LINEN

aya Shree produces world class linen yarn for weaving, Knitting and industrial purposes out of finest
quality of west European flax. Natural-grace, elegance, trendy and bold vibrant weave make linen most
suitable for traditional and fashionable apparel, furnishing and bed linen.
PRODUCT RANGE -
Natural, Bleached & Multifold Yarns
Linen Yarn for Weaving
Dry Spun - From 5 Lea to 10 Lea
Wet Spun*- From 10 Lea to 100 Lea
Linen Yarn for Circular Knitting
Wet Spun*- From 40 Lea to 80 Lea
* All our Wet Spun Yarn are Spliced

COUNT CONVERSION FACTOR-

From Lea to Metric Count (NM) - Divide Lea by 1.65
From Lea to English Cotton Count (Ne) - Divide Lea by 2.8
From Lea to Denier - Divide 14880 by Lea Count
From Lea to Tex - Divide 1653.4 by Lea Count
FEATURE
Higher moisture absorption Capacity, almost double than cotton, makes it a thirsty fabric. Linen allows
the skin to breathe, and is extremely comfortable under all weather conditions. Cool in summer, warm in
winter and refreshed in humid weather.
Linen helps to protect the skin from harmful UV rays.
Natural anti-bacterial health fabric.
With repeated washing, the fabric attains new sheen and airiness which makes it even more skin
friendly.
Extremely durable and wear resistant.
Naturally anti-static and hence repels dust.
Naturally anti-bedsore.
Pure linen influence the lowering of muscle tension.
Extremely soft and supple.

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LOOK
Retains the creases and wrinkles due to the individual body movements of the wearer.
It adapts easily to any lifestyle or occasion, whether for daily or special, formal or informal use.
Wrinkles of Linen has its own way of expressions. Linen is tough, resistant and nearly immortal.
It has a natural sheen and extraordinary texture, which differentiates it with other fabric.
To Know More Please Visit: - www.mastersoflinen.com/en/
FIBRE
We Source out best grade Western European Fibre from France and Belgium for our entire requirement.

Main 2

Count, Construction and Width of common Cotton Fabrics

Please note that value in bold represents count. The values afterwards represent EPI ( Ends per inch) and
Picks per inch. Then the available widths are given in inches.

Cotton Drill Fabrics

16 X 12 /96 X 48 / 48",63", 93" , 98", 120"

20 X 20 / 108 X 56 / 48", 63", 93" , 98" , 120"

20 X 16 / 108 X 56 / 48", 63" , 93 ", 98" , 120"

30 X30 / 124 X 64 / 48", 63", 93", 98", 120"

40 X 40 / 144 X 72 / 48", 63 ", 93" , 98 " , 120"

Linen/Cotton Fabrics

88 X 64 / 20s X 20s Linen / 63"

72 X 68 / 20s X 16s Linen / 63"

Cotton Oxford Fabrics

84 X 38 / 2 / 20s X 2/ 20s / 48", 63"

84 x 28 / 16 X 8 / 48 " , 63"

108 X 72 / 20 X 16 / 48", 63"

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Cotton Poplin Fabrics

92 X 88 / 40 X 40 / 50" , 63"

100 X 80 / 40 X 40 / 50" , 63"

100 X 92 / 40 X 40 / 50" , 63"

124 X 64 / 40 X 40 / 48" , 63"

124 X 72 / 40 X 40 / 48" , 63"

132 X 72 / 40 X 40 / 48" , 63"

Cotton Twill Fabrics

124 X 64 / 30 X 30 / 48 " to 120"

132 X 72 / 40 X 40 / 48 " to 120"

144 X 74 / 40 X 40 / 48 " to 120"

144 X 74 / 50 X 50 / 48 " to 120"

Cotton Voile Fabrics

92 X 88 / 80 X 80 / 48 ", 63 "

92 X 104 / 80 X 80 / 48 ", 63 "

80 X 80 / 80 X 80 / 48 ", 63 "

100 X 92 / 80 X 80 / 48 ", 63 "

Cotton Satin Fabrics

100 X 80 / 40 X 40 / 98 " , 120"

132 X 72 / 40 X 40 / 120"

124 X 64 / 30 X 30 / 120"

144 X 72 / 40 X 40 / 120"

175 X (56 X 2) / 60 X 60 / 120 " - 300 TC

175 X (50 X 4) / 60 X 80 /120 " - 400 TC

195 X ( 72 X 4) / 80s X 100s X 120 " -500 TC

195 X ( 86 X 4) / 80s X 100S X 120" - 600 TC

175 X 146 / 4 / 120s X 2 / 120s / 120" - 1000 TC

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Cotton Bedford Fabrics

132 x 72 / 40x40 / 48" & 63"

144 x 100 / 60x60 / 48" & 63"

124 x 100 / 40x40 / 63"

144 x 72 / 50x50 / 63"

Cotton Cambric Fabrics

132 X 108m / 60 X 60 / 48",54",63"

92 X 88 / 60 X 60 / 48" , 54", 63"

132 X 72 / 50 X 50/ 48" , 63"

124 X 100 / 50 X 50 / 63 "

Cotton Plain Fabric or Cotton Sheeting Fabrics

44 X 40 / 10 X 10 / 48", 63", 93", 98" , 120" to 143"

60 X 60 / 16 X 16 / 48 " , 63 ", 93" , 98" , 120" to 143"

60 X 60 / 20 X 20 / 48 " , 63 ", 93" , 98" , 120" to 143"

68 X 68 / 30 X 30 / 48 " , 63 ", 93" , 98" , 120" to 143"

72 X 68 / 30 X 30 / 48 " , 63 ", 93" , 98" , 120" to 143"

MAIN 3
Units of measure for fibers

The linear density of a fiber is commonly measured in units of denier or tex. Traditional units include
worsted count, cotton count and yield. Tex is more likely to be used in Canada and Continental Europe,
while denier remains more common in the United States and United Kingdom. The International System
of Units uses kilogram per metre for linear densities; in some contexts, the tex unit is used instead.

Denier

Denier /ˈdɛnjər/ or den (abbreviated D), a unit of measure for the linear mass density of fibers, is the
mass in grams per 9000 meters of the fiber.[1] The denier is based on a natural reference: a single strand of
silk is approximately one denier; a 9000-meter strand of silk weighs about one gram. The term denier
comes from the French denier, a coin of small value (worth  1⁄12 sou). Applied to yarn, a denier was held to
be equal in weight to 1⁄24 ounce (1.2 g). Microdenier describes filaments that weigh less than 1 g per
9000 m.

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There is a difference between filament and total measurements in deniers. Both are defined as above; but
the first relates to a single filament of fiber (commonly called denier per filament (DPF)), whereas the
second relates to a yarn.

Broader terms, such as fine may be applied, either because the overall yarn is fine or because fibers within
this yarn are thin. A 75-denier yarn is considered fine even if it contains only a few fibers, such as thirty
2.5-denier fibers; but a heavier yarn, such as 150 denier, is considered fine only if its fibers are
individually as thin as one denier.[1]

The following relationship applies to straight, uniform filaments:

DPF = total denier / quantity of uniform filaments

The denier system of measurement is used on two- and single-filament fibers. Some common calculations
are as follows:[2]

1 denier = 1 g / 9000 m

= 0.11 mg/m

In practice, measuring 9000 meters is both time-consuming and unrealistic. Generally a sample of 900
meters is weighed, and the result is multiplied by ten to obtain the denier weight.

 A fiber is generally considered a microfiber if it is one denier or less.

 A one-denier polyester fiber has a diameter[3] of about ten micrometers.
 In tights and pantyhose, the linear density of yarn used in the manufacturing process determines
the opacity of the article in the following categories of commerce: ultra sheer (below 10 denier),
sheer (10 to 30 denier), semi-opaque (30 to 40 denier), opaque (40 to 70 denier) and thick opaque
(70 denier or higher).[4]

For single fibers, instead of weighing, a machine called a vibroscope is used. A known length of the fiber
(usually 20 mm) is set to vibrate, and its fundamental frequency measured, allowing the calculation of the
mass and thus the linear density.

Tex

Tex is a unit of measure for the linear mass density of fibers, yarns and thread and is defined as the mass
in grams per 1000 meters.[5] The unit code is "tex". The most commonly used unit is actually the decitex
(abbreviated dtex), which is the mass in grams per 10,000 meters. When measuring objects that consist of
multiple fibers, the term "filament tex" is sometimes used, referring to the mass in grams per 1000 meters
of a single filament.

Tex is used for measuring fiber size in many products, including cigarette filters, optical cable, yarn and
fabric.

S or super S number

Main article: Super S or S number

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Not a true unit of measure, S or super S number is an index of the fineness of the wool fiber and is most
commonly seen as a label on wool apparel, wool fabric, and yarn.

Worsted count

Yarn spinning factory

Worsted count (or spinning count) is an indirect measure of the fineness of the fiber in a worsted wool
yarn expressed as the number of 560-yard[6] (512 m) lengths (hanks) of worsted yarn that a pound
(0.45 kg) of wool yields. The finer the wool, the more yarn and the higher the count. It has been largely
replaced by direct measures.

Yield

Similar to tex and denier, yield is a term that helps describe the linear density of a roving of fibers.
However, unlike tex and denier, yield is the inverse of linear density and is usually expressed in yards/lb.

Tex (g/km) Yield (yards/lb)

550 900

735 675

1100 450

1200 413

2000 250

2200 225

2400 207

4400 113

Yarn and thread

Cotton count

 Ne (Number English) or cotton count is another measure of linear density. It is the number of
hanks (840 yd or 770 m) of skein material that weigh 1 pound (0.45 kg). Under this system, the
higher the number, the finer the yarn. In the United States cotton counts between 1 and 20 are
referred to as coarse counts. A regular single-knit T-shirt can be between 20 and 40 count; fine
bed sheets are usually in the range of 40 to 80 count. The number is now widely used in the staple
fiber industry.
 Hank: a length of 7 leas or 840 yards (770 m)
 One lea – 120 yards (110 m)

Yarn length

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l/m = 1693 × lm/Nec × m/kg, where l/m is the yarn length in meters, lm/Nec is the English cotton count and
m/kg is the yarn weight in kilograms.

English cotton count (Nec) is an indirect counting system, that is, the higher the number the finer the
yarn.

 Thread: a length of 54 inches (1.4 m) (the circumference of a warp beam)

 Bundle: usually 10 pounds (4.5 kg)
 Lea: a length of 80 threads or 120 yards (110 m)[7]

To convert denier to cotton count: lm/Nec = 5315/ρ/den, where lm/Nec is the cotton count and ρ/den is the
density in denier.

To convert tex to cotton count: lm/Nec = 590.5/ρ/tex, where lm/Nec is the cotton count and ρ/tex is the
density in tex.

Thread

Thread is a cotton yarn measure, equal to 54 inches (1.4 m).

Fabrics

Mommes (mm), traditionally used to measure silk fabrics, the weight in pounds of a piece of fabric if it
were sized 45 inches by 100 yards (1.2 m by 90 m). One momme = 4.340 g/m²; 8 mommes is
approximately 1 ounce per square yard or 35 g/m².

The momme is based on the standard width of silk of 45 inches (1.2 m) wide (though silk is regularly
produced in 55-inch (1.4 m) widths, and, uncommonly, in even larger widths).

The usual range of momme weight for different weaves of silk are:

 Habutai—5 to 16 mm
 Chiffon—6 to 8 mm (can be made in double thickness, i.e. 12 to 16 mm)
 Crepe de Chine—12 to 16 mm
 Gauze—3 to 5 mm
 Raw silk—35 to 40 mm (heavier silks appear more 'wooly')
 Organza—4 to 6 mm
 Charmeuse—12 to 30 mm

The higher the weight in mommes, the more durable the weave, and the more suitable it is for heavy-duty
use. And, the heavier the silk, the more opaque it becomes. This can vary even between the same kind of
silk. For example, lightweight charmeuse is translucent when used in clothing, but 30-momme charmeuse
is opaque.

Thread count

Thread count or threads per inch (TPI)[8] is a measure of the coarseness or fineness of fabric. It is
measured by counting the number of threads contained in one square inch of fabric or one square
centimeter, including both the length (warp) and width (weft) threads. The thread count is the number of

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threads counted along two sides (up and across) of the square inch, added together. It is used especially in
regard to cotton linens such as bed sheets, and has been known to be used in the classification of towels.
There is a common misconception that thread count is an important consideration when purchasing
bedding. However, linen experts claim that beyond a thread count of 400, there is no difference in quality.
The amount of thread that can fit into a square inch of fabric is limited, suggesting that bedding beyond
400 count is likely a marketing strategy. [9]

Industry standard

Thread count is often used as a measure of fabric quality, so that "standard" cotton thread counts are
around 150 while good-quality sheets start at 180 and a count of 200 or higher is considered percale.
Some, but not all, of the extremely high thread counts (typically over 500) tend to be misleading as they
usually count the individual threads in "plied" yarns (a yarn that is made by twisting together multiple
finer threads). For marketing purposes, a fabric with 250 two-ply yarns in both the vertical and horizontal
direction could have the component threads counted to a 1000 thread count although "according to the
National Textile Association (NTA),[10] which cites the international standards group ASTM, accepted
industry practice is to count each thread as one, even threads spun as two- or three-ply yarn. The Federal
Trade Commission in an August 2005 letter to NTA agreed that consumers 'could be deceived or misled'
by inflated thread counts.[11] In 2002, ASTM proposed a definition for "thread count"[12] that has been
called "the industry's first formal definition for thread count".[13] A minority on the ASTM committee
argued for the higher yarn count number obtained by counting each single yarn in a plied yarn and cited
as authority the provision relating to woven fabric in the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States,
which states each ply should be counted as one using the "average yarn number."[14]

Ends per inch

Ends per inch (EPI or e.p.i.) is the number of warp threads per inch of woven fabric.[8][15] In general, the
higher the ends per inch, the finer the fabric is. The current fashion is to wear T-shirts with a higher thread
count, such as soft and comfortable "30 single" tee shirt that has 30 threads per inch as contrasted to the
standard T-shirt with an 18 thread count per inch.

Ends per inch is very commonly used by weavers who must use the number of ends per inch in order to
pick the right reed to weave with. The number of ends per inch varies on the pattern to be woven and the
thickness of the thread. The number of times the thread can be wrapped around a ruler in adjacent turns
over an inch is called the wraps per inch. Plain weaves generally use half the number of wraps per inch
for the number of ends per inch, whereas denser weaves like a twill weave will use a higher ratio like two
thirds of the number of wraps per inch. Finer threads require more threads per inch than thick ones, and
thus result in a higher number of ends per inch.

The number of ends per inch in a p

iece of woven cloth varies depending on the stage of manufacture. Before the cloth is woven, the warp
has a certain number of ends per inch, which is directly related to the size reed being used. After weaving,
the number of ends per inch will increase, and it will increase again after being washed. This increase in
the number of ends per inch (and picks per inch) and shrinkage in the size of the fabric is known as the
take-up. The take-up is dependent on many factors, including the material and how tightly the cloth is
woven. Tightly woven fabric shrinks more (and thus the number of ends per inch increases more) than
loosely woven fabric, as do more elastic yarns and fibers.

Picks per inch

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Picks per inch/Inch (or p.p.i.) is the number of weft threads per inch of woven fabric.[15] A pick is a
single weft thread,[16] hence the term. In general, the higher the picks per inch, the finer the fabric is.

Martindale

The unit Martindale quantifies a textile's resistance to abrasion when used for upholstery.

MAIN 4
This is my second year growing flax for cloth and I love it. I would like to share a few things I've learned
and hopefully learn a few things from you too. I'm especially interested in different sources of seeds for
fibre flax, and experiences growing/breeding it.

Linum usitatissimum, commonly known as flax, is an exceptionally good source of fibre (or fiber in the
US). The seed, often called flaxseed or linseed, contains a great deal of dietary fibre, and is very popular
for animal feed and human health nuts. The seeds also make a popular egg substitute in vegan baking.
What a lot of people don't seem to realize is that flax produces another kind of fibre, long strands of bast
fibre are hidden within its stem, which through a little bit of magic (aka, chemistry) and a bit of work, can
be transformed into linen cloth.

Although the same plant, the variety of flax grown for seed production is VERY different than that grown
for cloth. It may be possible to use seed flax for creating cloth, but it creates a vastly inferior product.
Flax seed varieties tend to be shorter, have stems that branch (makes for uneven fibres within the stock)
and has fewer, coarser fibres than flax grown for fibre. For the purpose of this thread, I would like to
focus on fibre flax.

Flax grows well in northern climes, with cool springs and moderate growing seasons. Basically places too
far north or south for cotton, will usually grow flax with very little complaint. It requires minimal soil
fertility, but the quality of the fibre is greatly improved with a application of well composted manure. In
my experience, compost without manure does little to improve growth, resulting in substantially shorter
stems, and far fewer fibres per stem. There are very few pests or diseases that attack flax. This is easily
combated with a 5 or 7 year crop rotation. A small patch can be grown in the garden, or larger in the field.
For the first attempt, I usually suggest about 6 to 12 square feet of garden bed so that one can see how it
grows in the local conditions.

Flax is very popular with my local transition movement, as it provides a sustainable, chemical free source
of lightweight summer clothing. Because of the environmental and labour issues with growing and
processing cotton, linen is quickly growing in popularity. When worn next to the skin, linen cloth wicks
away sweat and reduces bacteria growth that makes nasty BO. It dries quickly and feels a lot cooler than
cotton in hot weather.

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Growing flax:

Prepare the soil late in the winter for an early spring planting. A fine seedbed is desired. Flax can handle
some frost, so I usually plant mine a month or three before the last frost date. It needs a moist start for the
first 40 days or so, but after that, can usually handle a drought (depending on soil depth and root
strength).

Flax does not compete well with weeds. When the flax plants are about 4 to 6 inches high is the time to
weed. You can gently step on the flax and it will spring back. However, once the flax pant is over 8
inches tall, any compression of the plant will greatly damage the fibre yield. There are chemical
herbicides that 'work' with flax, however, these have been shown to damage the final fibre quality and
reduce yield. As flax does better with manure than chemical fertilizers, it is ideally suited to organic style
of growing. Very few pests bother linen flax.

To get the best quality fibre, one harvests just after the flowers have finished, but before the seeds form.
For moderate quality fibre, one can wait until the seeds have formed, then harvest the flax. Flax is
harvested by pulling up by the roots, it is then tied in sheaves and stacked in stooks to dry.

Once dry, the flax sheaves are rippled (the seeds removed) and stored somewhere dry. They can be stored
for several years before the next step, or they can be retted right away.

The fibre in the flax is called a Bast fibre. That is that it runs the length of the stem and needs to be
removed before it can be worked.

Retting the flax is actually a controlled rot. This step breaks down the hard stem of the flax making it
easy to break away the unwanted parts from the fibres. This can be done by submerging the flax in water,
submerging it in running water, or laying it on the lawn and allowing the dew to do it's thing. The first
two methods cause quite a problem for the water quality and can have a heavy impact on the local
ecosystems. Also it stinks. Dew retting is said to produce a finer, lighter colour fibre which, in my
opinion makes a nicer cloth. How long this stage takes depends on the temperature, humidity, thickness of
the stem, and lots of other little things you wouldn't even think of. It's best to ret flax in small batches and
to stop early. You can always re-ret flax but you cannot unret it. Once retted, it is again tied into sheaves
and dried in stooks before storing. It can be stored in a dry place for many years or decades before
processing it into spinnable fibre.

Getting ready to spin:

Processing the flax is best done on hot, dry days. It involves breaking, scutching, and hackling. This is
quite dusty work, and way more fun to do in a group.

When flax becomes linen is a topic of great debate, but most people these days say it happens when the
fibres are transformed into yarn. That said, there is a lot of leeway with these terms, and only the most
fastidious of people tend to be really bothered when the terms are used 'incorrectly'.

Once finished, we have two fibres ready to spin: Line flax and tow.

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Line flax is the long bast fibres, this makes the best quality, smoothest, and finest thread. Tow is the
shorter broken fibres that inevitably happen when preparing flax. These are often carded or combed
before spinning. Tow makes a thicker, coarser yarn that is good for outerwear, fishing nets, twine,
cooking string, and all manner of useful things.

Line flax is best spun from a distaff as it's difficult to keep the fibres organized otherwise. Tow can be
spun from a distaff, roving, or several other ways. One can spin on a wheel or on a spindle. Linen is
strong enough to be used as singles for both warp and weft. Knitting and crochet are more difficult with
flax than with wool because of the lack of 'give' to the flax.

For a smoother thread or yarn, flax is usually wetted during spinning either with water or a sizing made
with water and flaxseed. Flax is traditionally spun counterclockwise (s-twist), however, I suspect that flax
grown in the Southern Hemisphere would be better spun clockwise (z-twist) like wool.

Why we spin flax counter clockwise (with an S twist)

Weaving linen is usually done in the winter or when the air is humid. Linen thread is very susceptible to
humidity and will readily soak up any moisture in the air. The more moist the thread is, the stronger it
gets.

There are still mills in the world that work with linen, but a lot of them seem to be in Eastern Europe and
Russia now. Equipment for cotton or wool would not work with linen as it comes, because the qualities of
the fibre are so drastically different. However, some mills shred the linen fibres and process it like cotton
- in my opinion, too much of the benefit of the linen is lost by doing this, as it no longer retains its
strength.

Main 5
Linen yarn is spun from the long fibers found just behind the bark in the multi-layer stem of the flax plant
(Linum usitatissimum). In order to retrieve the fibers from the plant, the woody stem and the inner pith
(called pectin), which holds the fibers together in a clump, must be rotted away. The cellulose fiber from
the stem is spinnable and is used in the production of linen thread, cordage, and twine. From linen thread
or yarn, fine toweling and dress fabrics may be woven. Linen fabric is a popular choice for warm-weather
clothing. It feels cool in the summer but appears crisp and fresh even in hot weather. Household linens
truly made of linen become more supple and soft to the touch with use; thus, linen was once the bedsheet
of choice.

While the flax plant is not difficult to grow, it flourishes best in cool, humid climates and within moist,
well-plowed soil. The process for separating the flax fibers from the plant's woody stock is laborious and
painstaking and must be done in an area where labor is plentiful and relatively inexpensive. It is
remarkable that while there is some mechanization to parts of the fiber preparation, some fiber
preparation is still done by hand as it has been for centuries. This may be due to the care that must be

11
taken with the fragile flax fibers inside the woody stalk, which might be adversely affected by
mechanized processing.

Flax remains under cultivation for linen fiber in a number of countries including Poland, Austria,
Belgium, France, Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and the British Isles.
However, the grade of fiber the plants yield in different parts of the world varies. Many believe that
Belgium grows the finest-quality flax fibers in the world, with Scottish and Irish linen not far behind.
There is no commercial production of linen fabric in any significant quantity in the United States except,
perhaps, by individual hand spinners and hand weavers. Thus, the linen fabrics Americans use and wear
are nearly all imported into the country from one of these flax-growing and weaving countries.

History

Flax has been cultivated for its remarkable fiber, linen, for at least five millennia. The spinning and
weaving of linen is depicted on wall paintings of ancient Egypt. As early as 3,000 B.C. , the fiber was
processed into fine white fabric (540 threads to the inch—finer than anything woven today) and wrapped
around the mummies of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs. Mentioned several times in the Bible, it has been
used as a cool, comfortable fiber in the Middle East for centuries as well. Ancient Greeks and Romans
greatly valued it as a commodity. Finnish traders are believed to have introduced flax to Northern Europe
where it has been under cultivation for centuries.

Both wool and linen were tremendously important fibers in the New World. Relatively easy to grow,
American settlers were urged to plant a small plot of flax as early as the seventeenth century. While flax
is easy to grow, settlers knew all too well the tedious chore of processing the woody stalks for its supple
linen. Before the industrial revolution much sturdy, homemade clothing was woven from linen cultivated,
processed, spun, dyed, woven, and sewn by hand. It may be argued that until the eighteenth century, linen
was the most important textile in the world.

By the late eighteenth century, cotton became the fiber that was most easily and inexpensively processed
and woven in the mechanized British and New England textile mills. By the 1850s, linen production had
virtually been abandoned in the United States because it was so much cheaper to buy the factory-made
cotton. Some New Englanders of Scot or Irish background continued to cultivate some flax for processing
into linen used for fancy domestic linens such as bedsheets, toweling, and decorative tableclothes as their
ancestors had for centuries. However, most Americans abandoned the cultivation of the plant in this
country and instead chose cheap cotton that was carded, spun, woven, and roller-printed for just pennies a
yard. Thereafter and until recently, a different variety of flax plant was raised in this country not for its
linen fibers but for its seeds which exude a useful vegetable oil known as linseed oil when pressed.

Raw Materials

All that is needed to turn flax fiber into linen, and then spin and weave the linen fibers into linen fabric is
the cellulose flax fiber from the stem of the flax plant. The process for separating the fibers from the
woody stalk can use either water or chemicals, but these are ultimately washed away and are not part of
the finished material.

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Design

The manufacture of linen yarn requires no special design processes. All that has to be determined prior to
manufacturing is the thickness of the yarn to be spun. That will depend on the grade of linen in production
and the demands of the customer. European flax wheel used to spin flax into linen thread.

(From the collects of Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan.)

This is a European "flax wheel" used to spin flax into linen thread within the home. Folklore tells us that
it was brought by Henry Ford's Irish grandmother to the New World; it was one of the few family
keepsakes Ford had from his Irish ancestors. In fact, it was not unusual for the Scots or Irish to bring such
wheels to this country. The British Isles have a long and proud linen tradition, and even decades after
others abandoned linen production for cotton in the New World the Irish and Scots here tenaciously clung
to their linen-making traditions.

Ford's grandmother placed unspun flax on the tall, vertical, turned distaff and then push the treadle with
her foot to power the wheel. The bobbin and flyer mounted horizontally in the center of the wheel would
spin the flax and wind it on the bobbin at the same time. The rather small wheel below the bobbin
required the spinner to treadle rafher fast to keep it moving and because of the small wheel this spinning
wheel was not a popular style. It is lovely to look at, though, as this flax wheel is rather fancy, with inlaid
bone or ivory set within the wheel. Some refer to this type of European spinning wheel as a "castle" or
"parlor" wheel because of its lovely inlays and turnings.

The Manufacturing
Process

Cultivating

 1 It takes about 100 days from seed planting to harvesting of the flax plant. Flax cannot endure
very hot weather; thus, in many countries, the planting of seed is figured from the date or time of
year in which the flax must be harvested due to heat and the growers count back 100 days to
determine a date for planting. In some areas of the world, flax is sown in winter because of heat
in early spring. In commercial production, the land is plowed in the spring then worked into a
good seedbed by discing, harrowing, and rolling. Flax seeds must be shallowly planted. Seeds
may be broadcast by hand,

Once flax is harvested and the fiber removed from the stalks, a scutching machine removes the
broken outer layer called shives.

seed must be covered over with soil. Machines may also plant the seed in rows.

Flax plants are poor competitors with weeds. Weeds reduce fiber yields and increase the
difficulty in harvesting the plant. Tillage of the soil reduces weeds as do herbicides. When the
flax plants are just a few inches high, the area must be carefully weeded so as not to disturb the
delicate sprouts. In three months, the plants are straight, slender stalks that may be 2-4 ft (61-122
cm) in height with small blue or white fibers. (Flax plants with blue flowers yield the finest linen
fibers.)

Harvesting

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  2 After about 90 days, the leaves wither, the stem turns yellow and the seeds turn brown,
indicating it is time to harvest the plant. The plant must be pulled as soon as it appears brown as
any delay results in linen without the prized luster. It is imperative that the stalk not be cut in the
harvesting process but removed from the ground intact; if the stalk is cut the sap is lost, and this
affects the quality of the linen. These plants are often pulled out of the ground by hand, grasped
just under the seed heads and gently tugged. The tapered ends of the stalk must be preserved so
that a smooth yarn may be spun. These stalks are tied in bundles called beets and are ready for
extraction of the flax fiber in the stalk. However, fairly efficient machines can pull the plants
from the ground as well.

Releasing the Fiber from the stalk

 3 The plant is passed through coarse combs, which removes the seeds and leaves from the plant.
This process, called

The fiber is combed and separated by length. Line fibers (long linen fibers) are spun into linen
yarn. rippling, is mechanized in many of the flax-producing countries.

 4 The woody bark surrounding the flax fiber is decomposed by water or chemical retting, which
loosens the pectin or gum that attaches the fiber to the stem. If flax is not fully retted, the stalk of
the plant cannot be separated from the fiber without injuring the delicate fiber. Thus, retting has
to be carefully executed. Too little retting may not permit the fiber to be separated from the stalk
with ease. Too much retting or rotting will weaken fibers.

Retting may be accomplished in a variety of ways. In some parts of the world, linen is still retted
by hand, using moisture to rot away the bark. The stalks are spread on dewy slopes, submerged in
stagnant pools of water, or placed in running streams. Workers must wait for the water to begin
rotting or fermenting the stem—sometimes more than a week or two. However, most
manufacturers use chemicals for retting. The plants are placed in a solution either of alkali or
oxalic acid, then pressurized and boiled. This method is easy to monitor and rather quick,
although some believe that chemical retting adversely affects the color and strength of the fiber
and hand retting produces the finest linen. Vat or mechanical retting requires that the stalks be
submerged in vats of warm water, hastening the decomposition of the stem. The flax is then
removed from the vats and passed between rollers to crush the bark as clean water flushes away
the pectin and other impurities.

 5 After the retting process, the flax plants are squeezed and allowed to dry out before they
undergo the process called breaking. In order to crush the decomposed stalks, they are sent
through fluted rollers which break up the stem and separate the exterior fibers from the bast that
will be used to make linen. This process breaks the stalk into small pieces of bark called shives.
Then, the shives are scutched. The scutching machine removes the broken shives with rotating
paddles, finally releasing the flax fiber from stalk.
 6 The fibers are now combed and straightened in preparation for spinning. This separates the
short fibers (called tow and used for making more coarse, sturdy goods) from the longer and more
luxurious linen fibers. The very finest flax fibers are called line or dressed flax, and the fibers
may be anywhere from 12-20 in (30.5-51 cm) in length.

Spinning

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  7 Line fibers (long linen fibers) are put through machines called spreaders, which combine fibers
of the same length, laying the fibers parallel so that the ends overlap, creating a sliver. The sliver
passes through a set of rollers, making a roving which is ready to spin.

 8 The linen rovings, resembling tresses of blonde hair, are put on a spinning frame and drawn out
into thread and ultimately wound on bobbins or spools. Many such spools are filled on a spinning
frame at the same time. The fibers are formed into a continuous ribbon by being pressed between
rollers and combed over fine pins. This operation constantly pulls and elongates the ribbon-like
linen until it is given its final twist for strength and wound on the bobbin. While linen is a strong
fiber, it is rather inelastic. Thus, the atmosphere within the spinning factory must be both humid
and warm in order to render the fiber easier to work into yarn. In this hot, humid factory the linen
is wet spun in which the roving is run through a hot water bath in order to bind the fibers together
thus creating a fine yarn. Dry spinning does not use moisture for spinning. This produces rough,
uneven yarn that are used for making inexpensive twines or coarse yarns.
 9 These moist yarns are transferred from bobbins on the spinning frame to large take-up reels.
These linen reels are taken to dryers, and when the yarn is dry, it is wound onto bobbins for
weaving or wound into yarn spools of varying weight. The standard measure of flax yarn is the
cut. It is based on the measure of 1 lb (453.59 g) of flax spun to make 300 yd (274.2 m) of yarn
being equal to one cut. If 1 lb (453.59 g) of flax is spun into 600 yd (548.4 m), then it is a "no. 2
cut." The higher the cut, the finer the yarn becomes. The yarn now awaits transport to the loom
for weaving into fabrics, toweling, or for use as twine or rope.

Byproducts/Waste

Of greatest concern are the chemicals used in retting. These chemicals must be neutralized before being
released into water supplies. The stalks, leaves, seed pods, etc. are natural organic materials and are not
hazardous unless impregnated with much of the chemicals left behind in the retting process. The only
other concern with the processing of linen is the smell—it is said that hand-retted linen produces quite a
stench and is most unpleasant to experience.

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