DIGESTION

DIGESTION
 A process which is hydrolytic in nature and catalyzed by enzymes in which complex food
material is changed into simple molecules which can be absorbed by the blood from the small
intestines and eventually carried to various tissues where they are needed
 Not all foods require digestion (eg. Monosaccharides, vitamins, inorganic salts)
 Accompanied by specific enzyme which hydrolyze:
CHO – monosaccharides
FATS – glycerol + fatty acids
CHON – amino acids
3 PHASES OF DIGESTION:
 SALIVARY DIGESTION
Saliva
 secreted by 3 pairs of glands: the parotid; submaxillary and sublingual
 daily output: 1500ml
 composed of 99.5% H2O and 0.5% solids e.g. Inorganic salts, NH3, urea, uric acid, mucin
(a glycoprotein which makes the saliva slippery) and the enzyme ptyalin (salivary
amylase)
 specific gravity: 1.007
 pH: optimum pH – 6.8 to 7.2
resting saliva – 6.4 to 6.9
active stimulation – 7.0 to 7.3
 COMPOSITION OF SALIVA VARIES DUE TO:
 Secretion of the glands:
o More watery, rich in ptayalin – parotid glands
o Mire viscous, less in ptyalin – submaxillary and sublingual glands
 Mechanical –mastication or chewing of the food
 Chemical- taste (esp. of acids)
 Psychic – reflex stimulation due to sight, smell or thought of food
 Loss of CO2

 FUNCTIONS OF SALIVARY DIGESTION:

1. To begin the digestion of starch
 Principal Enzyme – ptyalin or salivary amylase
Starch ----- soluble starch ----- amylodextrin ------ erythrodextrin ------- achrodextrin --------
maltose
2. A. To moisten or lubricate the food for easier swallowing ( mucin – glycoprotein)
 To provide correct pH for salivary digestion (mucin – one of the chief buffers of saliva)
 For protection of the inner linings of the buccal cavity and other internal body cavities
3. For cleansing teeth and gums
4. Saliva carries the intrinsic anemia factor
 GASTRIC DIGESTION (stomach)
Chief purpose: breakdown of proteins with the combined action of HCL and enzymes
 GASTRIC JUICE:
a. Digestive fluid of the stomach
b. A clear pale yellow liquids; pH = 1.6 to 1.8
c. Specific gravity = 1.003
d. Daily output – 2000 – 3000 ml
 Sight, smell, taste or thought of food stimulates its flow
 COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE:
1. HCl – secreted by the parietal cells of the stomach; 0.2 – 0.5%
a. Provides correct pH for gastric digestion
b. Germicidal action against pathogenic bacteria swallowed with food
c. Activates the enzyme pepsinogen
d. Has some swallowing action in proteins
2. Pepsin – secreted by the chief cells of the stomach
CHON --------- proteoses + peptones
3. Rennin – a protease
- Enzyme which causes coagulation of milk
- Found in thestomach of calves, kids and newly born infants
Casein ------------- Paracasein
4. Lipase – fat-splitting enzyme
 - Very little digestion of fats takes place in the stomach
- Milk and egg yolk – partially digested by lipase
 PATHOLOGY:
1. Achlorhydria – absence of free HCl
- associated with pernicious anemia or stomach cancer
2. Hypochlorhydria (Hypoacidity)
- abnormally low concentration of the acid
- may lead to stomach cancer, chronic constipation or inflammation of the
stomach
3. Hyperchlorhydria (Hyperacidity)
- more than the amount of HCl
- associated with peptic or duodenal ulcer, inflammation of the gall bladder
(cholecystitis)
 INTESTINAL DIGESTION
3 Digestive Fluids:
1. Pancreatic juice
 Secreted by the pancreas
 Daily output: 650ml
 Stimulated by the hormone secretin, liberated from intestinal mucosa by acid
present in the chime
 Slightly alkaline: pH = 8
 Composition: 98.7% H2O, 1.3% solids (digestive enzymes, albumin, globulin,
proteoses, peptones, NaCl and NaHCO3)

Enzymes in the Pancreatic Juice:

a. Trypsin – hydrolyzes proteins, proteose and peptones to polypeptides and amino acids
b. Chymotrypsin – hydrolyzes proteins, proteoses and peptones to polypeptides and amino
acids
c. Carboxypolypeptidase – hydrolyzes polypeptides to simpler peptides and amino acids
 starts at the end of chain where there is a free – COOH group
 it splits off the amino acid
d. Pancreatic amylase (amylopsin) – hydrolyzes starch to maltose
 same manner as ptyalin but with greater digestive power
e. pancreatic lipase (steapsin) – hydrolyzes fat into glycerol and fatty acids
 responsible for most of the fat digestion in the body

2. Intestinal juice (Succusentericus)

 secreted by the intestinal mucosa
 completes digestion of dipeptides and disaccharides
dipeptides ---------- amino acids
sucrose ---------- glu + fru
lactose ---------- glu + gal
maltose ---------- glu + glu
 also contains lecitlamase (digestion of lecithin) and nucleases (digestion of nucleic
acids)
3. Bile – brownish yellow or greenish yellow
 alkaline fluid
 has a bitter taste
 continuously formed in the liver and concentrated in the gallbladder
 normal person produces 500 to 800 ml/day
 not a digestive juice because it contains no enzymes
 cholecystokinin –hormone which causes the gallbladder to contract and empty the
bile into the small intestine
Functions:
 as emulsifying agents
 for transport and absorption of fatty acids
 excretion of certain waste products
Composition:
a. bile salts
 sodium glycocholate: Na + glycine + cholic acid
 sodium taurocholate: Na + taurine + cholic acid
Functions:
 as emulsifying agent
  for transport and absorption of fatty acids
b. bile pigments
 principal bile pigment: bilirubin (red pigment), biliverdin (green) – oxidized form
 both are formed in the liver from disintegrated Hb of RBC
 HEMOGLOBIN (Hb) – main body pigment
 Average life: RBC – 4 months

c. cholesterol - excreted from body thru the bile

- precipitates in the form of gallstones (biliary calculi) due to foreign substance
(injured cells, bacteria, pigments)
d. salts – NaHCO3
e. H2O

Pathology:
 Jaundice – yellowing of skin and sclera (white portion of the eye)
Due to:
a. Impaired liver function
b. Rapid decomposition of RBC than the normal
 ABSORPTION
ABSORPTION
 The passage of end products of digestion from small intestine into the
bloodstream
 Digested food normally remains in the small intestines from 5-8 hours

A. Absorption of Carbohydrates
Blood (oxidized to give energy)
CHO -------- monosaccharides ------------
Liver (stored in the form of glycogen)

B. Absorption of Proteins
Blood (oxidized to produce energy)
CHON’s -------- amino acids -------------
Blood (synthesis of new tissue proteins
and other N-containing compounds)

C. Absorption of Lipids

Blood (oxidized to produce energy)

Lipids -------- fatty acids + glycerol -----------
(fats or oils) Adipose tissues (triglycerides)

METABOLISM
METABOLISM
 occurs in the blood stream
 sum total of all chemical reactions needed to maintain the functional and nutritional
activities in the living cell
4 SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS:
1. To extract chemical energy from the environment either from organic nutrients or from sunlight
2. To convert exogenous nutrients into building blocks or precursors of macromolecular
components of the cell
2 ROUTES of METABOLISM:
a. exogenous route – involves the use of food particles and their oxidation to produce energy
b. endogenous route – involves food particles becoming parts of body tissues
3. To assemble building blocks into CHO’s, CHONs, lipids, nucleicacids and other characteristic
cellular components
4. To form and degrade these biomolecules for the specialized functions of the cells
2 PHASES OF METABOLISM:
1. Catabolism – involves energy-releasingreactions/processes
- includes all metabolic reactions with the breakdown or degradation of
biomolecules to obtain:
a. energy
b. starting materials for biosynthesis
- products: ATP, CO2, H2O
2. Anabolism – involves energy – requiring processes
- requires enzymatic synthesis of relatively large molecular components (CHO,
CHON, lipids, NA) from simple/small/precursor units
4 STAGES OF CATABOLISM:
I- Breakdown of Biomolecules: CHON --------------- amino acids
CHO ----------------- monosaccharides
FATS ---------------- fatty acidsb+ glycerol
II- Further degradation of the molecule
III- TCA (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle or Kreb’s cycle, Citric Acid Cycle)
- Final common pathway for the oxidation of foodstuff (CHO, CHON, Fats)
IV- ETC (Electron Transport Chain System)
- One of the products is water
METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES:
1. Glycolysis – breakdown or degradation of glucose or glycogen to pyruvate and lactate via the
Embden-Meyerhof Pathway
2. Gluconeogenesis – conversion of non-CHO sources to any of the substrates
Alanine – pyruvate
Aspartic acid – oxaloacetate
Glutamic acid – α-ketoglutaric acid
3. Glucogenesis–conversion of non-glucose hexoses (galactose, mannose, fructose)to any of the
substrates in the glycolytic pathway and TCA cycle
4. Glycogenesis – formation or synthesis of glycogen
 The amount of glycogen that we can store in the human body is limited to 300-320 grams
only wherein:
50% - stored in the liver
40% - skeletal muscles
10% - bloodstream
 Glycogen – serves as a sourceof ENERGY if a person suddenly goes into starvation (36-72
hours)
 Excess of CHO cannot be used as a source of glucose instead it is converted to fats
5. Glycogenolysis–breakdown of glycogen to produce:
a. Glucose – main end- product in the liver
b. Pyruvate and lactate – main end-products in the muscles

PATHWAYS INVOLVED:
1. Embden-Meyerhof Pathway (EMP)
2. Hexose Monophosphate Shunt/ Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)
- Alternative pathway to EMP
3. Kreb’s cycle (Citric Acid Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)
- Common pathway for the oxidation of foodstuffs
- Involves the conversion of acetyl Co-A to ATP, CO2 and H2O
GLYCOLYSIS
 Oxidation of glucose or glycogen to pyruvate and in the absence of oxygen to lactate which is
further converted to lactic acid,

PURPOSES OF GLYOLYSIS:
1. To degrade glucose so as to generate energy in the form of ATP
 ATP – body’s storehouse of energy
- High energy compound that provides energy for the chemistry of the body when it is
needed
a. Heat E for maintenance of body temperature
b. Mechanical E for muscular contraction
c. Electrical E for conduction of nerve impulses
d. Chemical E for the synthesis of glycogen, hormones and tissue problems
2. To provide precursors for biosynthesis
e.g. pyruvate – can form alanine (by transamination)
DHAP – glycerol-3-P (essential for lipid synthesis)

REACTIONS INVOLVED IN GLYCOLYSIS:

1. Phosphoryl Shift – transfer of phosphate group from one carbon to another within the molecule
2. Phosphoryl Transfer – addition of a phosphate group to a substrate
3. Aldol Cleavage – breaking up of a molecule to produce aldose and a ketose
4. Isomerization – conversion of an aldose to a ketose and vice versa
5. Dehydration – removal of water
6. Phosphorylation coupled with oxidation

Over-all-Equation:
C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD -------- 2CH3COCOOH + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H
(pyruvate)
HORMONES THAT INFLUENCE CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
1. INSULIN
 Produced by the pancreas
 Lack or deficiency of this causes Diabetes Mellitus
 Facilitates transfer of glucose in the cell
 Removes glucose from the bloodstream
a. By hastening the conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver and muscle
b. By speeding up the oxidation of glucose in the tissues
c. By inhibiting the breakdown of liver glycogen, and by promoting the formation of fat
from glucose
2. EPINEPHRINE (Adrenaline)
 Produced by the adrenal glands and discharged into the bloodstream when the
individual is under stress
 It accelerates the conversion of liver glycogen, thereby increasing the blood sugar level
and providing quick energy to help the body meet an emergency
 Its action is antagonistic to that of insulin
3. GLUCAGON
 Produced by the pancreas
 Like epinephrine, it causes a breakdown of liver glycogen and a rise in blood sugar level
 Since its action is antagonistic to that of insulin, it has been used to treat insulin
intoxication