capsicums are planted as container-grown transplants. These
plants are usually very uniform in size and growth. Container-grown
seedlings suffer little if any transplanting shock or plant loss when
properly planted out. Plant loss can be high, however, if seedlings are
planted in hot windy weather, left unirrigated after planting or have
been grown very rapidly and the plants are soft and spindly.
Plants are started in trays that consist of a large number of cells. Seed
is planted in a seedling mix in the individual cells. Seedlings are trans-
planted into the field once they will pull cleanly out of the tray, that
is when the roots have fully penetrated the mix. This is usually about
when the fourth to sixth true leaf has just emerged.
Growing transplants is time consuming and requires some extra in-

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Growing the crop 

frastructure. If you decide to grow your own transplants you should

Growing transplants do a cost benefit analysis to determine whether it is economically
Section 4 page 15
viable. You will need above-ground racks; a watering and fertiga-
tion system; and an area to mix the potting mix and plant the seeds.
You will also need to buy seedling trays, potting mix, a mixer, seeder,
cleaning and sterilising equipment, and a plastic igloo for growing in
cool weather.

Select varieties
Variety selection is an important decision as there is no one variety that
performs best across all planting seasons and production techniques.
Varieties and disease Factors to consider include fruit shape—tapered or blocky; size; yield;
resistance
Section 4 page 21 disease resistance and the climatic stresses during the production pe-
riod; particular market requirements; and, for chillies, how hot they
are. The main varieties grown in each district are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. The main capsicum and chilli varieties grown in each district
District Main varieties
Capsicums Chillies
Bowen Aries, Merlin, Target Caysan, Firefly, Inferno,
Long Cayenne
Bundaberg Aries, Belair, Blockade, Cayenne, Caysan, Habanero,
Eclipse, Merlin, Raptor, Hotline, Inferno, Inferno Birdseye,
Rex, Target Long Zippy
South-east Aries, Merlin, Target Inferno, Jalapeno
Queensland
Granite Belt Merlin, Heldor, Target Banana Supreme,
Long Sweet Yellow

Work out number of transplants needed and order

Row width and plant spacing

Most capsicum and chillies have been planted in double rows 30 to
40 cm apart on beds with centres 1.5 m apart. Plants are staggered
40 cm apart down the row so that they are not directly opposite.
There is now a strong trend to planting single rows 1.5 m apart with
plants 15 to 20 cm apart; some growers prefer to plant single rows
1.2 m apart.
The closer spacing between plants is used in hot weather to help
prevent sunburn. Closer spacing in winter may result in more disease
problems, as plants stay wet longer because airflow between them is
restricted.

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  Growing the crop

Deciding how many plants you need

Single rows
A commonly used planting arrangement for single rows is shown in
Fiure 2.

Figure 2. A commonly used planting arrangement for single rows

Excluding headlands, the number of plants required per hectare

(10 000 sq. m) is determined by the:
• distance in metres between the centre of each bed (A)
• distance in metres between plants in the row (B).
Use a calculator to calculate the following formula:
(10 000 ÷ A) ÷ B
For example: How many plants will you need at 1.5 m bed centres (A)
and 20 cm (0.2 m) between plants (B)?
10 000 ÷ 1.5 = 6667 ÷ 0.2 = 33 335 plants per hectare

Double rows
A commonly used planting arrangement for double rows is shown in
Figre 3.

Figure 3. A commonly used planting arrangement for double rows

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Growing the crop 

Excluding headlands, the number of plants required per hectare

(10 000 sq. m) is determined by:
• the distance in metres between the centre of each bed (A)
• the number of rows on each bed (2)
• the distance in metres between plants in the row (B).
Use a calculator to calculate the following formula:
(10 000 ÷ A) x 2 ÷B

For example: How many plants will you need for double row beds at
1.5 m bed centres (A) and 40 cm (0.4 m) between plants (B)?
10 000 ÷ 1.5 = 6667 x 2 = 13 334 ÷ 0.4 = 33 335 plants
per hectare

To help you, Table 4 shows our calculations for several different row
and plant spacings.
Table 4. Number of plants per planted hectare at different row and plant
spacings
Row type Between row Between Plants per planted
centres plants hectare (approx)
Single rows 1.2 m 15 cm 55 555
20 cm 41 665
25 cm 33 335
1.5 m 15 cm 44 445
20 cm 33 335
25 cm 26 665
Double rows 1.5 m 30 cm 44 445
40 cm 33 335
50 cm 26 665
1.8 m 30 cm 37 035
40 cm 27 775
50 cm 22 220
Note: The length of rows and the size of headlands will determine what area is required to plant
one hectare of crop.

Order transplants or seed

Contact transplant or seed suppliers for details of what varieties they
have, when they will be available and the price and delivery arrange-
ments. Do this at least three months before your proposed planting
date, or better still, when you are planning your planting schedule
before the season starts. Ordering early gives you the best chance of
getting the varieties you want when you want them.
On average there are between 120 and 160 capsicum seeds per gram,
that is 120 000 to 160 000 seeds per kilogram. Remember that not
every seed will germinate, so take note of the germination percentage
on the pack of seed you are buying.

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  Growing the crop

Choose an irrigation system

Capsicums have a high water requirement because of their shallow
root system. They should be kept moist at all times; even with plastic
mulch seedlings will need watering every day during dry periods. Mois-
ture stress and/or poor quality water can lead to severe blossom-end
rot problems. Do not over water as this can predispose the plants to
sudden wilt, causing serious plant loss.
Water use should be monitored with tensiometers for the most efficient
management with trickle irrigation.
Consult an irrigation equipment supplier or designer in your area and
get them to develop an irrigation plan.

Methods of irrigation
Trickle irrigation is the best and most common method of irrigation.
Irrigation methods Furrow and overhead irrigation is sometimes used but this can increase
Section 4 page 49 the risk of leaf and fruit diseases.
Trickle irrigation is the most easily controlled and efficient irrigation
method. The equipment is expensive, but has a long life. If trickle
tubing is to be re-used it should be treated with chlorine to reduce
the risk of blockages. Soluble fertilisers can be applied easily through
the irrigation system and this ability to fertigate is a major advantage
of trickle irrigation. The water must be checked for iron bacteria and
treated if necessary.
Furrow irrigation requires an even, gentle slope and a soil type that
allows water to spread laterally without penetrating too deeply into
the soil. Furrows longer than 200 m are not recommended. ‘Tail end’
water from the end of the rows must be removed to prevent waterlog-
ging of the lower section of the block.
Overhead irrigation includes travelling irrigators and sprinkler sys-
tems. It is suitable for any soil type and undulating country. Overhead
irrigation can increase the risk of leaf and fruit diseases and is rarely
used for capsicums. Poor quality water applied over the plants will
cause leaf damage.

Water quality
Capsicums will not tolerate saline irrigation water. When grown under
furrow or trickle irrigation, water with an electrical conductivity (EC)
up to 2000 microSiemens per centimetre (µS/cm) can be used on some
soils provided careful management practices are followed. Capsicums
grown under overhead irrigation are more sensitive to saline irrigation
water because of leaf contact with the water.
Some reduction in plant growth and yields may occur if EC levels
above 1200 µS/cm are used. Blossom-end rot is likely if EC levels are
above 2000 µS/cm.

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Growing the crop 

Water quantity
Up to 4 megalitres (ML) per hectare of water is required for trickle irri-
gation. Slightly higher rates are applied when using sprinkler irrigation.
For furrow irrigation the figure can vary from 3 to 6 ML per hectare.
The amount of water required also varies with the locality and the soil
type. As a general rule capsicums require 30 to 40 mm of irrigation
per week. Sandy soils have a much lower water-holding capacity than
clay-based soils and consequently need more frequent irrigation. The
soil texture will also determine the amount of water applied at any one
time. The use of plastic mulch will reduce water use and improve lateral
spread of water on some soil types. Water requirements are higher in
hot weather than cool weather.
Capsicums have a restricted root system, so avoid over watering by
applying frequent light irrigations.
A commonly used trickle irrigation tube with 20 cm outlet spacing
and operated at 0.55 bar (8 psi) inlet pressure should deliver about
500 L per 100 m of row per hour. The actual quantity applied will
vary depending on the amount of slope, the pressure and whether the
tubing is clean.

Prepare the land

Protect against wind

Capsicum plants are very brittle and strong winds may cause limb
Pictures of damage breakage and unsightly rub marks on the fruit, reducing its consumer
Section 5 acceptability. Wind will also cause increased water loss and reduce
growth. The most critical stage is when the plants are carrying a heavy
crop.
Some growers plant tall growing sorghum every couple of beds two to
three weeks before the crop is planted as additional wind protection.
More permanent windbreaks (bana grass or an artificial windbreak)
will greatly reduce these problems. Tree windbreaks may be practical
in some situations (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Tree windbreaks protecting a capsicum crop

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 10 Growing the crop

Windbreaks are rarely used in north Queensland. In some areas of

south Queensland, blocks of sugar cane act as windbreaks for part of
the year.

Protect against soil erosion

Steep slopes can cause soil erosion. Even, gentle slopes (about 0.5%)
are essential for furrow irrigation as soil depressions may lead to wa-
terlogging. If trickle or sprinkler irrigation is used uniform slopes are
preferred but not essential.
Whichever irrigation system is used some form of land levelling is
necessary, as capsicums are highly prone to waterlogging. Laser level-
ling is carried out in most growing districts and will improve irrigation
efficiency.
Uncontrolled runoff water removes valuable topsoil while the land
is being prepared.
There are six important steps in avoiding erosion from runoff.
1. Build a grassed contour drain across the top of the block. This
drain should have a grade of between 2 and 4% and will catch
runoff water from above the block and divert it into waterways
running down the slope.
2. Space waterways 50 m apart. Make them flat-bottomed, at least
2 m wide and lower than the surrounding land. Where possible,
use natural depressions in the block.
3. Form beds parallel to the top drain so that water can be channelled
between the beds into the waterways.
4. Build trafficways beside the waterways.
5. Plant seed or runners of couch, kikuyu or carpet grass in the base
of waterways and trafficways. Once these structures are established,
they can remain as permanent fixtures.
6. Run beds across the slope, parallel to the contour drain. This lay-
out minimises loss of soil between beds and combines good water
infiltration and safe removal of runoff.
These layouts can be used safely on all slopes with a fall of up to 8%.
Capsicums should not be grown on steeper slopes.
Conservation officers
Section 6 page 19 Land conservation extension officers with the Department of Natural
Resources provide free on-site advice on farm layout.

Crop rotation
Capsicums belong to the same family as tomatoes, eggfruit and pota-
toes so they are subject to similar pests and diseases. To avoid disease
build-up, these crops should not follow each other in the same year.
The period between replanting the same field will depend on the area
available for cultivation but should be no less than one year. Most
other crops can be used in a rotation.
Cover crops in rotation with cash crops improve soil structure and

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Growing the crop 11

productivity and reduce pest and disease problems. Cover cropping

combined with other soil conservation methods, such as contour
banks on steeper slopes, will reduce erosion and help maintain your
most valuable asset, your soil.

A guide to land preparation

Table 5 shows a suggested land preparation schedule based on the
number of weeks before planting.
Table 5. A suggested land preparation schedule for capsicums
Weeks before
planting Activity
20 Cultivate soil, rip and fertilise if necessary, or add organic material. Plant green
manure crop.
10 – 12 Slash or cut with a mulcher to avoid hard fibrous stems.
8 Sample soil for a nutrient analysis.
4 – 6 Mulch then plough in green manure crop. Apply and incorporate lime, dolomite
or gypsum according to soil nutrient analysis results.
2 – 4 Disc-cultivate soil once or twice to speed break down of green manure crop.
0 – 1 Final working of soil just before planting.
0 Plant the crop.

Initial cultivation. If your land is under grass or weeds, plough or disc-

cultivate the block. A hard pan or compaction layer may be formed
from regular use of a rotary hoe and other cultivation equipment or
from heavy traffic movement (Figure 5). This causes reduced plant
growth and waterlogging in some situations. If you suspect that you
may have a hard pan, dig a hole and check. Deep rip in both direc-
tions to break this hard pan. If the soil is wet it will not shatter; if too
dry large cods will be formed.

compaction layer

Figure 5. Root system affected by a compaction layer

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 12 Growing the crop

Ripping is best immediately after final harvest to allow water to penetrate

deeply during fallow and salts to be leached out of the root zone.
In self-mulching clay soils of the Lockyer Valley, the hard pan may be
broken by using a summer forage sorghum crop. This crop dries the
soil profile, causing shattering of the compacted layers. On these soil
types, this practice has been shown to be more effective than deep
ripping.
Organic additives. Organic additives such as filter press or mill mud
from sugar mills (15 t/ha), deep litter fowl manure (5 t/ha) or cattle
feedlot manure (10 t/ha) may be used to increase organic matter in
the soil. They should be applied before a cover crop is planted.
Cover crops or green manure. Cover crops help to build up soil
organic matter, which is reduced by cultivation. These crops are
particularly important in light, sandy soil. Organic matter is usually
expressed as organic carbon in a soil analysis. Other benefits of cover
TE - crops include:
NO sug
c rops ould
e r
cov re sh • improved soil structure and internal soil drainage
The ted he t in any -
ges t resul nema • improved water-holding capacity
no -up of
d
buil todes
. • reduced leaching of nutrients
• increased activity of micro-organisms
• reduced soil erosion
• reduced pest and disease problems
• reduced weed growth
• recycling of nutrients.
If growth is slow apply 100 kg/ha of nitram (30 kg/ha of nitrogen) after
emergence. A well grown cover crop will add more organic matter
and help smother weeds. Extra nitrogen may be needed if the cover
crop is slashed several times.
Legumes such as cowpea and dolichos are susceptible to nema-
todes.
Summer. Broadcast hybrid forage sorghum seed over the cultivated
land at 20 to 30 kg/ha. Use the higher rate where the seedbed is rough
and the seed will not have good soil contact. For best germination,
use harrows or a light tined implement after planting to mix seed into
the soil. Light rolling will improve germination by ensuring that seed
is in closer contact with the soil. Water as required.
Forage sorghum can be ratooned several times by slashing. Extra ni-
trogen may be required if the crop is slashed and allowed to regrow.
Slash back to a height of 20 to 30 cm, or plough in before seed heads
develop and the stems get too fibrous to decompose rapidly.
In north Queensland, the legume dolichos or hybrid forage sorghum is
planted from November to January. Dolichos is susceptible to silverleaf
whitefly and should not be used where whitefly is a problem.
Winter. Few northern producers grow a winter cover crop. In south

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Growing the crop 13

Queensland cereals such as oats, triticale or barley at 75 kg/ha are

suitable. Use oats for early planting and barley for late planting.
Soil analysis. A soil analysis takes the guesswork out of fertiliser
scheduling. Take the sample six to eight weeks before your intended
planting date. Follow the sampling instructions supplied by the labo-
ratories.
A soil analysis measures the pH, conductivity, organic matter and
the level of nutrients in the soil. Results will be interpreted by the
laboratory and should be back in about two weeks, allowing time for
the treatments to be incorporated into the soil. Your experience of the
block of land, and the way you wish to manipulate the growth pattern
of the crop, will influence your interpretation of the soil analysis.
Soil pH. The pH level is a measure of the soil’s acidity or alkalinity on
a scale from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH of 5 is 10 times more
acid than a pH of 6. Capsicums prefer a slightly acid soil, around 6.0
to 6.5. In this range, most major and trace elements present in the
soil are available to the plants, without being at toxic levels. Many
Queensland soils are acidic and require the addition of lime or dolomite
to raise the pH. A complete soil analysis will show which form is most
suitable by showing the available levels of calcium and magnesium.
Table 6 is a guide to the application rates for lime or dolomite.
Table 6. Lime or dolomite needed to raise soil pH to about 6.5
Soil type Sandy loam Loam Clay loam
pH range t/ha t/ha t/ha
4.5 – 5.0 5.00 6.25 7.50
5.0 – 5.5 2.50 3.75 5.00
5.5 – 6.0 1.25 2.50 3.75

Gypsum. Application of gypsum will increase soil calcium levels but

not change soil pH. Naturally occurring gypsum is preferred to phos-
phogypsum in vegetable crops because of the cadmium in phospho-
gypsum. It takes about one year for the effects of gypsum to become
apparent. Apply gypsum before the wet season so that it can leach
accumulated salts beyond the root zone well before planting. Soil must
have good internal drainage to benefit from gypsum. Table 7 shows
the appropriate management of calcium, magnesium and pH.
An application of 5 to 10 t/ha of gypsum can benefit heavy clay loams
that have high sodium levels and a pH higher than 8.0.
Calcium (Ca). Deficiency is associated with blossom-end rot of fruit
and has also been implicated with the fruit-spotting condition called
Yolo spot or green spotting. For reasons not well understood, plant
deficiency can occur in soils with adequate levels of calcium present.
Uneven soil moisture and poor water quality increases the severity
of the problem. Apply lime, dolomite or gypsum as recommended by
the soil analysis.
Magnesium (Mg). Magnesium can be deficient, particularly in high
rainfall areas and where soils are fairly acid. Apply dolomite or spray

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 14 Growing the crop

with magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) as recommended by the soil analysis.

Magnesium sulphate may also be injected through the trickle system
at 15 to 20 kg/ha. Excessive use of calcium and potassium-based fer-
tilisers can induce magnesium deficiency. Table 7 is a guide to which
product is most suitable for your situation.
Table 7. Management of calcium, magnesium and pH
Recommended Soil nutrient status
action
pH high pH low
Calcium high Calcium low Calcium high Calcium low
Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg Mg
high low high low high low high low
Gypsum
1.0 – 2.0 t/ha  
Dolomite
2.5 – 5.0 t/ha  
Lime
2.5 – 5.0 t/ha  
Magnesium
sulphate (MgSO4)
100 – 250 kg/ha   

Final land preparation. Plough in the organic matter to 20 to 25 cm

deep, then work the soil to a fine tilth for planting. All organic mat-
ter should be incorporated into the soil well before planting to allow
it to decompose completely to avoid serious losses from damping-off
diseases. Decomposition takes about four weeks in warm, moist soil
and eight weeks or longer in cold or dry weather.
In very dry conditions it may be necessary to apply about 25 kg/ha
of urea and irrigate to encourage decomposition by soil micro-organ-
isms. Otherwise the organic matter decomposes when the crop is first
irrigated, resulting in heavy seed and plant losses.
Soils are normally worked twice with disc or tine cultivators and then
brought to a clod-free condition using rigid or spring tine cultivators
and harrows. A rotary hoe is used for final land preparation when
applying fertiliser and bedding up.

Trace elements
Other elements may also be deficient in some soils and may need
to be corrected. A complete soil analysis taken six to eight weeks
before planting will indicate which elements are deficient. These
can either be applied to soil before planting (preferred) or as foliar
applications once the plants are established. Soil applications often
last a few years, whereas foliar applications only affect the plants they
are applied to.
Boron (Bo). Deficiency is more likely in neutral to alkaline sandy
soils, particularly if they have recently been heavily limed or are low

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Growing the crop 15

in nitrogen. Apply as a foliar spray in these situations.

Zinc (Zn). Soil applications are most effective. Applications may be
broadcast over the entire area or banded in the rows at rates up to
ING 10 kg/ha of zinc. The higher rates may remain effective for several years.
RN pat-
WA OT com ate Zinc may also be applied to the crop as a foliar spray if required.
is N ulph
o l u bor zinc s nd they
S wit h te a ed. Soil applications are best made using zinc sulphate monohydrate
ible ahydra be mix
t t (35.5% Zn). Zinc sulphate heptahydrate (22.7% Zn) can be dissolved
hep uld no
sho
in water and sprayed onto the soil using a boom spray or injected
through the trickle irrigation system. Table 8 shows soil application
rates for boron and zinc.
Table 8. Soil application rates for boron and zinc
Element Product Rate/ha Comments
Boron Solubor 5 kg Spray on the soil. Solubor is NOT
compatible with zinc sulphate
heptahydrate.
Zinc zinc sulphate 10 – 20 kg Spray on the soil three weeks
monohydrate before planting and work it in.
zinc sulphate 20 – 30 kg Spray on soil or apply through
heptahydrate the trickle irrigation.
Do not mix with boron.

Lay out the field

The area to be planted is divided into lands, each land being twice
the operating width of the spray equipment to be used (Figure 6).
Access tracks of 3 to 4 m wide are run between these lands. Row
spacing within each land is normally 1.5m. Lands usually consist of
seven to 10 rows.

Figure 6. Field layout in relationship to the width of a boom spray

The length of row used with trickle irrigation depends on the slope
of the land. Under ideal conditions the accuracy of water distribution
decreases after about 120 m. Additional ‘lay flat’ tubing can be placed

Capsicum and chilli

 16 Growing the crop

across the rows to increase row lengths.

In south Queensland it is preferable to have the rows orientated
north-south. This allows better light penetration and air movement,
reducing humidity and thus disease outbreaks.
If possible, divide blocks into uniform soil types for easier and more
efficient cultivation, irrigation and fertilising. Provide all weather access
to the block and allow room for vehicles to turn easily at the end of
the rows. Design the layout so that new plantings are made into the
wind to reduce pest and disease movement from older plantings.

Mark out rows

Rows are marked out using the wheel marks of a tractor set at the
normal row spacing. After the first row is marked out the driver need
only follow on the outside wheel mark to obtain the correct spacing.
Pre-plant basal fertiliser can be applied when the rows are marked
out.
Capsicums are relatively tolerant of nematodes and control measures
are rarely needed. If good crop rotation and soil management is followed
no further nematode management strategies should be necessary.
Soil nematode counts are a useful guide, but can be misleading, because
some nematodes survive deep down and move up to the root zone
once soil moisture improves. Check the previous history of the block
or dig up some susceptible host plants and check roots for nematode
galling. A nematicide or fumigant may be used as insurance against
future losses because once plant damage is noticed it is too late to
control the nematodes. Chemicals used to control nematodes and
some weeds and diseases are listed in Table 9.
Table 9. Chemicals used to control nematodes and some weeds and
diseases
Chemical Trade name Rate Comments
chloropicrin Chloropicrin 300 – 600 g/20 sq.m See label for details.
Also controls some soil
fungi and weeds.
dazomet Basamid 600 – 700 kg/ha See label for details.
(60 – 70 g/sq.m) Also controls some soil
fungi and weeds.
metham- Metham 250 – 800 L per Soil injection or through
treated hectare sodium certified trickle
irrigation systems. See
label for details. Also
controls some soil
fungi and weeds.
methyl Brom-O-Gas 50 – 100 g/sq.m See label for details.
bromide  1000 Also controls some soil
fungi and weeds.
methyl bromide Brom-O-Gas 980, 50 – 100 g/sq.m See label for details.
+ chloropicrin Vertafume 500 kg/ha Also controls some soil
fungi and weeds.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 17

Fumigation
Alternatives to methyl
bromide Fumigation refers to the injection or incorporation of chemicals into
Section 4 page 91 the soil before planting to control nematodes, weeds and some soil-
borne pests and diseases. Use a broad spectrum fumigant such as
chloropicrin, methyl bromide, metham-sodium or dazomet.
The chloropicrin/methyl bromide fumigant is an extremely efficient
chemical on nematodes. However, it is costly, and its use can only
be justified if other soil diseases and weeds such as nut grass are an
anticipated problem. Although methyl bromide is gradually being
phased out it is still the recommended fumigant.
Before application, work the soil to a fine tilth to 25 cm deep. Soil
must be moist but not wet, free from clods and undecomposed organic
matter, and warmer than 10°C. Methyl bromide is highly toxic and is
applied under plastic sheeting. Hire an experienced operator with the
necessary specialised equipment to perform this operation safely.
There are two ways of applying the fumigant:
• fumigate the whole block before the beds are formed;
• only treat the strips to be planted. (The beds are formed, the fumi-
gant applied and the plastic mulch laid, all in the one operation.
This is cheaper, but diseases and weed seeds can remain between
the rows in the unfumigated soil.)
After treatment the soil must be aerated to allow the gas residues to
escape or plants can be damaged. If the whole block is fumigated,
remove and discard the covering sheet. If strips are fumigated, leave
the plastic mulch in place and delay planting for at least one week
and probably longer in winter. If cress or lettuce seed will germinate
in the treated soil, it is safe to plant.

Apply fertiliser
Capsicums require careful nutritional management to ensure high yields
Nutrition of top quality fruit. Follow the recommendations of your soil analysis
Section 4 page 37 when applying fertiliser. Nutrients must be balanced to achieve early
vigorous vegetative growth followed by heavy flowering and fruit set
on less vigorous growth. This should lead to a high yield of fruit.
Fertilisers are commonly sold as mixtures of nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P) and potassium (K). The percentage of each of these elements in
the mix is expressed as a ratio of N:P:K. For example 100 kg of a fer-
tiliser with an N:P:K ratio of 13:15:13 contains 13 kg nitrogen, 15 kg
phosphorus and 13 kg potassium.
Fertilisers should be applied before planting (pre-plant) and as side
dressings (post-plant) as the crop grows.

Pre-plant (basal) fertiliser

The pre-plant or basal fertiliser should provide an even, vigorous
but not over-vegetative capsicum bush. The plants should develop a

Capsicum and chilli

 18 Growing the crop

strong root system and early bush structure that can support a heavy
crop. Generally about 30% of the total nitrogen requirement, all the
phosphorus and 30 to 50% of the potassium should be applied before
or at planting. Where methyl bromide is used, pre-plant nitrogen may
need to be reduced by 20% to prevent excessive vegetative growth.
Apply the pre-plant fertiliser to the soil surface in a 60 cm wide band
and incorporate the fertiliser with a rotary hoe during final soil prepa-
ration or bed-forming. On some soils (mainly krasnozems and red
earths) where phosphorus may be tied-up in the soil, basal fertilisers
are drilled into the bed in narrow and 10 cm to the side and below
the plant roots (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Pre-plant fertiliser, (A) drilled and (B) banded

Major elements
Pre-plant fertiliser requirements are best determined from the results
of a complete soil analysis. If a soil analysis is not used, apply a pre-
plant fertiliser which will supply about the following rates: 45 kg of
nitrogen (N), 50 kg of phosphorus (P) and 50 kg of potassium (K)
per hectare. For a fertile soil the minimum rates to apply are 30 kg
of nitrogen, 30 kg of phosphorus and 40 kg of potassium per hectare.
Apply fertiliser in a band or incorporate within the plant rows. Table 10
shows fertiliser rates for two common N:P:K mixtures.
Table 10. Fertiliser rates for two common N:P:K mixtures
N:P:K mixture Quantity to apply
kg/ha kg/20 m of bed
5:6:5 900 – 1000 kg 2.7 – 3
13:15:13 350 – 400 kg 1.1 – 1.2

On high phosphorus level soils use a 15:4:12 or similar mixture. Other

elements that are required in relatively large amounts include ­calcium,
magnesium and sulphur.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 19

Sulphur is usually found in sufficient quantities in most commercial

N:P:K fertilisers, superphosphate, gypsum and sulphate of potash.
Lime, dolomite and gypsum are sources of calcium. Dolomite and
magnesium sulphate are sources of magnesium.

Control weeds
Weed control begins with the ploughing out of the previous crop be-
fore weed seeds can germinate. Regular cultivation with tined imple-
ments will prevent a build-up of weeds and cause less damage to soil
Using these products
Table 7 structure than discs or a rotary hoe. If a good cover crop is planted,
This section page 14 most weeds will be smothered. Weed control strategies should start
before bed-forming.
The interval between cultivations before bed-forming allows some weed
seeds to germinate and these are killed by the following cultivation.
This reduces the overall seed population on the block.
There are no residual herbicides registered to control weeds in cap-
sicums. Plastic mulch gives excellent weed control over most of the
cropped area. Nut grass will grow through plastic mulch so consider
pre-plant strategies such as fumigation or block selection for its control.
Weeds in the unmulched interrow strips can be controlled in their early
growth stages by cultivation or by a low pressure, directed, desiccant
spray with (for example paraquat) using shielded fan ­nozzles.
Methyl bromide will control nut grass and prevent it from growing
through the plastic mulch. Where plastic mulch is not used, weeds
can be controlled by interrow cultivation, hilling, hand chipping or
the use of herbicides.
Some weeds may grow up through the planting holes around the
plants. Fumigation before planting will reduce this. Any weeds that
do grow must be removed by hand.

Form the beds and lay the mulch

Plastic mulch
If plastic mulches are to be used it is essential to install trickle irri-
gation for water and nutrient application (fertigation). Table 11 shows
the advantages and disadvantages of using plastic mulch and trickle
irrigation.
Table 11. Advantages and disadvantages of plastic mulch and trickle
irrigation
Advantages Disadvantages
• Marketable yields are always increased. • Higher initial and ongoing costs.
• Mulches reduce water use by preventing • Need specialised machinery to lay
moisture evaporation from the soil. both trickle and plastic.
• Reduces the risk of fruit drop and • Need specialised machinery to plant
blossom-end rot disorder because of either container-grown seedlings or plant
more even water availability and distribution. seed directly through holes made in the
plastic.

Capsicum and chilli

 20 Growing the crop

• Mulches reduce fruit losses from • The plastic may harbour rodents or
soil-borne diseases, particularly in soil insects, which can destroy seedlings
ground crops. or the plastic tubing.
• Soil temperatures are increased and • The environment under the plastic can
provide a better growing environment favour the build-up of nematodes and in
cool weather. other soil-borne pests.
• Weed growth in the plant row • The plastic and trickle tubing require lifting
is restricted. and disposal after use.
• Reflective mulches will repel aphids.
• Ensures water is applied to the root
area of the plant.
• Plastic mulches improve the lateral spread
of water in some soils.
• Poorer quality water can be used with
trickle irrigation.
• Supplementary fertiliser applications can
be made accurately with trickle irrigation.

Plastic mulches come in various thicknesses, widths and colour. The

common practice is to use white or grey/blue plastic during hotter
periods to reduce soil temperatures while black plastic is used when
temperatures are lower. A silver reflective plastic mulch which helps
to minimise aphid build-up can be used to reduce mosaic infection.
Plastic mulch is usually purchased as 1000 m rolls. Width varies from
900 mm to 1200 mm and thickness from 25 to 35 microns. ­Table 12
shows the length of plastic mulch and trickle tubing required per
hectare at various row spacings.
Table 12. Length of plastic and trickle tubing required per hectare
Distance Metres of plastic mulch and
between rows trickle tubing per hectare
1.2 m 8333
1.5 m 6667

Trickle tubing
The capacity, quality and price of trickle tubing varies depending on
the type and manufacturer. Cheaper, thinner tubing is commonly
used and discarded after the crop has been harvested. Thicker, more
expensive tubing is used if crickets have chewed the tape. This tubing
can be re-used if you are careful retrieving it.
Emitters are usually spaced 20 or 30 cm apart. The closer spacing
is used where lateral movement of water is poor, for example sandy
soils, and the wider spacing where lateral water movement is good,
for example heavier clay soil types.
Cleaning trickle tubing Lay trickle tubing with the holes up, to prevent blockages from sedi-
Section 4 page 59 ments. It is laid between the pair of rows on the bed or about 10 cm
to one side of single rows.

Form beds and lay mulch

Lay plastic mulch and trickle irrigation on raised beds. In shallow soil,
form rows into low broad hills (15 cm high and about 60 cm wide) to
increase soil depth, improve drainage and reduce the risk of waterlog-
ging. Narrow, steep hills dryout too quickly and stress the plants.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 21

trickle tube

Figure 8. Plastic mulch over a well formed bed; note trickle tube

Forming beds, laying the plastic mulch and installing trickle tubing
is done in the one operation by a specially designed machine. Some
machines also mark out rows and apply and incorporate pre-plant
fertiliser at the same time. The trickle tubing can be laid on top of
the soil directly under the plastic but is best buried about 5 cm deep.
This helps prevent any ‘snaking’, so the trickle tubing maintains its
position beside the plants.
Beds can be formed and mulch laid several weeks or immediately
before planting. Laying mulch well before planting ensures that the
beds are ready. The crop can be planted even if wet weather would
otherwise have interrupted land preparation. In hot weather, if the
polythene mulch is laid for some time before planting, fewer weeds
may grow through the planting hole after planting.

Look after transplants until planting

Hardening off
The greatest cause of seedling losses is planting out ‘soft’ plants that
have not been hardened off as they are unable to survive the sudden
change from the growing house to the field. Too much protection for
too long, particularly if plants are crowded together in small cells and
over fertilised, will result in soft spindly plants.
In north Queensland seedlings are not generally grown under cover
so hardening off is not as important.
One week before planting out stop nutrient foliar sprays and reduce
watering. Where plants were grown under cover, either remove the
cover over the trays or move trays into the open to prepare the plants
for field conditions.

Trace elements
Apply trace elements if deficiencies developed in previous crops or

Capsicum and chilli

 22 Growing the crop

where soil analysis results suggest a possible deficiency. Spray to wet

the leaves only, not to have runoff, to prevent leaf burn. Do not apply
foliar nutrients with pesticide sprays. The addition of urea at 50 ­g/10 L
of water will increase the leaf’s absorption of trace elements.
To prevent molybdenum deficiency spray seedlings with sodium molyb-
date (6 g/10 L) or another source of molybdenum. For zinc deficiency,
apply zinc sulphate heptahydrate (10 g/10 L) before planting. Further
sprays may be required in the field.

Treatment before planting out

A nutrient drench immediately before planting out will help plant
establishment. A protectant fungicide spray is recommended im-
mediately before planting. A copper spray will protect plants against
bacterial spot. Apply an insecticide if insect pests are present.

Plant
Discard any weak or diseased plants as they are unlikely to establish
or produce well in the field. If pesticides have been applied close to
planting out, wear gloves when planting.
Seedlings should pull easily from the trays as squeezing to pull the plant
out can damage stems and increase the risk of fungal infections. If
plants are too tight in the tray, the mix may be too dry. Loosen plants
by tapping the bottom of the tray or dropping it a few centimetres
onto a hard flat surface.
Seedlings are transplanted by hand or machine into moist well pre-
pared soil.
For best results, if using a cup transplanter, seedlings should be more
than 12 cm high. Seedling height is less important if using waterwheel
planters. If plants are too small they may be damaged by being trapped
under the plastic in windy weather. Figure 9 shows a seedling ready
for transplanting.
Losses can be high if planting in hot windy weather or if plants are left
unirrigated. Apply a good watering immediately after planting out.
Take the following precautions:
• keep transplants moist while awaiting planting;
• make sure the potting mix is just covered with soil;
• follow the planter to make sure transplants are correctly plant-
ed;
• irrigate the plants immediately after transplanting to firm the soil
around the plant;
• if cutworms or false wireworms are known to cause problems,
spray the soil at the base of the plants bfore nightfall on the day
you plant. Use a chemical from the Problem solver handy guide.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 23

Figure 9. A seedling ready for planting

Capsicum and chilli

 24 Growing the crop

Planting to early fruit set

This stage usually takes four to seven weeks. There are eight important things to man-
age during this stage.

Monitor soil moisture and irrigate............................................ 24

Manage pests and diseases...................................................... 27
Control weeds......................................................................... 30
Crop production Trellising.................................................................................. 31
handy guide
Pruning.................................................................................... 31
Control frost............................................................................ 32
Pollination............................................................................... 32
Manage plant nutrition............................................................ 32

Figure 10. The frame indicates planting to early fruit set stages

Monitor soil moisture and irrigate

Irrigating from planting to establishment (to three

weeks)
Irrigate immediately after planting and keep soil moist but not over wet
until plants are well established. A frequent cause of poor establish-
ment is insufficient or infrequent irrigation after transplanting. If the

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 25

Planting to early potting mix is not kept moist it will shrink, forming a small air layer
fruit set between the mix and the soil. The roots cannot cross this air barrier
so the plants will not grow. The mix is hard to re-wet once dried out
so keep it moist until the roots are well established in the soil.
Apply small quantities frequently until plants have sufficient root
volume for tensiometers to be effective. Do not over water as this
will cause nutrient leaching and waterlogging around the young
transplants.
If using overhead irrigation it should be applied in the morning so
that plant foliage is dry by evening. Overhead irrigation is not recom-
mended because it encourages the spread of bacterial diseases.

Water quality
Recheck the quality of your irrigation water to make sure it is still
suitable for irrigating capsicums. Reduced yields can be expected if
the water conductivity (salt content) is above 1200 microSiemens per
centimetre (µS/cm); if above 2000 µS/cm, blossom-end rot is likely.

Irrigating once plants are established

Irrigation
Section 4 page 49
Good irrigation practices are essential to produce a good yield of high
quality capsicums. Crops grown without irrigation are generally poor
and not economically viable.
Do not over water, especially when the soil is cold from June to early
August. If using an overhead system, irrigate in the morning, so that
plant foliage is dry by evening. This will reduce the risk of spread of
diseases.

Irrigation timing
Critical times are flowering, fruit set and fruit fill. Moisture stress can
lead to flower drop and severe blossom-end rot. Less frequent but
increasing quantities of water are required as plants grow, particularly
if temperatures are increasing, for example, a spring crop.

Water quantity
The amount of water required depends on the type of irrigation used,
the locality and the soil type. As a general rule capsicums require
30 to 40 mm of irrigation per week. Sandy soils have a much lower
water-holding capacity than clay-based soils so need smaller, more
frequent applications of water.

Irrigation scheduling
The decision on when to irrigate has often been made by feeling the
soil, looking at the plants or watering at a pre-determined time interval.
It is better to schedule irrigation with much greater precision by using
instruments such as the Enviroscan and tensiometers.
The Enviroscan is an expensive piece of equipment, which is gener-

Capsicum and chilli

 26 Growing the crop

Planting to early ally used only by crop consultants and large growers. It uses electrical
fruit set induction to give a complete profile of moisture conditions throughout
the root zone. By using this information, you can determine the daily
water use and time to the next irrigation.
Tensiometers are comparatively cheap and effective instruments for
irrigation scheduling. They show changes in soil moisture, so indicat-
ing the actual needs of the crop.
Depending on soil variability select at least two sites per 5 ha and
install two tensiometers per site. Place the tip of the shallow tensi-
ometer in the root zone about 15 to 20 cm deep and the other, the
deep tensiometer, just below the main root zone at about 45 cm deep.
Place the tensiometers midway between plants in the row. Figure 11
shows the correct placement for tensiometers. The shallow tnsiometer
indicates when to irrigate, while the deep tensiometer indicates how
much water to apply.

Figure 11. Tensiometers in place, (a) in root zone and (b) below main roots

Once tensiometers are installed, read the gauge to determine when

to water. Read tensiometers between sunrise and 8 a.m. because at
that time there is little movement of water in the soil or plants and
they are almost in equilibrium. Errors caused by heating of the gauge
or water column are also avoided.
It is a good idea to plot the daily readings on a chart. The chart lines
show what has happened in the past and, by extending them, you can
anticipate what will happen over the next few days. Apply irrigation at
different readings depending on soil type and stage of growth. Table 13
is a guide to the optimum range for this stage.
Table 13. Optimum range for shallow tensiometer readings at different
growth stages
Tensiometer reading
Soil type Establishment Up to early fruit set
Sandy loams 10 – 25 10 – 25
Clay soils 10 – 30 15 – 30

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 27

Planting to early Manage pests and diseases

fruit set
Serious pests and diseases are likely at some stage in the crop and can
cause major and even total crop losses. Good management of pests
and diseases includes monitoring, timely spray applications and using
an integrated pest management (IPM) approach.

Problem identification
Correct identification is the first step to control. Is the problem caused
Problem solver by an insect, mite, nematode, fungus, bacteria, or virus, or is it a nu-
Section 5 tritional or physiological problem? The treatment would be different
in each case. To manage these problems, learn as much as possible
about the pests and diseases and their recommended management.

Insect and mite pests

Check your crop regularly during the first few weeks for cutworms and
wireworm damage. Cutworms chew plants off just above ground level.
They curl up in the soil at the base of the plant during the day, and
can be found by scratching around the base of plants. False wireworms
will also chew the plant stem below ground level. If cutworms and
false wireworms are known to cause problems, spray to control them
before nightfall on the day you plant.
Other pests at this stage include aphids, eggfruit caterpillar, green
vegetable bug, heliothis grubs, jassids, potato tuber moth (leafminer),
Rutherglen bugs, silverleaf whitefly, thrips, tomato russet mites and
twospotted mites.
To control these pests choose an insecticide that controls the range
of insects you have found in the crop. If you use overhead watering,
spray late in the afternoon when the plants are dry. Use an appropri-
ate chemical from the Problem solver handy guide.

Diseases
Pest and disease The main disease problems at this stage are bacterial spot, bacterial
management wilt, mosaic (potato virus Y), sclerotium base rot, sudden wilt, tomato
Section 4 pages 77, 84 spotted wilt virus (TSWV) and, in north Queensland, powdery mil-
dew. Sclerotinia rot and bacterial canker can also occur at this stage.
Check your crop regularly for these diseases.
Except for sclerotinia rot they are more common after hot wet weather,
so present or imminent weather conditions will influence your control
decisions. Choose a chemical that will control the range of diseases
you can expect in your crop. Spray with one of the chemicals in the
Problem solver handy guide.

Suggested spray schedule

Chemical application should be based on pest monitoring, however, a
regular spray schedule is often used to prevent development of serious
pest and disease problems, particularly for diseases for which there

Capsicum and chilli

 28 Growing the crop

Planting to early are only protectant sprays. Table 14 shows a possible spray schedule,
fruit set however, there are several other chemicals available.
Table 14. A suggested spray schedule for capsicums
Pest or disease Chemical Frequency Comments
Green peach methamidophos as required Controls a range
aphids and grubs of other insects.
Most leaf spot diseases copper 7 – 10 days Spray more often in showery
conditions.
Powdery mildew sulphur as required More common in north
Problem solver Queensland.
handy guide
Add another insecticide or miticide as required.

Selecting chemicals
Use the most effective chemical for the particular problem. Chemicals
are either protectant or curative, and systemic or non-systemic.
Protectant chemicals are usually not systemic in the plant and will not
eradicate a pest. They provide a protective cover, which prevents the
pest from getting established, so good coverage is essential. Eradicant
chemicals will control a pest that is already established.
ING Systemic chemicals penetrate the leaf or roots into the sap stream
RN
W A rob-
t h e P ndy and are transported through the plant with the sap stream. They will
ck ha
Che solver r local
lem or yo what
u control a pest that is already established. Although coverage is not
e r
gu plier o to use.
i d f as important with systemic chemicals, good coverage will give best
sup icals
che
m results.
Only chemicals registered for control of the particular pest on your
crop can be used legally.

Application of chemicals
Most chemicals are applied as sprays. The results from spraying will
only be as good as the coverage you achieve with your equipment.
An engine-powered sprayer is recommended. These include hydraulic
sprayers (hand-held or tractor-mounted boom), air-blast machines and
controlled droplet applicators. Hand-operated knapsack sprayers are
not capable of sufficient coverage.
Hydraulic sprayers are the most common and it is important that they
are set to provide maximum coverage of the crop. Aerial spraying is
also used for large areas or where tractor access is restricted due to wet
weather. Chemicals can also be applied as dusts or injections through
trickle irrigation systems.
Good pest control is only achieved through good coverage of the
plant, particularly for protectant chemicals. The ideal droplet size
for insecticides and fungicides ranges from 40 to 100 microns. Spray
equipment must be calibrated regularly to achieve this and nozzles
Calibrating a boom spray changed when they start to wear. This may be every 10 hours when
Section 4 page 87
wettable powders (for example copper) are used through brass jets.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 29

Planting to early Do not apply herbicides with your pest and disease sprayer. This avoids
fruit set the risk of herbicide residues in the sprayer damaging the crop. For
more detail on safe and efficient spray application refer to the DPI
publication Pesticide application manual.

Care with chemicals

Agricultural chemicals should always be handled responsibly and with
care. They are most dangerous when undiluted. Protective clothing,
including boots, overalls, gloves and a mask, should be worn at all
times. Use according to directions only. Avoid spraying if spray is
likely to drift off the crop. Dispose of waste chemicals and containers
thoughtfully to protect the environment. Only use chemicals registered
for use on your crop.

Bird and animal pests

Ducks, hares, rabbits, wallabies or kangaroos may chew off plants.
Termites may be a problem in new ground. If hares, rabbits, wallabies
and kangaroos are a problem, build a netting or electric fence around
the perimeter of the block. A trail of dried blood around the block
may work for a few days. Wallabies and kangaroos are protected and
problems with these animals should be referred to the Queensland
National Parks and Wildlife Service (QNPWS). Hares and rabbits
are not rotected. Baiting best controls mice and rats. Figure 12 is a
diagram of an electric fence to keep hares and rabbits out of crops.

Figure 12. A diagram of an electric fence to exclude hares and rabbits from

crops

Not all birds in the crop will cause damage. Most will be eating in-
sects, so are beneficial. Most native birds are protected and cannot be
trapped or destroyed without a permit from the QNPWS. A QNPWS
officer will only issue a permit after an inspection. You must be able
to show evidence of significant damage and that you have tried other
deterrent methods. Scare guns and suspended hawk kites are used
but are not highly effective.

Capsicum and chilli

 30 Growing the crop

Planting to early Control weeds

fruit set
Unmulched crops
In unmulched crops weeds can be controlled by hilling. This involves
making a small ridge of soil along the planted row after the seedlings
are established (10 to 14 days after transplanting). Hilling controls
weeds along the row and supports the plants. Take care to prevent
root damage.
Rows are usually hilled as part of the normal interrow cultivation.
This starts about 10 to 14 days after transplanting and continues until
about six weeks before harvest, when mechanical access through the
crop becomes difficult.
The knockdown herbicide, fluazifop-P (Fusilade) will only control
grasses, not broadleaved weeds, and can be sprayed over the capsicum
plants. It should not have any effect on following crops. Paraquat, diquat
and glyphosate are knockdown herbicides, which must be directed
between the rows. See Table 15 for registered chemicals.

Table 15. Herbicides for controlling weeds in a capsicum crop

Chemical Trade Rate per Comments
name
ha 100 L
These chemicals are for use between the rows
diquat Reglone 1.4 – 4 L + Agral Shield the nozzle to stop drift. Use where
broadleaf weeds predominate.
See label for more details.
0 days withholding period.
glyphosate-ipa Squadron 2.5 – 4 L 400 – 600 mL Shield the nozzle to stop drift onto plants or
plastic. Direct the spray so that it does not touch
the crop. Do not spray weeds under poor
growing conditions, when covered with soil or
dust, or wilting due to dry conditions.
See label for more details.
paraquat Gramoxone 1.2 – 2.4 L 200 – 400 mL Use shielded nozzles. Direct the spray so that it
Maxitop does not touch the crop. Apply after crop
Uniquat seedlings have emerged or when transplanted
Nuquat 1.5 – 3 L 250 – 500 mL crops are established. Reglone can be added
Paraquat 1.5 – 2 L at 750 mL to 1.5 L/ha.
See label for more details.
0 days withholding period.
paraquat + diquat Spray.Seed 2.4 – 3.2 L 240 – 320 mL Shield the nozzle to stop drift. Spray when
Tryquat 3 – 4 L 300 – 400 mL weeds are growing vigorously and not covered
with soil or dust, or wilting due to dry conditions.
See label for more details.
0 days withholding period.
This chemical controls grasses only
fluazifop Fusilade 500 mL – 1 L 12.5 – 100 mL Apply when weeds are growing actively at the 3
per 10 L (spot) to 5 leaf stage before tillering starts. Thoroughly
wet target weeds.
See label for more details.
77-day withholding period.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 31

Planting to early Mulched crops

fruit set
Some weeds may grow up through the planting holes around the
plants. They must be carefully removed by hand so the plant roots
are not disturbed.
The space between rows can be kept weed-free by using a knockdown
herbicide from Table 15. Apply these sprays at low pressure using
shielded fan nozzles to prevent drift onto the crop.

Trellising
Growers will sometimes trellis a crop to support plants to reduce wind
damage, keep fruit off the ground and reduce sunburn. A double wire
or twine trellis is used.
Smaller stakes (50 x 30 mm) are driven in 30 cm deep every 5 m along
the row. Pairs of wires (3.15 mm or 12 gauge) are then placed on either
side of the crop and lifted and tied to the posts and stakes, giving the
parallel wire arrangement. Normally one or two sets of wires are used.
The first pair of wires is positioned 20 cm above the ground. Further
sets of wires are placed at 20 to 30 cm intervals up the crop.
Erect trellises befor lodging or just after the last cultivation on un-
mulched crops. Figure 13 shows the design of a wire trellis sometimes
used in Queensland.

Figure 13. The structure of one type of capsicum trellis

Pruning
Pruning is rarely practised commercially, however, it may be neces-
sary after wind damage. Apply a protectant fungicide spray after
pruning.

Capsicum and chilli

 32 Growing the crop

Planting to early Control frost

fruit set
Capsicum plants are sensitive to frosts and should not be planted in
frosty locations (lower parts of the block) because temperatures below
freezing point (0°C) will damage plants. Provided the plants are kept
covered by a thin film of water they will not be damaged, even if the
air temperature falls below 0°C. This procedure is only possible if you
have overhead irrigation equipment.
Protect the plants by continual overhead watering while temperatures
stay below 0°C. Your overhead watering system should put out about
2 mm of water per hour with sprinklers rotating at least once every
minute. If you have an electric pump, connect it via a thermostat to a
temperature sensor in the crop. Set the thermostat to start the pump
when the air temperature falls to 1°C. Alternatively, you can have
the temperature sensor connected to an alarm, which alerts you to
go and start the pump.
Continue the overhead watering until the air temperature rises above
0°C and all the ice formed on the plants and fruit has melted.
Seek professional advice from your local electricity authority on de-
signing and operating this equipment.

Pollination
Capsicums are self-pollinated; they do not require insects to set
fruit.

Manage plant nutrition

Nutrition
The application of fertiliser every few weeks without knowing whether
Section 4 page 37 the plants need it wastes money and is environmentally irresponsible.
Take the guesswork out of fertiliser applications by monitoring plant
nutrient levels. If soil or sap tests are not available Table 16 is a guide
to fertilising at this stage. Up to 60% of the nitrogen is usually applied
before fruit set.
Table 16. A guide to fertiliser application up to early fruit set
Weeks from
planting Fertiliser Rate (kg/ha) Comments
Weeks 2 and 4 Calcium nitrate 20 Do not mix calcium
Mono ammonium 15 based products with
phosphate phosphorus based products.
Week 5 Calcium nitrate 30
(or early fruit set) Ammonium nitrate 10

If there is leaching rain, 40 kg/ha of urea should be applied to the crop

after each significant fall to maintain adequate early vegetative growth
up to first fruit set. More rain is needed to leach fertiliser out of the

Capsicum and chilli

 Growing the crop 33

Planting to early root zone of plastic-mulched crops than on non-mulched crops.

fruit set
Plant nutrient monitoring
Leaf testing is a benchmarking tool that has little direct relevance to
the current crop. Its value is in judging the effectiveness of the fertilising
schedule used in this crop and how it may be improved for the next
crop. Optimum values are given in Table 17. Use the results of soil
and leaf testing to refine the fertiliser schedule for the next crop.
Do a leaf analysis at early fruiting. Buy a tissue sampling kit from your
farm supply outlet and follow its instructions. The laboratory analysing
your sample will interpret your results and advise what nutrients are
needed. The optimum levels for the youngest fully mature leaf taken
when the first fruit mature are shown in Table 17.
Table 17. Optimum leaf nutrient levels (based on dry weight)
Nutrient Normal level
Nitrogen (N) 3.0 – 5.0%
Phosphorus (P) 0.3 – 0.6%
Potassium (K) 3.0 – 5.5%
Calcium (Ca) 1.0 – 3.5%
Magnesium (Mg) 0.25 – 1.2%
Sodium (Na) 0 – 0.3%
Chloride (Cl) 0 – 1.6%
Copper (Cu) 10 – 200 ppm
Zinc (Zn) 20 – 100 ppm
Manganese (Mn) 26 – 300 ppm
Iron (Fe) 60 – 300 ppm
Boron (B) 30 – 100 ppm
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.5 – 2 ppm
Source: Weir and Cresswell, NSW Agriculture, 1993.

Sap testing is a means of rapidly assessing a plant’s nutrient status

Figure 14. For sap tests, collect the
youngest fully expanded leaf from
the growing point
during crop growth. This test has a 24 hour turn-around time. It can
be used to highlight deficiencies of any essential element or to moni-
tor the nitrate and potassium levels during the crop cycle. It allows
growers to manage the crop more precisely or to correct any nutrient
problems before yield or fruit quality is affected.
The test involves collecting leaf stalks (petioles) and the mid-rib of
the youngest fully expanded leaves, usually the fourth or fifth leaf
back from the growing point, extracting sap with a garlic press, and
analysing its nutrient content. Sap testing may start at early budding
and continue through harvesting for crops harvested over a long
period. Figure 14 shows which leaf to collect.
You can do the tests yourself, but we recommend you use a commercial
sap testing service for the tests and advice on the results.
Sap testing for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magne-
sium and zinc should be done at least monthly and ideally every two
weeks. Other nutrients should be tested at least three times during
the season.

Capsicum and chilli

 34 Growing the crop

Planting to early Nitrogen and potassium are the two most easily managed and influ-
fruit set ential nutrients in capsicums. Table 18 indicates the optimum range
for these nutrients.
Table 18. Optimum sap levels for nitrogen and potassium
Nutrient Level in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg, ppm)
Bud development Early flowering Late flowering Fruit set
Nitrate 4 500 5 000 4 000 3 000
Potassium 5 000 5 000 5 000 5 000

Other major elements

Other elements may also be deficient in some soils at times and these
may need to be corrected.
Calcium. Calcium deficiency is associated with blossom-end rot of
fruit and has also been implicated with the fruit-spotting condition
called Yolo spot or green spotting. For reasons not well understood,
plants can be deficient in soils with adequate levels of calcium present.
Uneven soil moisture and poor quality water increase the severity of
the problem. Foliar sprays of calcium nitrate (CaNO3) at 200 g/100 L,
applied when fruit are very young, may reduce blossom-end rot and
improve fruit quality.
Magnesium. Magnesium can be deficient, particularly in high rainfall
areas and where soils are fairly acid, if preplant soil treatment with
dolomite is inadequate or where high rates of potassium nitrate are
used through trickle irrigation. Yellow mottling between the veins of
older leaves is a symptom of deficiency. Foliar sprays of magnesium
sulphate (2 kg/100 L) are preferable to correct deficiencies. Magnesium
sulphate can be applied through the irrigation system (20 to 25 kg/ha),
but calcium in irrigation water may react with sulphates and cause
precipitation in trickle tubing.

Trace elements
Apply trace elements if deficiencies have developed in previous crops or
where soil analysis results suggest a possible deficiency. Do not exceed
the rates suggested here. The addition of urea at 500 g/100 L of water
will increase the leaf’s absorption of trace elements. Only spray to wet
the leaves, not to have runoff, otherwise leaves may burn. Apply foliar
nutrients separately, not combined with pesticide sprays.
Boron. Boron deficiency, which causes fine cracking of the skin
surface, is more likely in alkaline soils. Apply Solubor (200 g/100 L)
about three weeks after transplanting and at early fruit set. Do not
mix with zinc sulphate heptahydrate.
Molybdenum. Molybdenum deficiency is more common in soils below
a pH of 6.0. Older leaves become mottled and may curl in and die
back from the tip. Apply as sodium molybdate (60 g/100 L) or another
molybdenum source about three weeks after transplanting.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 35

Planting to early Zinc. The availability of zinc decreases at pH levels above 7.0 and
fruit set below 5.0. High phosphorus levels and wet or cold conditions can
induce zinc deficiency. Leaves yellow between the veins and may be
small, resulting in the term ‘little leaf’ for zinc deficiency. If a zinc
deficiency becomes apparent, apply zinc sulphate heptahydrate at
100 g/100 L or zinc chelates.

Foliar fertilisers
Foliar fertilisers contain soluble nutrients, which are sprayed on the
crop and absorbed through the leaves. They may be urea or potas-
sium nitrate dissolved in water, specific trace elements or a ‘shotgun’
mixture of many major and trace elements.
As plants absorb nutrients mainly through the root system, foliar ferti-
lisers should not be used to replace soil applications. However, where
specific trace element deficiencies have been identified, or disease,
nematodes or waterlogging have rendered the roots ineffective, foliar
fertilisers may help the plants survive until new roots develop and can
again support the plant.

Capsicum and chilli

 36 Growing the crop

Early fruit set to first harvest

This stage usually takes five to eight weeks. There are four important things to manage
during this stage.

Monitor soil moisture and irrigate............................................ 36

Manage pests and diseases...................................................... 37
Control weeds......................................................................... 37
Monitor plant nutrients and fertilise........................................ 37
Manage irrigation..................................................................... 39

Figure 15. The frame indicates early fruit set to first harvest stages. An
understanding of the plant’s growth cycle will help with crop management.
Refer to the Crop production handy guide.

Monitor soil moisture and irrigate

An irrigation scheduling technique such as tensiometers or Enviroscan
is essential for good irrigation management. At this stage the crop
should not be allowed to dry out. Table 19 is a guide to the optimum
range for tensiometers from early fruit set to the first harvest.
Table 19. Optimum range for tensiometers from early fruit set to first harvest
Soil type Tensiometer reading
Sandy loams 10 – 25
Clay soils 10 – 30

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 37

Early fruit set to Manage pests and diseases

first harvest
Insect and mite pests
Monitor plants regularly for heliothis, eggfruit caterpillar, fruit fly,
aphids, mites, silverleaf whitefly and Atherigona. Spray with an ap-
propriate chemical from the Problem solver handy guide.

Diseases
Monitor for the diseases bacterial spot, bacterial wilt, mosaic (potato
virus Y), sclerotium base rot, sudden wilt, tomato spotted wilt virus,
grey mould (Botrytis), powdery mildew and sclerotinia rot during this
stage of the capsicum crop cycle. Spray with an appropriate chemical
from the Problem solver handy guide.

Control weeds
Weed control Control weeds between the rows and in the rows of unmulched
This section page 30
crops.

Monitor plant nutrients and fertilise

Continue to monitor nutrient levels using sap tests.
The fertiliser schedule used should be based on the results of soil, leaf
and sap tests. If these are unavailable, use the figures in Table 20 as a
guide. Table 20 indicates the optimum range for nitrogen and potas-
sium during this stage of the crop.
Table 20. Optimum sap levels for nitrogen and potassium
Nutrient Level in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg, ppm)
Early fruit set to first harvest
Nitrate 2 000 – 2 500
Potassium 5 000

Fertilising through irrigation water (fertigation)

If soil or plant test results are not available the fertiliser schedule
suggested in Table 21 could be used.
Table 21. A guide to fertiliser application through trickle irrigation
Weeks from planting Fertiliser Rate (kg/ha)
Week 5 (or early fruit set) Calcium nitrate 30
Ammonium nitrate 10
Weeks 6 – 11
(up to first harvest) Calcium nitrate 30
Ammonium nitrate 10
Potassium nitrate 20

Fertigation has advantages over manual application of solid fertilis-

ers because it uses less labour. With a trickle system fertilisers can be
applied more regularly and closer to the roots. Before fertigating get
a water-testing laboratory to analyse your irrigation water.

Capsicum and chilli

 38 Growing the crop

Early fruit set to With fertigation, fertiliser is dissolved in water in a drum or tank
first harvest and sucked or injected through the watering system. Fertilisers used
(Table 22) must be highly soluble to avoid damaging the pump and
blocking pipes. There is also a range of soluble commercial fertiliser
blends.
Table 22. Fertilisers that can be dissolved in water for fertigation
Fertiliser Main elements supplied % of elements
Urea Nitrogen 46% N
Calcium nitrate Calcium, nitrogen 18.8% Ca, 15.5% N
Ammonium nitrate Nitrogen 34% N
Potassium nitrate Potassium, nitrogen 38.3% K, 13 % N
Potassium chloride Potassium 50% K, 50% Cl
MAP (mono ammonium Nitrogen, phosphorus 12% N, 26.6% P
phosphate, technical grade)
MKP (mono potassium Potassium, phosphorus 28.6% K, 22.8%P
phosphate)

Note: Overuse of potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) based fertilisers can
induce magnesium (Mg) deficiency in soils low in magnesium or with
low cation exchange, that is less than 2 milli-equivalents per 100 g
(meq/100 g) of soil on your soil test. After every second application
of potassium or calcium nitrate, apply 15 to 20 kg/ha of magnesium
sulphate (MgSO4) to soils low in magnesium.

Side dressing overhead or furrow irrigated crops

The fertilisers and rates in Table 23 may be used if soil or plant test
results are not available. The quantities per 20 m of bed are the same
whether rows are single or double spaced. Drill into the irrigation
furrow before watering for furrow irrigation. Drill or spread if using
overhead irrigation.
Start fertiliser application three to four weeks after transplanting and
repeat every three to four weeks until about two weeks before first
harvest. For crops harvested over many weeks, for example chillies,
further applications at half the rate in Table 23 may need to be ap-
plied.
Table 23. A guide to side dressing fertilisers and rates
Fertiliser Rate per
kg/ha g/20 m of bed
Urea 100 kg 300 g
Or
Ammonium nitrate 150 kg 450 g
Alternated with
15:4:11 mixture or similar 250 kg 750 g

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 39

During harvest
This stage usually takes one to six weeks, however, chillies and some capsicum varieties
may be harvested longer. There are six important things to manage during this stage.

Manage pests, diseases and disorders...................................... 40

Control weeds......................................................................... 41
Manage nutrition..................................................................... 41
Crop production Harvesting............................................................................... 41
handy guide
Disposal of reject fruit in the field............................................. 42
Packing shed operations........................................................... 43

Figure 16. The frame shows the capsicum plant during harvest

Manage irrigation
Maintain even soil moisture during harvest. Table 24 is a guide to the
optimum range of tensiometer readings during harvest.
Table 24. Optimum range for tensiometers during harvest
Soil type Tensiometer reading
Sandy loams 10 – 25
Clay soils 10 – 30

Capsicum and chilli

 40 Growing the crop

During Manage pests, diseases and disorders

harvest
Insect and mite pests
Monitor regularly for heliothis, eggfruit caterpillar, mites, aphids, fruit fly,
silverleaf whitefly and Atherigona. Refer to the Problem solver handy guide
Problem solver for products registered for use on capsicums. Be aware of the withholding
handy guide period (WHP) of the products you use.

Diseases
Monitor for the diseases anthracnose, bacterial spot, bacterial wilt, grey
mould (Botrytis), mosaic (potato virus Y), powdery mildew, sclerotium
base rot, sclerotinia rot and tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) during this
stage of the capsicum crop cycle. Refer to the Problem solver handy guide
for products registered for use on capsicums. Be aware of the withholding
period (WHP) of the products you use.

Disorders
Several disorders become obvious in capsicums at harvest.
Blossom-end rot. This shows as a light brown lesion, usually on the sides
Pictures of capsicum of the fruit, that turns darker then black. Blossom-end rot is a calcium
disorders
Problem solver
deficiency in the fruit as a result of water stress. It is most common in
dry, windy weather and when poor quality water is used, or the soil has a
high salt content.
Frost damage. Affected fruit assume a translucent bleached appearance,
usually only on the exposed side. In severe cases it leads to fruit breakdown.
On less severely affected fruit, shallow surface pitting occurs without a
noticeable loss of fruit integrity.
Misshapen and deformed fruit. This is a non-pathological disorder as-
sociated with poor pollination leading to growth differences between the
fruit segments. The normally blocky shape of the fruit is lost and fruit are
smaller. The affected fruit have few seeds.
Extremes of high and low temperature can lead to this problem. There is
little that can be done apart from changing the production window to a
more suitable time of the year.
Sunburn damage. Sunburn is often associated with other stress factors
such as insufficient soil moisture or a wilt disease. It occurs when the bush
is opened up during harvesting and the foliage is not returned to cover
the remaining fruit at the completion of harvesting. It is more prevalent
in warm weather.
Large yellow areas form on the exposed fruit surface. At first these areas
are firm but later may decay from secondary fungi and bacteria. Bleach-
ing, causing a silvery sheen on the underside of newly exposed leaves,
also occurs.
Yolo spot. Yolo spot appears as slightly sunken spots on fruit and firm brown
tissue through the flesh under the spot. The cause is not known but it ap-
pears to be associated with calcium imbalance in susceptible varieties.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 41

During Bird and animal pests

harvest Birds (especially crows), rats, mice and wild pigs can damage fruit. Not
all birds seen in the crop will be damaging fruit. Most will be eating
insects and are beneficial. Most native birds are protected and can-
not be trapped or destroyed without a permit from the Queensland
National Parks and Wildlife Service (QNPWS). A QNPWS officer
will only issue a permit after an inspection. You must be able to show
evidence of significant damage and that you have tried other deter-
rent methods. Scare guns and suspended hawk kites are used but are
not highly effective.

Control weeds
Control weeds in the interrows to facilitate harvesting.

Weed control Manage nutrition

This section page 30
Continue to monitor nutrient levels using sap tests and apply nutrients
as required. Table 25 indicates the optimum range for nitrogen and
potassium during this stage of the crop. If sap tests are not available,
weekly applications of 30 to 40 kg/ha of potassium nitrate could be
applied during harvest.
Table 25. Optimum sap levels for nitrogen and potassium
Nutrient Level in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg, ppm)
During harvest
Nitrate 1 000
Potassium 5 000

Harvesting
The market wants full green or full red fruit, not fruit in the transi-
tional brown phase from green to red.
Picking generally starts 10 to 12 weeks after transplanting for green
fruit, which coincides with the first sign of red fruit in the block. Full
colour red fruit take about two to three weeks longer to develop than
green fruit.
Capsicum and chilli harvest varies in frequency, depending on speed
of growth. In cooler periods a harvest once a week may be all that
is required. In warmer periods harvesting two to three times a week
may be justified, depending on yields and crop stage. If you leave
capsicum fruit to go red, yields are reduced because plants stop set-
ting while loaded with fruit. Losses are also higher due to disorders,
pests and diseases. Red fruit usually return higher prices. Chillies are
usually picked red.

Assessing maturity
Fruit are harvested at the colour at which they will be marketed. Fruit

Capsicum and chilli

 42 Growing the crop

During picked at the mature stage will be firm, thick-walled and bright green.
harvest Coloured fruit should be at their full colour, for example red or yellow,
not partly coloured, for example brown.

Harvesting techniques
The most widely used technique is to simply snap the fruit from the
bush by hand. Cutting gives a cleaner break but is too slow.
Ensure pickers take care not to disturb the bush too much as exposed
fruit and leaves may sunburn. Make pickers aware of the need for
careful fruit handling because the price you receive at the market
depends on the care taken in handling the fruit from harvest to sale.
Take time to train and supervise your pickers. Results are always better
if pickers are provided with good working conditions.
Most chillies are harvested at full colour development. Wear rub-
ber gloves for picking chillies and do not touch your face with the
gloves.

Fruit handling
Capsicum and chilli are easily damaged and this causes downgrading.
Damage results in higher incidences of postharvest diseases such as
bacterial soft rot and Rhizopus rot.
Avoid picking very early in the morning if possible, particularly under
still, dewy conditions. Fruit are usually fully turgid under these condi-
tions and very susceptible to mechanical damage from dirty or scuffed
picking buckets. Clean picking containers and machinery after each
use to minimise potential fruit damage. Damaged fruit are susceptible
to water loss and disease infection.
Fruit are harvested into 20 L picking buckets or onto harvest booms
that deliver fruit into bulk bins. Transport harvested fruit to the
shed as soon as possible to minimise exposure to direct sunlight and
prevent heat build-up. This heat has to be removed later in the pre-
cooling room. Bulk-bins, plastic garbage bins or 20 L buckets are all
used to transport capsicums from the field; 10 L buckets are used for
chillies.

Harvest aids
The major advantage of picking aids is a reduction in the labour required
for harvesting. Harvesting is quicker as there are no buckets to be car-
ried to the roadways and the workload on the pickers is easier.

Disposal of reject fruit in the field

Crush fruit rejected in the field to prevent it becoming a breeding
place for insects, for example fruit fly and Atherigona. Crushed fruit
dry out quickly, minimising the likely build-up of disease problems,
for example grey mould (Botrytis).

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 43

Fruit handling and marketing

Capsicums must be harvested, handled and marketed with care as the price you receive
for your fruit depends largely on appearance and quality. There are nine important
steps.

Postharvest handling............................................................... 43
Cooling the fruit...................................................................... 44
Grading and packing................................................................ 45
Packaging................................................................................ 46
Mark packages......................................................................... 47
Transport................................................................................. 48
Storage.................................................................................... 49
Marketing................................................................................ 49

Packing shed operations

After harvesting and transport to the packing shed, the fruit are tipped
into a hopper with a creep feed attached to the grader, where they are
continually sprayed with water to remove accumulated dust and spray
residues and loosen other leaf debris that may be adhered to the fruit.
The fruit are then passed over a series of roller brushes, which remove
remaining adhering material such as soil and leaves. A chlorine spray
may be applied at this stage to prevent fruit breakdown.
The fruit then pass to a series of sorting rollers where defective fruit
are removed.
Fruit are usually graded manually for size and colour by packers; larger
sheds use graders that sort the fruit for size.

Postharvest handling
Capsicums cannot be coloured using ethylene gas because the fruit
become an unattractive yellow to dull red and cannot be sold.
Since capsicums and chillies have only a moderate respiration rate,
pre-cooling before packing is not necessary. Most growers cool after
packing.

Capsicum and chilli

 44 Growing the crop

Chemical treatments to control postharvest rots

Postharvest treatments Chemical treatments are applied to control fruit breakdown, usually
Section 4 page 84
Rhizopus rot or bacterial soft rot.
Fruit to be consigned to some southern markets must receive a post-
harvest treatment to control fruit fly. This treatment must be the last
treatment applied.

Dispose of reject fruit

All fruit rejected in the shed during sorting should be removed as soon
as possible to reduce the risk of infection of marketable fruit. This
reject fruit should be disposed of quickly, preferably by burying.

Cooling the fruit

Consult a refrigeration engineer when designing a cold room. The
engineer will need details of:
• maximum volume and weight of fruit;
• the time required to cool the product;
• the type of container the fruit will be packed in;
• the maximum temperature of the fruit at the time of placing in
the cold room;
• the minimum temperature to which fruit will be cooled.
After packing cool fruit to between 7 and 13°C to retain freshness,
reduce shrivelling from moisture loss and reduce weight loss.
There are two common ways to cool fruit.
Room cooling. Cold air is blown out into the room containing the
cartons of fruit. The air returns to the cooler past the outside of the
cartons, and may take up to 30 to 36 hours to cool the fruit.
Forced-air cooling. Cool air is sucked through cartons stacked with the
ventilation slots aligned to allow air movement through the boxes into
a central low pressure channel and plenum chamber and returned to
the room via the cooling coils. Advantages of forced-air cooling are:
• faster cooling, one-sixth to one-tenth of time taken for room
cooling; (Cooling rate is determined by the time requirement an
cooling system capacity.)
• no condensation within cartons;
• more efficient use of power and cooling capacity.
Once cooled, cartons can be maintained at temperature by room cool-
ing. Figure 17 shows pallets of capsicum cartons ready for forced-air
cooling.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 45

Figure 17. Cartons of fruit ready for cooling

Grading and packing

Grade fruit for size and colour. Capsicums are volume-filled or hand-
packed into the containers (Figure 18). The containers may be filled
by hand or automatically. Some growers pack into the lid of the carton
to give fruit an even appearance when the lid is removed. The fruit
TE
NO paid mus e of the one grade, size and colour. Mixed colours in the one
e s are how-
pri c uit s ts container are not wanted on the market and will be highly discounted
Top ality fr defec .
u o e
q
for ew or for sin z in price. The market requires either full green or full red capsicums,
g f e d
in grad not partially coloured fruit. Most chillies are sold red.
and

Figure 18. Cartons of capsicums; left: volume filled; right: hand-packed

Grade standards
Grade standards are no longer legally in force for domestic markets.
To meet both the agents’ and consumers’ expectations, capsicums
should be prepared so they will arrive at the final destination in a
satisfactory condition. Many of the major buyers are developing their
own standards, so if you are supplying several buyers, grade to the
strictest standard set.
Capsicums are graded on colour (green, turning or red) and size. Size

Capsicum and chilli

 46 Growing the crop

is measured as length and fruit are usually graded as small, medium or

large, with some growers also grading to small-medium, medium-large
and extra large. Grading to size gives a much more uniform appear-
ance to the pack, making it more attractive to buyers. Table 26 is a
suggested guide to size grading capsicums.
Table 26. Suggested size grades for capsicums
Size grade Fruit length
Small less than 80 mm
Medium 80 – 120 mm
Large 120 – 150 mm
Extra large more than 150 mm

The following standards are a guide to what the market has come to
expect:
• Fruit shall be sound, clean, and of similar varieties.
• When packed for sale, the diameter of the largest capsicum in the
package shall not exceed the diameter of the smallest capsicum in
the package by more than 50%.

Quality assurance for capsicums

Marketing and quality management is a vital step in capsicum pro-
duction. How well you manage this, and the quality of your product,
Marketing and quality
will have a big effect on whether you make a profit or loss from your
management production. Capsicum growers are implementing quality management
Section 4 page 99 systems driven by customer demand and food safety legislation.

Packaging
Capsicums can be packed in several packages, the most popular being
the 27 L package that holds 8 kg. The 18 L T35 that holds 4 to 7 kg
(average 6 kg) of fruit, and the 40 L carton holding 12 kg of fruit, are
also used.
Hot chillies are usually packed into 9 L cartons that hold 2.5 to
4 kg.
Packages may be constructed of fibreboard or polystyrene (best for
hydro-cooling). The major retailers will not accept the polystyrene
package, so check with your wholesaler. Various forms (glued, taped,
stapled or ‘self locking’) of fibreboard container are available. Contain-
ers used should be constructed to allow maximum air-flow through
each end for rapid cooling.
Packages printed with your own brand and colour scheme make it
easier for buyers to identify your fruit in the wholesale markets.

Price Look Up (PLU) numbers

Price Look Up (PLU) numbers are commonly used on most products
sold through major retail chains and are being introduced for fruit
and vegetables. These numbers assist checkout staff in identifying and

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 47

correctly pricing products. Though not of major importance for sales

of standard lines, some high quality or special order capsicums may
be individually marked with stickers that include a brand and a PLU
number, thus allowing product differentiation at the checkout. There
are many PLU numbers assigned to a range of capsicum types.

Palletising
Palletising reduces handling of individual cartons of fruit. The 9 L,
18 L, 27 L and 40 L cartons have been designed to fit on an Austral-
ian Standard Pallet. This pallet is usually stacked with 96, 84 or 56 of
the 18 L, 27 L and 40 L cartons respectively. Chillies in 9 L cartons
are usually stacked 144 to the pallet. All cartons are designed so that
the base of 12 cartons fits neatly on the pallet.
When putting cartons onto pallets it is best to stack similar size and
colour stage fruit on individual pallets to make handling in the market
chain easier. This is referred to as unitising.
When loading a pallet it is most important that all cartons are fitted
squarely on it and that the air vents of each layer of cartons face the
same direction, to allow the maximum air flow through the stack. Pal-
let stacking aids assist with this operation. The stack is held together
by corner stays and strapped, taped or wrapped with stretch nylon
netting. The pallet can be shifted using fork lifts or pallet jacks. A
pallet hire pool operates in most districts.

Mark packages
Every package of capsicums must be marked with the following legible
Marking packages and
correct weight information durably stamped, stencilled or printed on at least one end
Section 6 page 19 of the carton. Failure to do this may result in prosecution.
• The name and full address (including the state) of the packer or
the person on whose behalf it was packed. The address must give
enough detail for the person to be identified and located. A post
office box number or mail service is not acceptable but can be
included with the other information.
• The word capsicums or chillies or the abbreviation CAPS or
CHILLI.
• The net weight or count of fruit in the package. The fruit must be
weighed using approved and certified scales. There is no minimum
weight that must be in the package provided that, at the time of
final sale, it is not less than the net weight marked on the package.
The word ‘net’ may be included but is not compulsory.
This information must also be placed on individual punnets, for exam-
ple chillies. The minimum print height should be 2 mm for packages
with a maximum dimension up to 120 mm and 2.5 mm from 120 to
230 mm. Printing on cartons should have a minimum letter height of
5 mm. Failure to correctly mark the package may result in fruit being
withheld from sale until correctly marked.

Capsicum and chilli

 48 Growing the crop

Unless pre-printed, capsicum packages will have a panel with space

for you to stamp or stecil your name and address, and details of your
wholesale agent. Space for the size, colour and net weight of the fruit
and a traceability code is usually included for you to tick or circle
the appropriate box. An example of a package end panel is shown in
Figure 19.

Figure 19. End panel labelling for a carton of capsicums

Transport
Capsicums and chilli transport well in refrigerated trucks as a mixed
load with tomatoes. Storage temperature for both commodities is
similar. Capsicums suffer no ill effects from the ethylene evolved from
tomatoes during transport, but avoid longer storage with ethylene-
producing products.
Capsicum and chillies are best transported in refrigerated containers
at 7 to 13°C, rather than unrefrigerated units. Refrigerated containers
should contain the following equipment, which should be maintained
in good working condition:
• fluming; (This directs cool delivery air evenly over the top of the
load.)
• floor channels running the length of the container; (Floor chan-
nels allow return air to move back to the refrigeration unit.)
• a bulkhead around the evaporator. (This improves the movement
of return air to the refrigeration unit and reduces the risk of freez-
ing.)
Avoid stabilising sheets placed through the load. These sheets pre-
vent air movement through the load, particularly if the cartons are
not palletised.
Both rail and road transport are available to most centres. Road
transport is more expensive but is quicker to its destination. Trucks
can be loaded on the farm and unloaded at the market. Refrigeration
systems in rail wagons and road transports are designed to maintain
temperature, not to cool fruit. If warm fruit is loaded into a refriger-

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 49

ated container there is a risk that fruit near the refrigeration unit will
be chilled, because the refrigeration unit stays on longer to bring the
temperature down. Print-out temperature recorders should be fitted
T
to all refrigeration containers.
HIN ode
o b uy C the The Code of practice for the road transportation of fresh produce 1996 is
t for of
ere
Wh ractice r tation a guide to road transport.
of ansp e 1996
p o
tr uc 6
road h prod page 2
fres tion 6
Sec Storage
Capsicums are not suited to long-term storage. They have a low sen-
sitivity to ethylene and senescence can be hastened by exposure to
it. Do not store capsicums for long periods with ethylene-producing
fruit, for example tomatoes. Table 27 shows the conditions suitable
for capsicum storage and their maximum storage life. Chilling injury
is likely below 7°C.
Table 27. Conditions and maximum storage life for capsicums
Temperature Relative humidity Maximum storage life
7 – 13°C 90 – 95% 2 – 3 weeks

Marketing

Domestic markets
Sydney is the largest market for capsicum and chilli, followed by
Brisbane and Melbourne. Melbourne consumes large quantities of
chillies. Adelaide is a rapidly developing market for capsicums while
both Perth and Hobart are absorbing increased quantities. Other
provincial markets such as Newcastle, Townsville and Griffith all
absorb significant quantities of fruit.
Capsicums are usually sold in the wholesale markets through an agent
or merchant. Agents sell produce for a commission, merchants buy
the produce from the grower at an agreed price, then sell it on their
own account.
Wholesale agents are your source of market intelligence, so your
choice of a wholesale agent is extremely important. It is best to deal
only with a specialist capsicum or chilli wholesaler. Seek advice on
selecting wholesale agents from your local growers’ association.
Maintain a good relationship with your wholesalers and keep them
informed of the quantities of produce you are consigning and the
standard (quality) of the produce.
Major retailing chains are important outlets for capsicums. Although
some of their requirements are met from market supplies, they com-
monly also buy direct from growers. This is direct selling and is usually
on the basis of an agreed pricing system and some form of quality as-
surance system. If possible visit the major market in which your fruit
is sold at least once a season.

Capsicum and chilli

 50 Growing the crop

Prices
Prices are closely tied to supply, with higher prices paid during periods
Sources of market infor-
mation of lower production, especially if it coincides with a period of high
Section 6 page 11 demand.

Levies
All capsicums marketed by Queensland growers through agents,
merchants or direct sales are subject to a levy under the Queensland
Fruit Marketing Organisation Act. The levies are collected so that
Queensland Fruit and Vegetable Growers (QFVG) can fund promo-
tion, grower services and research. The levy is collected from the first
point of fruit sales.

Processing
Processors buy significant amounts of capsicums and chillies. They
generally arrange with individual growers for supply and transport of
product in bulk, not packed for market.
Some condiment manufacturing companies buy chillies from the
domestic wholesale markets.
In north Queensland several large operations are pre-processing or
freezing their own capsicums. There is a major chilli processor in
Bundaberg.

Marketing overseas
Capsicums can be exported to New Zealand, but chillies cannot.
The Commonwealth of Australia prints Export control (fresh fruits and
vegetables) orders, which show the requirements for exporting fresh
T produce. As there is no specific schedule for capsicums, Schedule 1 of
HIN Expor t these orders should be used as a guide to the requirements for exporting
uy ts
to b sh frui
e r e e
Wh trol (fr tables) ,
capsicums to other countries. The cartons must be marked with the
con vege edule 1 grower or packer’s name and address, and Produce of Australia. The
and , Sch ge 26
rs
orde tion 6
pa product must meet any description marked on the package.
S e c
Produce for export to countries that require a phytosanitary ­certificate
may be grown and packed in an on-farm Registered Export Establish-
ment (REE), or prepared for export in a premises which has current
REE status for the commodity being exported, for example fresh fruit
and vegetables.
Protocols have been established with certain countries (New Zealand
and Japan) to access those markets. These guidelines are commodity
specific and have been established for the product, within the proto-
AQIS offices in cols, from growing through to export. Produce exported to non-phy-
Queensland tosanitary certificate countries must, at some stage within the export
Section 6 page 15
process, travel through a REE. This may be a packing shed, exporters’
premises or a freight forwarder.
Some countries require exporters to obtain an import permit before ex-
port. This permit specifies the latest requirements for that country.

Capsicum and chilli

Growing the crop 51

The Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) supervises

Plant health coordinators
and contacts registration of establishments. Quarantine requirements vary between
Section 6 pages 15 – 18 countries and intending exporters should keep informed through lo-
cal AQIS offices.

Interstate quarantine requirements

Interstate requirements are subject to change so contact your local
DPI plant health inspector. Plant health coordinators in major DPI
centres can assist businesses with inspection services and arrange for
property freedom accreditation. Growers are advised to confirm the
details of requirements and fulfil them well before sending capsicums
interstate.
There are no restrictions on the movement of capsicums within
Queensland.

Capsicum and chilli