Public Speaking 1 Class Materials

CLASS MATERIALS
PUBLIC SPEAKING 1
FEBRUARY-JUNE, 2013
Ana Paulina Suárez C

Purpose Statement – a concise statement which conveys your purpose for speaking, i.e.
what do you wish to accomplish through your speech.
Public Speaking – a speech that usually involves one person standing before an
audience with the purpose of persuading, informing, or entertaining.
Brainstorm – the gathering of ideas* (*goal is to generate lots of ideas without

attacking or judging them).
When determining your purpose statement:
a. What do you want your audience to know?
b. What do you want your audience to feel?
c. What do you want your audience to do?
Most reasons for speaking fall into three categories: to persuade, to inform (or
teach), or to entertain.
An example of a purpose statement for a speech on the importance of good
study habits given to university students would be: I want my audience to understand
the characteristics of good study habits and to take action by incorporating good study
habit skills into their daily study.
Mtra. Ana Paulina Suárez C. 1

Brainstorming Exercise:
Suppose you’re speaking to a small group of students from Southern California who
plans on visiting León over Summer Break.
Your responsibility is to tell them how to prepare for this trip.
What might your specific purpose be for this speech? (Remember the three essential
questions to keep in mind: What do you want your audience to know, what do you
want your audience to feel? and what do you want your audience to do?)
Now brainstorm a list of all the things you would want to include in your speech
(remember this is a preliminary list if ideas, so write down anything and everything
that comes to mind!)
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Purpose Statement Exercise
Adapted from Templeton, M. and FitzGerald, S. Great Presentation Skills. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1999. ISBN 0-07-022061-1
Write your specific purpose in each situation.
1. You’re speaking to university students about the hazards of smoking.
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2. You’re speaking to neighborhood residents about the importance of recycling

newspapers.
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3. You’re speaking to corporate executives about fundraising for a little boy who was
tragically burned in a house fire.
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4. You’re speaking to a group of athletes on the value of a healthy diet.

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5. You’re speaking to your school’s principal about the advantages of purchasing more
recreation equipment for outside play.
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Better Public Speaking & Presentation: Ensure Your Words Are Always Understood
Think of the last really memorable talk or presentation that you attended. Now,
was that easy to do, or did you really have to rack your brains to remember one? Sadly,
too many presentations are easy to forget. And that's a big problem because the only
reason the presenter gave the talk was to communicate something to you!
However, there are three basic things that you can do to ensure that your verbal
messages are understood - and remembered - time and time again.
Although somewhat obvious and deceptively simple, these are:
 Understand the purpose of the presentation
 Keep the message clear and concise
 Be prepared
 Be vivid when delivering the message
Understand what you want to achieve:

Before you start working on your talk or presentation, it's vital that you really
understand what you want to say, who you want to tell and why they might want to
hear it. To do this, ask yourself: Who? What? How? When? Where? Why?
Who are you speaking to? What are their interests, presuppositions and values?
What do they share in common with others; how are they unique?

What do you wish to communicate? One way of answering this question is to ask
yourself about the ‘success criteria’. How do you know if and when you have
successfully communicated what you have in mind?
How? can you best convey your message? Language is important here, as are the
nonverbal cues discussed earlier. Choose your words and your nonverbal cues with
your audience in mind. Plan a beginning, middle and end. If time and place allow,
consider and prepare audio-visual aids.
When? Timing is important here. Develop a sense of timing, so that your
contributions are seen and heard as relevant to the issue or matter at hand. There is a
time to speak and a time to be silent. ‘It’s better to be silent than sing a bad tune.’
Where? What is the physical context of the communication in mind? You may
have time to visit the room, for example, and rearrange the furniture. Check for
availability and visibility if you are using audio or visual aids.
Why? In order to convert hearers into listeners, you need to know why they
should listen to you – and tell them if necessary. What disposes them to listen? That
implies that you know yourself why you are seeking to communicate – the value or
worth or interest of what you are going to say.
Keep it Simple:
When it comes to wording your message, less is more. You're giving your
audience headlines. They don't need to and are usually not expecting to become
experts on the subject as a result of hearing your talk.
If you're using slides, limit the content of each one to a few bullet points, or one
statement or a very simple diagram.
Be Prepared:
Preparation is underrated. In fact, it is one of the most important factors in
determining your communication successes. When possible, set meeting times and
speaking and presentation times well in advance, thus allowing yourself the time you
need to prepare your communications, mindful of the entire communication process
(source, encoding, channel, decoding, receiver, feedback and context). By paying close
attention to each of these stages and preparing accordingly, you ensure your
communications will be more effective and better understood.
Of course, not all communications can be scheduled. In this case, preparation
may mean having a good, thorough understanding of the office goings-on, enabling
you to communicate with the knowledge you need to be effective, both through verbal
and written communications.

Unforgettable Delivery:
Your delivery of your speech or presentation will make or break it, no matter how
well you've prepared and crafted your clear, concise message. Some useful tips for
keeping your presentation vivid include:
 Use examples to bring your points to life
 Keep your body language up-beat - don't stay stuck behind a rostrum
 Don't talk to fast. Less is more here too. Pauses are effective.
 Use a variety of tones of voice
 Use visual aids.
Public Speaking Tips

The following tips are taken from SPEAKING UP©, MIT Freshman Advising
Seminar 055, that was offered by Norma McGavern (former UROP Director) in Fall
1996. These tips provide you with advice on how to deliver your message clearly and
strongly, with as little pain as possible for you —the speaker —and your audience.
Preparation for Speaking—Your Voice (what you start out with) and the Sound it
Makes.
1. Speech Is What You Do With Sound.
Remember where the source of your voice is--it's not in your mouth! Air is pushed
out from your abdomen, not from your throat. Before speaking--and while speaking,
take deep breaths that result from diaphragm movement, not movement of the upper
chest.
 It's a physical thing. The muscles between the ribs contract when you take a
breath, and the ribs swing up and out. The diaphragm contracts, then descends
and flattens, causing a slight displacement of abdominal organs and an
expansion of the upper end of the abdomen. The size of the chest cavity
increases and air rushes in to fill the vacuum. When you exhale, muscles relax
and return to the resting position and air is forced out of the lungs.
 You can do an exercise. Feel where the air is coming from. Stand up, put your
hand on your abdomen; let air in, let air out. Count to 5, then 10, on a breath.
Feel it? It's relaxing.
 Speaking posture: Stand in a comfortable position, not rigidly straight, not
slumped over.

2. Your Voice Creates An Impression. What Kind Of Impression Do You Want To Make?
(A) Pitch: The tone of your voice. It is high? Low? A low voice may carry better. Correct
breathing will help you achieve a lower pitch, to a point. So will relaxing.
(B) Inflection: Don't sound querulous. That is, don't end sentences with an upward
tone as you do when you ask a question (unless you want to sound uncertain). Beware
of the inflections of sarcasm; these inflections usually don't play well and can sound
whiny and annoying.
(C) Pace: The speed at which your thoughts are put together out loud. Normal
conversational speech is done with rapid bursts of sound. Public speaking pace should
be slower and more deliberate than conversational speech. What may seem to be too
slow to the speaker is very likely just right for the audience. The pace you choose may
be related to the kind of audience and content of your material. Aim for a slow pace,
with lots of pauses between ideas.
(D) Articulation and Pronunciation: Articulation is the ability to produce individual
sounds. Pronunciation is putting sounds together to make understandable words.
Understandability is key. Don't blur words. Voice complete and distinct sounds. This is
not as simple as it sounds. Articulating plosives is a big help: b. d, g, dz (j in jump), p, t,
k, ts, (ch in child), particularly when they end words as in "white."
Say only words! Don't vocalize, making sounds like "um, uh, er, aaah." Avoid sounds
that only masquerade as words, like "like," that impart zero information. Learn to enjoy
silence.
3. Get Your Voice Ready!
(A) Practice breath control. Avoid upper thoracic (throat) breathing.
(B) Find your natural standing body position and be comfortable.
(C) Watch what you eat before a talk. Avoid dairy products. Coagulation occurs around
vocal chords and makes you want to clear your throat. Avoid having a large meal
beforehand.
(D) Practice your speech by giving it to a tape recorder. This will be the harshest test
you can give yourself. If you have no tape recorder, practice it out loud.
(E) Get your voice to stretch. Make sure it can reach the back of the room, at least in
practice. In reality, you will probably have a microphone--but what if you don't?

The Audience and You
1. Who Are They?
(A) What is the background (knowledge base) of the people you are going to be
talking to? Adjust the level of your talk accordingly. Try to reach everyone.
(B) What mood are they likely to be in? What did they do before your talk? What are
they going to be doing after? Is the atmosphere or setting formal or informal?
(C) Who are they? Both sexes, more than likely, probably religiously and ethnically
diverse, etc. Therefore:
 Don't exclude part of your audience by (for example) referring solely to "men"
and telling stories using only the pronoun "he." On the other hand, don't pander
to your audience by overdoing in the opposite direction.
 Making a show of your thoughtfulness by switching genders in every remark
you make can be annoying.
 Don't assume your audience is tuned into or sympathetic with group "in-jokes."
(D) Be prepared to update your talk on the spot as the result of pre-speech encounters
with members of the audience. Value these encounters and mingle, if you can, before
you talk. You will have an opportunity to find out who they are, what they are
interested in, and what they are hoping to hear or not hear. You may be able to add a
comment like, "Someone told me this evening that..." to your talk.
(E) Questions: If you have the slightest hint that not everyone has heard the question
being asked, repeat it before you proceed to answer it. It is frustrating to hear only
answers.
(F) Handling disruption: It's probably best to acknowledge a disruption. But if you do,
you will draw attention to it. So, if it's a minor disruption, it may be wiser to ignore it.
Remember, at the podium, you are in charge, and your attitude will to a large extent
determine the attitude of the audience.
2. Who Are You , Anyway?
(A) Why are you the one speaking on this subject? The person who introduced you may
not have told this to the audience or covered all the right points. Fill them in. Make
corrections.
(B) Be honest! Tell the audience how you feel. Make sure feelings and attitudes you
discuss are ascribed to the right person or group. Remember the difference between "I
believe" and "they believe."
If you don't know the answer to a question from the audience, admit it. Defer to an
expert. Offer to look it up. If it involves a long (and possibly boring) answer, suggest
the person talk with you afterwards.
(C) Make eye contact. but don't link eyes with one person. You will make him/her feel
uncomfortable. See everyone; back, front, sides.

(D) If you make an error, ignore it and seamlessly move on. Or, acknowledge it briefly
and then move on. Or, engage the sympathy of the audience by either confessing the
error or making a small joke about it. (Warning: Jokes are high risk. What if no one
laughs?)
(E) Look friendly. An audience is unlikely to warm to a speaker who seems unhappy at
the prospect of talking to them. Match your demeanor to your topic, not to your
anxieties.
Writing Elements & Speaking Elements
In a Written Piece In a Speech

How is necessary information given in a How do you give the same information when
written article? you're speaking out loud?
Someone introduces the speaker, gives

Title of book or article, author's name and
information about the speaker that is relevant
(sometimes) author's position and
to the occasion, plus the title or subject
background:
matter of the speech, etc.
Speaker tells the audience what s/he's going

Table of contents:
to talk about.
Overheads, slides, the blackboard, a live

Charts, tables: demonstration, miming (describing something
with gestures), etc.
Speaker writes word on blackboard, lingers on

Underlined words, words in boldface,
the word and/or repeats it; speaker uses
exclamation points!
appropriate hand gestures for emphasis.
Speaker tells anecdotes or stories which

Photographs:
illuminate important points.
Speaker pauses for a few seconds between

Paragraphs:
separate sections or ideas.
Speaker counts off items in numerical order

List of items in alphabetical, numerical, or
("one... two..," etc.) to help audience keep
bulleted order:
track.

Speaker says s/he is now going to talk about
Chapter headings:
the following...
Speaker says "as X once said..." or uses the

words "quote" and "unquote," (but does not
Quotation marks
make quote signs in the air with his/her
fingers).
Speaker takes a brief moment to explain

words, references, etc. which may not be
Footnotes:
understandable to everyone. This is equivalent
to making a parenthetical remark.
Speaker lets the audience know where s/he is

Page numbers: in the speech. For example: "First I'll describe
X, and then I'll tell you about Y..."
Speaker calls people, places and things by the

same name each time so that it is clear to
Names, or other identification (reader
what or whom s/he is referring. Speaker refers
can't turn back a page to check):
back: "X works in the same way as Y which I
told you about earlier..."
Speaker indicates by summarizing (saying "in

Ending may be titled "Conclusions." Final
conclusion..."), and by tone of voice that the
sentence is a strong, summary, or even
speech is ending. Final sentence is a strong
visionary statement:
summary, or even visionary statement.

Writing for Speaking
1. You Will Probably Read Your Speech (or Glance At Notes):
Having notes with you is the safest way to give a speech, especially a long speech or
one filled with important points. Those notes should be as helpful as possible. They
should serve as a script.
Don't read everything! Never read: "Hello. I'm happy to be here." (There goes any
illusion of spontaneity!)
Adjust your notes to the actual situation: "In Figure Two we can see..." (Can we?).
Write how you talk. We don't talk the way we write. Written work can sound stuffy
and pompous when being read. Sentences with numerous sub-clauses may look great
in an essay, but aren't easily followed in a speech. Besides, why should people sit and
hear what they could more easily read? What do you add to prose by speaking it aloud?
Avoid clichés (they make your speech sound "canned"), and cumbersome words (What
did he say?). Say it simply, straightforwardly, in your very own words.
Give yourself written aural hints. It's a script, after all. Give yourself stage directions.
Write down hints like "pause" and underline words you want to emphasize. Number
the pages. Don't write on the back of pages when you have written on the front.
Write or type with VERY LARGE fonts and lots of spacing. It is a script. You will be
acting it out. You will not be able to peer at it closely.
Speed kills, especially when a talk is loaded with statistics, technical phrases and
complex ideas. Reading statistics is safer than saying them from memory. You will
sound more trustworthy.
2. If You Insist On Speaking From Memory...
This is actually an excellent way to speak if:
 (A) you have a real talent for it,
 (B) other people agree you have a talent for it,
 (C) you relate well to live audiences and like to think on your feet,
 (D) you have given the same speech many times before, or
 (E) the occasion is so informal that you know lapses will be forgiven.
Don't do a brain dump. Think about what you're saying; don't go into automatic gear
so that you become unstoppable. Be flexible.
Don't ramble. When your audience is aware you have no notes, they may worry where
you're going with the subject matter and how long it will take you to get there. Also be
on the lookout for vagueness and inaccuracy or the appearance thereof.
Have notes available, just in case. It never hurts to have notes on hand that you don't
need to use.

3. Do What Works Best For You.
Remember:
 Memorizing has potentially dangerous shortcomings (like going blank).
 Speaking impromptu, off the cuff is risky, though spontaneous. Talent and
experience help tremendously. Best done at informal occasions.
 Reading a speech can be dull but, with practice, shouldn't be. This is clearly the
safest method.
 Small note cards printed with abbreviated notes, lead-in phrases, important
words or statistics and other cues make one of the best all-around choices--if
you practice.
Mapping the Content of Your Speech

1. The Visible Structure:
The audience should be aware of your speech structure. It's like knowing where you
are on a road map--the audience will be happier if they know where you are in your
speech at any given time, and where you're headed.
(A) Outline what will be told. Tell them what you're going to tell them.
(B) Let the audience know where you are going. "Next, I'll describe..." "Then, I'll show
you..."
(C) Count: "There are three ways..." "I will tell you two stories that illustrate..." Keep
track of those numbers!
(D) Refer back to what you said earlier. Tie loose ends together. Remind them.
(E) Use repetition. Begin similar points with the same words (but not excessively!).
(F) Use repetition. Refer to the same things and the same people in the same way each
time. The audience cannot flip back a page to check a name.
(G) Assign responsibility. Don't be vague and say, "they believe..." or "they say..."
unless you tell the audience who they are. If you are speaking of only your own beliefs,
take responsibility and say, "I believe that..."
(H) Give credit for ideas and quotations you use. Speeches don't have footnotes.
(I) Create a motif, if you can ("I have a dream..."), but know when to do it. Don't create
a motif if you--or the occasion--aren't up to it.
2. Putting One Foot before the Other
Ask yourself these questions: Is your order logical? Are you following a route? Are you
taking your audience down a road they can visualize?
(A) Does the evidence you give lead to the conclusion you intend to draw?

(B) Don't be preachy (unless you are truly preaching). Don't throw conclusions at the
audience. Work up to conclusions with information.
(C) Present events chronologically (or in some other appropriate order).
(D) Do the events or data build to a climax?
3. Be Concrete. Be Metaphorical.
A few specifics are almost always better than many generalizations.
(A) Make analogies. Give examples.
(B) Tell a story that illustrates the point.
(C) Show spatial relationships. Visualize things. Use your hands!
(D) Give details. Only you have this information--what is it (your subject) really like?
(E) Don't hang an entire speech on the hook of a single metaphor (i.e. every aspect of
a game of football represents a point you want to make, etc.)
4. In Conclusion...
(A) Check the time discreetly. Be prepared to wind up quickly, or compress final
stories.
(B) Reiterate your major points. Did you tell them what you said you would?
(C) Don't fade away. The last sentence should be one of your strongest.
Using Visuals
(A) You, the speaker, are a visual aid. You are "on stage" the moment you are
introduced. You can't pretend you're not there while you set up your demonstration or
check out the podium, etc. That's one reason it's best to have things set up--and
checked out--in advance, especially when the set-up is complicated.
(B) Talk while you do stuff. If you must set up a visual aid while you are delivering your
talk, plan to talk about it while you're doing this, especially if this is a lengthy process.
You need to keep control of the audience; don't let them drift away.
(C) Keep demonstrations or materials simple . Don't get yourself caught up running a
three-ring circus. There will be too much for you to do; too much can go wrong, and
you may trip over all your electrical cords (especially if they were not taped to the
floor).
(D) Keep the visuals simple. If you are showing something on a screen, one idea per
slide or overhead is about right. Avoid complicated slides/overheads. Don't show
pictures of things you do not intend to explain. Lead your audience through diagrams,
even if you think they are simple.
(E) Avoid annoying the audience:

 Don't read to them. If a slide has a great deal of writing on it, give them time to
read it; they can read faster than you can speak.
 Use a pointer when you can, not your hands. Stay away from a light beam
pointer unless you can hold it steady (most people can't, especially when
they're nervous).
 If you are RIGHT-handed, stand on the RIGHT side of a visual display from the
audience's perspective (If you're writing on the blackboard this will be your
LEFT.) It will force you to keep your body somewhat turned toward the
audience even while working on the blackboard; you can talk to the audience
over you right shoulder if you talk while writing.
 Look at the slides you are showing; make sure they are showing what you say
they are showing.
 If you use an overhead projector, practice laying transparencies right-side-up
and turning the projector on/off. Keep your hands off transparencies while they
are being displayed.
 Be certain that equipment works; check it out in advance. Number slides, and
make sure they are facing properly. You should have checked the room in
advance.
 Make sure everyone can see your demonstration or slides. And listen to your
audience: if people indicate they cannot see, find a way they can.
(F) Heighten interest. If you have a number of objects to display, reveal them one at a
time. Don't show your audience all your tricks before you begin. When you're finished
with an object, put it away. Don't play with it.
(G) Chose the right time to give out handouts . Do you want people to look at them
while you talk? Will the handouts heighten interest in your talk? Or diminish it?
(H) Practice your speech with all the visuals. Time them as they are integrated with
your speech, and get comfortable with the way they fit in. Including visuals will
magically lengthen the time it takes you to give your speech.

Avoid Panic!
Check everything! Pretend to be confident!
1. Did you preview the site? Check room size, acoustics, lighting (and how to control it,
if it's controllable), microphones, availability of a blackboard, chalk, electrical outlets,
where people enter and exit, etc.
2. Do you know where your equipment is? Confirm your order for an overhead, etc.
Plan where to locate your handouts. Consider whether you should have them available
in advance or after your talk.
3. Establish where you will situate yourself with relation to your graphics and
equipment. Will you block the view? How will you point things out? Where should your
notes rest?
4. Don't eat heavily before your talk, and avoid milk products. The reasons for
avoiding a heavy meal may be obvious. Milk products coat your larynx and may cause
you to do a lot of throat-clearing.
5. Mingle with the audience before you speak, if you have the opportunity. You may
learn some relevant things that you can incorporate into your talk. Or make a last
minute adjustment to what you were going to say.
6. How are you being introduced? Did you tell the person who will introduce you what
to say? And how to pronounce your name? Listen carefully to your introduction and
take note so that when you speak, you don't repeat what was said. Make a mental note
to add to it or make a minor correction if you think it's necessary.
7. Once you've been announced, you are on stage. From the moment you were
introduced you have been the focus of the audience's attention. It has no one else to
look at but you. Move confidently.
8. When you're ready to begin- don't. Wait! Take a moment to catch your breath.
(Remember- abdominal breathing!) Make a pleasant face at the audience. Take a
comfortable stance. Breathe. Look at everyone before you start.
9. Keep an eye on your equipment as you move around or move things around. Avoid
lengthy silences while you adjust equipment or arrange visuals or write on the
blackboard. Talk and do. Watch where you're walking. Don't get tangled up in electrical
cords. Keep your overheads in order as you use them. Don't get too close to the
microphone.
10. Questions: the inaudible, the complex, the unanswerable, and the hostile. Repeat
questions to the rest of the audience. Feel free to comment, e.g., "That's a good
question!" Break complicated ones into simple components; tell the person asking a
question you can't answer that you'll get back to him/her later or that you don't know.
Don't respond to hostile questions by repeating the accusation; answer positively.

11. Head up when you're done! End naturally, without a "thank you." Look at the
audience and acknowledge to them that you are done. Save your "thank you" for the
roar of applause. Smile. Leave the podium as slowly as you walked to it. Don't look as if
you're escaping. Head up all the way back to your seat!

ORAL ASSIGMENT EVALUATION SHEET
SCALE:
5- Excellent (Exceeds expectations of assigned tasks)
4- Very Good (Meets task requirements with few errors)
3- Average (Meets task requirements)
2- Needs Improvement (Assignment complete with excessive errors)
RATING (speaking skills)

________ 1. Has good opening statement (captures the audience’s attention)
________ 2. Makes appropriate eye contact
________ 3. Speaks clearly
________ 4. Uses good rate of speed
________ 5. Speaks with expression
________ 6. Appears comfortable/natural
________ 7. Uses appropriate body language & facial expressions
________ 8. Message supports purpose statement and flows logically
________ 9. Appears connected to listeners (use of notes does not distract from
speech)
RATING (organization skills)

________ 1. Has appropriate purpose statement
________ 2. Uses 3 pieces of relevant data to support argument
________ 3. Correctly cites source information in a bibliography
OVERALL RATING: ________

Choosing Interesting Speech Topics
People say conversation is a lost art; how often I have wished it were. - Edward R. Murrow
Interesting speech topics are all about knowing what to talk about. This may
seem easy, but it can often be the hardest part of the task. Here's how you can narrow
down the choices.
1. Choose familiar topics. Talk about what you already know.
It is much easier to speak about a subject you are already familiar with. You will be able
to recite a lot of your speech from past experiences. Having to remember a lot of
unfamiliar details or statistics is not fun for anyone.
If you are very new to public speaking, try talking about a personal experience.
Toastmaster's clubs have their new members recite a 5 minute beginner's speech
called an icebreaker. The speaker discusses personal things about themselves such as
their backgrounds, hobbies, or families.
Do you know why the organization uses this format for each member's first
speech?
They realize that you will feel much more relaxed talking about a familiar topic
such as your family or pets than an unfamiliar subject.
They also know that personal material doesn't require any research. You won't be
afraid to make a mistake and say the wrong thing. Nothing you say will be incorrect
because you will be talking about something personal.
You will be able to speak from the heart and your audience will appreciate
learning more about you.
2. Pick a subject you are enthusiastic about.
You also need to choose interesting speech topics about subjects that you are
passionate about. If you couldn't care less about the nature of quantum physics, why
should your audience?
Speakers who are enthusiastic about their subject material are much more interesting.
A passionate, enthusiastic speaker is always more captivating to listen to and
watch.
Don't think you can fool your audience.
They will be able to tell very quickly whether you actually care about what you're
talking about or not.
3. Choose a general topic that is relevant to a wide variety of people.
Public speakers should also be careful about the subject matter they choose.
Select a topic that appeals to a wide variety of people.

Choose interesting speech topics that you would like to know more about
yourself. Chances are your audience will also be interested.
Avoid very specific topics such as "the mechanics of carburetors" or "tax breaks
for citizens living in Luxembourg".
You may luck out and find a few interested individuals. However, chances are that
most of your audience will drift off at the first mention of your speech topic. There is
very little chance that anyone will actually be listening by the end of your presentation!
When deciding on what to speak about, start off with choosing a personal
subject. Talk about your background, family, pets or hobbies. You can speak from the
heart and give your audience an opportunity to learn more about you.
Also focus on topics you are passionate about. Your enthusiasm will be
contagious and will engage your audience.
Most importantly, select interesting speech topics that are relevant to as many
people as possible.
If you follow these guidelines, your audience will be more likely to listen to what
you have to say!
www.effective-communicating.com

Informative Speeches
"A speaker hasn't taught until the audience has learned"
Every day you give others information in an informal way, whether you realize it
or not. You give your grandparents driving directions to your college campus. You tell
your professor about a breaking news story. You teach a friend how to ride a
motorcycle. You explain to your significant other your spiritual philosophy. You teach a
co-worker how to operate the cash register. Or you share your summer travel
experience with your roommate.
Without a doubt, information plays a vital role in our everyday lives. In the
dictionary, the term inform has several meanings, including to impart knowledge, to
animate or inspire, to give information or enlightenment, to furnish evidence, to make
aware of something, to communicate something of interest or special importance, to give
directions, and to provide intelligence, news, facts or data.
When you give an informative speech, your primary purpose is to give your
audience information that they did not already know, or to teach them more about a
topic they are already familiar with.
Your ability to give informative speeches is one of the most important skills you
will ever master, and it will be used both in during the course of your career, and in
your personal life. A pharmaceutical sales representative who can’t describe the
products’ chemical composition, uses and side effects, will have trouble making a sale.
A high school math teacher, who can’t explain algebra in simple terms, will have
students who will not learn. A manager who can’t teach workers how to assemble
microchips will have a department with low productivity and quality. And a little league
coach who is unable to instruct players on batting and catching techniques will have a
disadvantaged team. It is easy to imagine how difficult it would be to go about the
business of our daily lives without the ability to give and receive information. An
informative speech “helps keep countries developing, communicates valuable and
useful information in thousands of areas, and continues to change, improve or upgrade
the lives of audiences”. Our personal and professional success, as well as our safety
and survival depend upon the successful communication of facts and knowledge.
Speeches to inform are the most common types of speeches, so speech writers
should give priority to learning how to construct them. The overall goals of informative
speaking are to increase audience members’ knowledge, enhance understanding of a
topic, and share relevant facts.
Information (facts or circumstances associated with some topic) must be turned
into knowledge (familiarity or awareness gained by sight, experience, or report).
Knowledge, in this case, comes from the speaker. Informative speeches influence how
people see a subject by bringing it to light, or may influence what is seen as important
by virtue of directing attention to the subject.
Successful informative speeches help listeners make sense of their world, and
provide information which improves their ability to make wise decisions, because they
understand all of their options.

Role of the Speaker
Informative Speakers Are Objective:
Most public speaking texts discuss three general purposes for speeches:
speeches to inform, speeches to persuade, and speeches to entertain. Although these
general purposes are theoretically distinct, in practice, they tend to overlap. Even in
situations when the occasion calls for an informative speech (one which enhances
understanding), often persuasive and entertaining elements are present. First, all
informative speeches have a persuasive component by virtue of the fact that the
speaker tries to convince the audience that the facts presented are accurate. Second, a
well written speech can make even the most dry, technical information entertaining
through engaging illustrations, colorful language, unusual facts, and powerful visuals.
In spite of this warning, when planning your informative speech your primary
intent will be to increase listeners’ knowledge. For instance, in a speech about urban
legends, your specific purpose statement may be: “At the end of my speech, my
audience will understand what an urban legend is, how urban legends are spread, and
common variations of urban legends.” Peterson et al argue that the topic you choose is
not as important as your approach to the material in determining whether your speech
is informative or persuasive. Can you imagine how speeches on witchcraft, stem cell
research, or hybrid cars could be written either to inform or persuade? Informative
speeches need to be as objective as possible. When writing your speech, present both
sides of the story and try to remove all unrelated facts, personal opinions, and
emotions.
Informative Speakers Are Credible:

An objective approach also enhances a speaker’s credibility. Audience members
have no motivation to listen to a speaker they perceive as lacking authority or
credibility—except maybe to mock the speaker.
There are at least three ways to boost your credibility as a speaker; by
establishing your expertise, helping your audience identify with you, and showing you
are telling the truth (see Illustration A). It seems to be common sense that we do not
listen to speakers who do not know what they are talking about, who cannot relate to
us, or who give the impression of being dishonest.
However, in planning informative speeches, we can get so wrapped up in the
topic that is easy to forget about the elements of credibility. Just remember that in
order to teach, we first have to show that we are worthy of our audience’s attention.

Informative Speakers Make the Topic Relevant:
When you are selecting your topic and thinking about what you want to
accomplish in your informative speech, two factors should drive your decision.
Foremost, you want to select a topic that holds a high degree of interest for you (i.e.
the topic is meaningful to you).
Students who feel at a loss for topic ideas should turn their attention to their own
lives and activities. If you like to play video games, you might give a speech about how
they are made. If you have a passion for reggae music, you might bring in MP3 cuts to
help define the boundaries of this music genre. If you have to work three jobs to help
pay for school, you could give a speech on effective time management. Genuine
curiosity will make the research and preparation process easier. Further, when you
have enthusiasm for a topic it shows when you speak. On the other hand, if you do not
really care about your topic, your audience is not likely to care either.
In addition to having relevance for you, it is crucial that you tie your topic directly
to your listeners. Early in the speech give listeners at least one reason why they should
care about your topic, and the ways in which in which the information will be beneficial
or entertaining.

Establishing a motive for your audience to listen to you is commonly referred to
by the acronym WIIFM—“What’s in it for me?” This is what the audience consciously or
unconsciously asks when you start speaking. To establish WIIFM, you clearly link the
topic to the listeners’ values, attitudes, beliefs and lifestyle. Consider not only what the
audience wants to hear, but also what they need to hear. Take the topic of retirement
planning as an example. Younger listeners may not perceive this as relevant to their
lives when they are not yet making a steady salary. But, if you can demonstrate how
investing even a small amount every month can grow to a considerable nest egg by
retirement age, and that getting into the habit of saving early can lower the number of
years they have to work, the topic becomes more interesting for them.
Informative Speakers are Knowledgeable:

Even if you plan to give a speech about an activity you have done all of your life,
you will still need to seek out additional sources for your speech. Recall in the earlier
discussion of credibility that citing a number of reputable sources will make you appear
well-informed and more trustworthy. By all means, you should cite and use your own
experiences with the topic, but if you want to appear objective, you will need to show
that your ideas and experiences correspond with others.
In our information age, people are fortunate to have unlimited and free access to
information on virtually any topic they can imagine via the internet. However, good
speech writers know that it is important to use a wide range of sources when
constructing their speeches. Start by asking what you know, find out what the experts
know, and then move to find out what information other sources can provide. Explain
not only how something is done, but also why it is done for a great speech. This variety
gives a speech depth and a level of interest that cannot be achieved merely by sitting in
front of a computer monitor.
Types of Informative Speeches:
Explanatory Speeches:
An explanatory speech (also known as a briefing) is similar to the descriptive
speech in that they both share the function of clarifying the topic. But explanatory
speeches focus on reports of current and historical events, customs, transformations,
inventions, policies, outcomes, and options. Whereas descriptive speeches attempt to
paint a picture with words so that audiences can vicariously experience it, explanatory
speeches focus on the how or why of a subject and its consequences.
For instance, a speaker might give a descriptive speech on the daily life of Marie
Antoinette, or an explanatory speech on how she came to her death. If a manager
wanted to inform employees about a new workplace internet use policy, she might
cover questions like: Why was a policy implemented? How will it help? What happens if
people do not follow established policies? Explanatory speeches are less concerned
with appealing to the senses than connecting the topic to a series of related other
subjects to enhance a deep understanding. For example, to explain the custom of the

Thai “wai” greeting (hands pressed together as in prayer), you also need to explain
how it originated to show one had no weapons, and the ways it is tied to religion,
gender, age, and status.
Sample Explanatory Speech
Title: Giant Waves, Death, and Devastation: The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (17)
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, my audience will be aware of the nature of
the 2004 Tsunami and the destruction it caused.
Central Idea: The 2004 Asian Tsunami was one of the worst natural disasters in human
history in terms of magnitude, loss of human life, and enduring impact.
I. Geological event
a. Earthquake epicenter and magnitude
b. Tsunami forms (waves reach up to 100 feet)
c. Tsunami strikes land of various countries with no warning
II. Human casualties reach almost 230,000—top 10 of all natural disasters
a. The countries and people involved
b. Loss of food, water, hospitals, housing, electricity, and plumbing
c. Threat of disease
III. Ongoing effects
a. Environmental destruction
b. Economic devastation
c. Psychological trauma
Descriptive Speeches:
The purpose of descriptive speeches is to provide a detailed, vivid, word picture
of a person, animal, place, or object. Audiences should carry away in their minds a clear
vision of the subject.
In this speech, determine the characteristics, features, functions, or fine points of
the topic. What makes the person unique? How did the person make you feel? What
adjectives apply to the subject? What kind of material is the object made from? What
shape is it? What color is it? What does it smell like? Is it part of a larger system? Can it
be seen by the naked eye? What is its geography or location in space? How has it
changed or evolved over time? How does it compare to a similar object?
When preparing for the speech, try to think of ways to appeal to as many of the
senses as possible. As an example, in a speech about different types of curried dishes,
you could probably verbally describe the difference between yellow, red and green
curry, but the speech will have more impact if the audience can see, smell, and taste
samples.

Sample Descriptive Speech Outline
Title: Easter Island: The Navel of the World
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech my audience will be able to visualize some
of the main attractions on Easter Island.
Central Idea: Easter Island hosts a number of ancient, mysterious, and beautiful
attractions that make it an ideal vacation destination.
I. Stone Giants—“Moai”
a. Average 13 feet high; 14 tons
b. Play sacred role for Rapa Nui (native inhabitants)
c. Central ahu ceremonial sites
II. Coastline activities
a. Beaches
b. Snorkeling & Scuba
c. Surfing
III. Rano Kau Chilean National Park
a. Giant crater
b. Sheer cliffs to ocean
c. Sea birds
Demonstration Speeches:
The most practical of all informative speeches, a demonstration speech shows
listeners how some process is done or how to perform it themselves. The focus is on a
chronological explanation of some process (how potato chips are made), procedure
(how to fight fires on a submarine), application (how to use the calendar function in
Outlook), or course of action (how court cases proceed to Supreme Court status).
Speakers might focus on processes that have a series of steps with a specific
beginning and end (the life and death of a monarch butterfly) or the process may be
continuous (flooding of the Nile valley in Egypt). Demonstration speeches can be
challenging to write due to the fact that the process may involve several objects, a set
of tools, materials, or a number of related relationships or events. Nevertheless, these
types of speeches provide the greatest opportunity for audience members to get
involved or apply the information later.
When preparing this speech, remember first to keep the safety of the audience in
mind. One speaker severely burned his professor when he accidently spilled hot oil
from a wok on her. Another student nearly took the heads off of listeners when he was
demonstrating how to swing a baseball bat. Keep in mind also that you may need to

bring in examples or pictures of completed steps in order to make efficient use of your
time. Just think of the way that cooking demonstrations are done on TV—the
ingredients are pre-measured, the food is pre-mixed, and the mixture magically goes
from uncooked to cooked in a matter of seconds.
Finally, if you are having your audiences participate during your presentation
(making an origami sculpture), know what their knowledge level is so that you don’t
make them feel unintelligent if they are not successful. Practice your speech with
friends who know nothing about the topic to gauge if listeners can do what you are
asking them to do in the time allotted.
Sample Demonstration Speech Outline
Title: How to Survive if You Get Stranded in the Wilderness
Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech my audience will understand what to do if
they unexpectedly become stranded in the wilderness.
Central Idea: You can greatly improve your ability to stay alive and safe in the
wilderness by learning a few simple survival techniques.
I. Size up the situation
a. Size up the surroundings
b. Size up your physical and mental states
c. Size up your equipment (handout “What to Include in a Survival Kit”)
II. Survival Basics
a. Obtaining water
b. Acquiring food
c. Building a fire
d. Locating shelter
III. Finding help
a. Call or signal rescue personnel
b. Wilderness navigation
c. Leaving “bread crumb” trail

Definitional Speeches:
In definitional speeches the speaker attempts to set forth the meaning of
concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues that may be unfamiliar to the audience.
Regardless of the listeners’ level of knowledge about the subject, it is very important in
these types of speeches to show the relevance of the topic to their lives. Often the
topics discussed in definitional speeches are abstract—distanced from reality. So
provide explicit, real-life examples and applications of the subject matter.
If for instance you were going to give a speech about civil rights, you would need
to go beyond commonly held meanings and show the topic in a new light. In this type
of speech, the speaker points out the unique and distinguishing properties or
boundaries of a concept in a particular context. The meaning of “civil rights” has
changed significantly over time. What does it mean today compared to the 1960s? How
will knowing this distinction help audience members? What are some specific examples
of civil rights issues in current news? What changes in civil rights legislation might
listeners see in their lifetimes?
Sample Definitional Speech Outline
Title: “Life is suffering,” and Other Buddhist Teachings (15) Specific

Purpose: At the end of my speech my audience will understand the Four Noble Truths
and the Eightfold Path in Buddhism
Central Idea: Regardless of your religious beliefs, Buddhist philosophy teaches a
number of useful lessons you can apply to your own life.
I. Four Noble Truths
a. All life involves dukkha (suffering)
b. Suffering is caused by tanha (longing for things to be other than they are)
c. If this longing stops (nirodha), suffering will cease
d. The way to eliminate longing is to follow the Eightfold Path
V. II. The Noble Eightfold Path (the Middle Way)
a. Right view
b. Right intention
c. Right speech
d. Right action
e. Right livelihood
f. Right effort
g. Right mindfulness
h. Right contemplation

Developing Informative Speeches:
There are three main goals in developing informative speeches and advice for
increasing the effectiveness of your speech. These three goals include 1) arousing the
interest of your audience, 2) presenting information in a way that can be understood,
and 3) helping the audience remember what you have said.
Use Attention-Getting Elements:

There are a number of techniques you can use that will naturally draw listeners’
attention. Intensity refers to something that has a high or extreme degree of emotion,
color, volume, strength or other defining characteristic. For example, a speech about
any of the extreme sports which involve high levels of risk, physical agility, and amazing
stunts could be characterized as intense. Novelty involves those things that are new or
unusual. Discussing the recent FDA approval of Lybrel, a birth control pill specifically
designed to eliminate menstruation, would qualify as this technique. Contrast can also
be used to draw attention through comparison to something that is different or
opposite. This works best when the differences are significant. If you were showing the
audience how to make hot sauce, you could show a bar graph comparing the scoville
units (level of hotness) of different chili peppers. Jalapenos rate at 2500-8000 scoville
units, habaneros at 100,000-350,000, and naga jolokia at 855,000-1,041,241.
Audiences will also attend to movement or Activity. To employ this technique, the
speaker can either use action words, well-chosen movements, an increased rate of
speech, or he can show action with video. Finally, Humor can be used to draw attention
to a subject or point, but be sure that it is relevant and in good taste. In a speech about
the devotion of Trekkies (Star Trek fans) you could share the example of Tony Alleyne
who designed and outfitted his flat in England as a replica of the deck of the Voyager.
Tell a Story:
Story telling is not only the basis for most of our entertainment; it is also one of
the best ways to teach an audience. Also known as narratives, stories typically have a
beginning in which the characters and setting are introduced, a rise in action, some
complication or problem, and a resolution. Stories with compelling characters can be
used in a creative way to weave facts otherwise dry and technical facts together, as in a
speech about preparing a space shuttle for take-off from a mouse’s perspective.
Jaffe differentiates between three types of narratives that can be used in
informative speeches. The first type of story is a natural reality in which natural or
scientific facts are brought together in chronological accounts, as in the formation of
the Grand Canyon. The second narrative involves social realities which detail historic
events, and the development of cultures and institutions. The last kind of story, the
ultimate reality, is focused on profound philosophical and spiritual questions like
“Where do we come from?” and “What happens to us when we die?”
Nursery rhymes and song lyrics familiar to the audience can also be used in an
interactive way to get listeners interested in the topic. In a speech about the global
population explosion, you could ask audience to finish the phrase “There was an old
woman who lived in a shoe…” Common commercials, lyrics to Beatles songs, holiday

songs, children’s games are universal. Commercial jingles and song lyrics also work to
get the audience involved. Depending on the make-up of your audience, you might use
lyrics from Johnny Cash, Billy Holiday, The Doors, The Beatles or Limp Bizkit.
Be Creative:
Speakers who are different are memorable. To give your speech impact, be
imaginative and dare to push the envelope of conformity. When you have spent time
researching a topic, you may be able to envision ways to incorporate surprising facts,
props or visuals that make your presentation different from others, and therefore more
memorable.
You could dress like a Shakespearian actor for a speech about the famous
playwright. You could have the audience move their chairs and take part in a yoga
demonstration. Or you might use your own audience plants to help with a speech
entitled “Behind the Scenes of T.V. Talk Shows.” One student giving a speech about
“Clowning” had two actual clowns wait in the hall until she was ready to bring them in
and show off their make-up and costumes. The speaker was wise to have her cohorts in
the room just long enough to make the point (but not the entire time which would
distract from the speaker), and the audience was attentive and grateful for the variety.
Remember that creativity is just a tool to help you teach your audience. Do not
overlook the requirements of the occasion, the content of your research, or the needs
of your audience in your zeal to be creative.
Stimulate Audience Intellect:

Most people have a general desire to understand the world around them, to seek
out the truth, and learn how to solve problems. The role of the informative speaker is
to satisfy this desire to learn and know. To illustrate our quest for knowledge, consider
the success of the Discovery Channel, the Learning Channel, the History Channel, the
Food Network and other educational broadcasts.
So how do we appeal to the minds of listeners? Think about all of the information
we encounter every day but do not have time to pursue. Think about subjects that you
would like to know more about. Ask what information would be universally interesting
and useful for listeners. Many people fly on airplanes, but do they know how to survive
a plane crash? People also share many ordinary illnesses, so what are some common
home remedies? All of the people on earth originated someplace, so who were our
ancient ancestors?
In addition to finding topics that relate to listeners, the information we supply
should be up to date. For instance, Pluto recently lost its status as a planet, and a
speaker giving a speech on the solar system should know this.
When you are talking about a topic that your audience is familiar with, you should
share little known facts or paint the subject in a new light. In a speech about a famous
person, you might depict what they are like behind the scenes, or what they were like
growing up. In a speech about a new technology, you might also talk about the
inventors. In a speech about a famous city, you could discuss the more infamous
landmarks and attractions.

Create Coherence
Organize Logically:
There are at least four ways to draw your information into easy-to-understand
patterns. According to Gestalt psychology, information is more easily understood if it
conforms to certain principles. The principle of Similarity states that things which share
characteristics like, color, size, shape, age or location will seem to belong together.
Note in Figure A that the eye wants to group the circles by their size, rather than seeing
them as grouped in lines pointing from the center. The Proximity refers to an
audience’s tendency to see things that are close together as belonging together. When
viewing Figure B, we would likely assume that the child, woman, and man were a
family. The Symmetry principle suggests that well-proportioned and balanced objects
are more pleasing to perceive than those objects that do not have parts that
correspond in size, shape, or position. Almost all Celtic knots (Figure C) and wall paper
designs exhibit this principle.
Finally, Closure suggests that people complete figures even when information is
missing. In Figure D, although the drawing only consists of a few lines, our minds easily
recognize the lion in the picture.
Figure A Figure B Figure C Figure D
In addition to the use of psychological principles to help organize your ideas, you
should make sure the overall logic of the speech is well thought out. If you were giving
speech best suited to chronological order, but presented the steps out of order, it
would be very difficult to follow. Peggy Noonan argues:
“The most moving thing in a speech is always the logic. It’s never the flowery
words and flourishes, it’s not sentimental exhortations, it’s never the faux poetry we’re
all subjected to these days. It’s the logic; it’s the thinking behind your case. A good case
well-argued and well said is inherently moving. It shows respect for the brains of the
listeners. There is an implicit compliment in it. It shows that you are a serious person
and that you are talking to other serious persons.”
When planning your speech, ask questions like: What information needs to come
first? What organizational pattern best suits the topic? What information must be
shared or omitted to aid in audience understanding? What points or sub-points should
be grouped together to aid listeners’ understanding?
Use Simple Language:

One common mistake that speech writers make when they are writing their
speech is to write their speech using the same language that they would use in a

printed document. Experienced speech writers know that simple language and ideas
are easier to understand than complex ones. “Clear speaking is not an alternative to
intelligent discourse, but rather an enabler of intelligent discourse”. Did you know that
Lincoln’s Gettysburg address contains only 271 words, and 251 of these words only have
one or two syllables? Another benefit of using simple language is that you are less likely
to trip over or mispronounce simple words. Instead of “protracted,” say “drawn out.”
Instead of “conundrum,” say “puzzle.” And instead of “loquacious,” say “talkative.”
As you are writing your speech you also want to avoid technical jargon, slang,
clichés, and euphemisms. This type of language is difficult to understand and tends to
be low impact. Compare the Low Impact language column with the High Impact
column below to see examples of ways to make your language more powerful.
Simplify Your Language:

Low Impact High Impact
Under the present circumstances Currently
At the present time Now
Are in agreement with Agree
Due to the fact that Because
Is fully operational Works
In close proximity to Near
Of sufficient magnitude Big enough
In the event of If
Each and every one Each
In the course of During
Never before or since Never
Deciduous trees (jargon) Trees that lose their leaves
Somnolent (jargon) Drowsy
Awesome (slang) Impressive
Put the bite on (slang) Borrow
No brainer (cliché) Easy decision
An arm and a leg (cliché) Expensive
Vertically challenged (euphemism) Short
Gone to the great beyond (euphemism) Dead

Avoid Information Overload:
No one is given an unlimited amount of time to speak. You can’t cover everything
that there is to know about your topic. And even if you could speak forever about
everything there was to know about a subject, your listeners would never be able to
take it all in.
Information overload occurs when a person feels that they are faced with an
overwhelming amount of information, with the effect that they are unable to process it
all or unable to make a decision. So whether you have five minutes to give a
presentation or three eight hour days, you will need to narrow and focus your speech
topic and objectives. If for instance you know that you have ten minutes to speak, you
will not be able to cover “Car Maintenance for Dummies,” but you probably could give
a good speech entitled “How to Change the Oil in Your Car.” When planning your
speech, be sure to determine the amount of information that can be covered in the
time allowed.
Make Your Speech Memorable
Build in Redundancy:
Audience retention is determined by a number of factors including listeners’
interest, knowledge, physical and emotional state, level of stress, background, and
other competing demands. One way to help your audience remember the content of
your speech is by repetition.
There are three ways to incorporate repetition into your speech. The first form
repetition involves restating your main points in your introduction, body and
conclusion. When you do this, you will restate your points using different language—
not repeat the points word for word.
The second form of repetition is where a word or a phrase is repeated in a poetic
way, either throughout the speech or at a critical point in the speech. One example of
this would be Abraham Lincoln’s “government of the people, by the people, for the
people.” Another example can be found in Sojourner Truth’s speech, delivered in 1851
at a women’s rights convention.
… That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and
lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me
into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain't I a
woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered
into barns, and no man could head me! And ain't I a woman? I could work as much
and eat as much as a man—when I could get it—and bear the lash as well! And
ain't I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to
slavery, and when I cried out with my mother's grief, none but Jesus heard me!
And ain't I a woman?
The final way to use repetition in your speech is through nonverbal
communication. When you say the word “four” and you hold up four fingers, or when
you verbally agree with a point and nod your head at the same time, you are reinforcing
the idea verbally and nonverbally.

Appeal to Different Ways of Learning:
The ear is a very poor information gathering device. Typically listeners only retain
only a small fraction of what is explained to them verbally. The first way to enhance
retention is to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. Studies show that
audiences retain 20 percent of what they hear, 30 percent of what they see, and 50
percent of what they hear and see. When the audience has an opportunity to do
something (adding the kinesthetic sense), their retention increases to 80 percent. Or, if
participation is not possible, a handout will raise retention to an impressive 85
percent—if the audience can review the handout at least once.
Another way to help your listeners remember is by the use of techniques like
association, linking the new topic to things that the audience knows about or already
understands. If you were giving a speech about rugby, you might compare it to soccer
and football to help the audience understand the rules.
The use of acronyms also aids retention. On the “Krusty Krab Training Video”
episode of Spongebob Squarepants (a spoof on corporate training videos), they use
the acronym “POOP.” When I asked my eight year old son if he knew what “POOP”
stood for, he immediately and correctly answered “People Order Our Patties.”
The final technique to help audiences remember information is the simplicity
criterion. Information is best retained when it is explained from top to bottom (rather
than bottom to top), when events are presented from first to last (rather than last to
first), and when information is presented in the positive voice (rather than in the
negative voice).
Use Visuals
Visual aids can be a very powerful and efficient way to present facts that might
otherwise be difficult to convey verbally. The benefits of visuals used for informative
speeches include increasing interest, understanding, retention, and the speed at which
your audience can understand complex facts.
We live in a mediated culture, where people are visually oriented. This means that
they expect to be visually stimulated with pictures, graphs, maps, video images and
objects. Speakers who do not make use of visuals may be at a disadvantage when
compared to speakers who use them. This is assuming of course that the visuals
enhance what you are saying and that you use them well. As you know, plenty of
people use Power Point, and it does not necessarily make their speech better or more
memorable.
Perhaps the best reason to use visuals aids during an informative speech is to
help your audience understand a concept that may be difficult to understand just by
explaining it. For example, in a speech about heart bypass surgery, would it be better
to verbally describe the parts of the human heart, or to show a picture of it? How about
a model of the heart? How about an actual human heart?
Be sure to consider your audience! What if your speech is about an abstract
concept that does not lend itself well to slick graphic representations? One way trainers
get their audiences involved and make their presentations memorable is to provide

handouts which the listeners complete (in part) themselves. You could use fill in the
blank statements (where you provide the answer), open-ended questions where
listeners can write their thoughts, and activities like matching or crossword puzzles.
Regardless of the type of visual media you select for your speech, just make sure that it
does not overpower you or the subject. Work to keep the audience’s attention on you
and what you are saying, and use the visual to complement what you have to say.
Conclusion
The primary goal of informative speaking is to increase listeners’ knowledge so
they can better understand the world around them and can make more informed
decisions. Discussing the impact a speaker can have on an audience, Perry Wilbur
explains:
“Always keep in mind that if your talk helps just one listener in your audience, it
has been successful. It is far more likely to have an impact on a number of listeners in
your audiences. That is one of the real powers of spoken communication. Develop skill
for the material across to audiences, and you can and will change lives for the better
and make a worthy contribution as a speaker.”
Informative speaking is a crucial skill that, if developed, will help you be more
successful in both your personal life and your professional career.
When constructing an informative speech, you should strive to be objective,
spend time developing your credibility, link your subject to the lives of the listeners,
and demonstrate that you have done your research.
There are four main types of informative speeches. Definitional speeches present
the meanings of concepts, theories, philosophies, or issues. Descriptive speeches
provide detailed word pictures of people, animals, places, or objects. Explanatory
speeches report events, customs, transformations, inventions, policies, outcomes or
options.
Demonstration speeches show listeners how some process is done or how to do
it themselves.
There are several techniques speakers can use to increase the effectiveness of
their informative speech. Speakers can arouse interest by using attention getting
elements, telling a story, adding creative features, and stimulating the intellect of the
audience. Speakers can create coherence through logical organization, the use of
simple language, and by avoidance of information overload. Finally, a speaker can make
a speech more memorable via repetition, appealing to different ways of learning, and
by using visuals appropriately.
textcommons.org

Persuasive Speeches
Introduction
It has been said that the most dangerous animal is a freshman with one semester
of psychology. If that is true, then the second most dangerous animal must surely be a
freshman with one course in persuasion. If you give a child a toy hammer, then the
child will invariably find that every new object is in need of pounding. In a similar
manner, it is not uncommon for a student who has completed a course in persuasion to
believe that every communication encounter requires a test of his or her newfound
persuasion skills. At best, this can be tedious for the recipients of such attempts to
influence. At worst, it can damage or destroy relationships if the persuader is perceived
as being obnoxious or unethical. Like a hammer, persuasion is a useful tool, but it
should not be used to pound others.
It is important to discuss ethics and persuasion together. When we engage in
persuasion, we have an impact on others. The persuader attempts to convince
audience members to believe something new or to engage in a certain kind of
behavior, thus influencing what they do or think.
Is it the case that in a competitive situation, those who persuade best are those
most likely to win? In a world of competing interests, persuasion can be described as
the art of securing fair and favorable consideration for one’s perspective. It is primarily
a verbal act through which people seek to influence how others believe and behave.
You might have come across situations in which someone persuaded you to
agree with his or her views, to buy a product that he or she recommended, and so on.
To be successful in causing such attitudinal or behavioral change, an appropriate
STRATEGY is vital.
Persuasive speaking requires the identification of a controversy, the devising of
possible strategies, the analysis of the audience and setting, and finally the formulation
of a message or speech that offers logical reasoning backed by sound evidence.
Here we discuss persuasive speaking that is intentional, that is, when the speaker
wants to change the audience in certain ways through the process of persuasion.
Every year, Michael and his friends travel to a different place for vacation. This
year, they discussed where they should go and what they should do in the coming
summer break. Ken suggested going to Hawaii, because he is a windsurfer and wanted
to visit the beaches in Waikiki. Susan wanted to go to Japan to look at the flowers in
Hokkaido. Michael, himself, preferred to go to France to visit the museums and to drive
along the coast to see various cities. He supported his proposition with several reasons,
including the fact that he could get discount tickets to Paris for the three of them.
During the conversation, he tried to make Ken and Susan believe that France is
beautiful (belief), agree to go there (attitude), and book the flights and hotel
accommodation right away (action).
Beliefs refer to ideas that are central to our worldview, such as believing in the
importance of developing a quality life. In contrast, attitudes are our predispositions or
inclinations to act in a certain way, such as supporting an anti-smoking campaign.
Actions occur when we behave in accordance with our beliefs, such as voting for a

certain candidate in a presidential election because one was impressed by his
performance in a recent debate.
Strategies of Persuasive Speaking

Successfully engendering attitudinal and behavioral change depends on the use
of the appropriate persuasive strategy. Such strategies include motivational,
emotional, logical, and credibility appeals, and propositions of fact, value, and policy.
Motivational appeals
When one is aware of lacking something – either physiologically or mentally –
then a need develops. In trying to think of possible ways to satisfy a need, a motive
arises. A motive to satisfy a need can become a powerful appeal in persuasive
speaking.
Michelle is a property consultant. Tomorrow she has an appointment with a
couple, Tom and Lily, who are looking for an upscale house on the coast. To improve
her persuasiveness, she plans her speech carefully by addressing the couple’s five types
of needs.
The hierarchy of five types of needs – an individual’s physiological, safety,
belongingness and love, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs – was originally
proposed by Abraham Maslow (1970). Maslow’s pyramid reflects an ascendency from
the most basic needs to appeal to in the persuasive process. Once each level has been
fulfilled, then the appeal process moves on to a higher plane.
For example, a person may not be concerned with self-esteem needs if his or her
basic needs for stability and security are not met. All levels are equally important for
understanding the process.
Thus, when Michelle plans her speech, she could consider addressing the couple’s
basic needs first before proceeding to their other needs. The five types of needs can be
described as follows.
A. Physiological needs
• The needs for food, water, and sleep are examples of physiological needs, and
people will satisfy these basic human needs first before considering others. However,
bear in mind that in many instances in which persuasive speech might be used it is
assumed that these physiological needs have been taken care of, and thus they do not
generally form the foundation of speeches.
• In Michelle’s case, in addition to providing basic information about the size and view
of the house to the couple, she could take them on a tour of the property and explain
to them the specific design of the bedroom, the kitchen, and the living room, as these
areas relate to the basic physiological needs for physical comfort.

B. Safety needs
• The needs for stability, security, structure, and freedom from illness are regarded as
safety needs, which are next in importance in Maslow’s hierarchy. Demonstrating that
safety needs have been considered is essential in persuasion, because all of us have
these needs to some extent.
• Michelle may need to point out the safety features of the property to the couple,
such as the robustness of the doors, whether a burglar alarm has been fitted, and
whether the property management service provided by the real-estate company
functions well. Such factual information is likely to alleviate any uncertainty or fears
that the couple may have, and will enhance their sense of security.
C. Belonging and love needs

• Engaging in a relationship, companionship, and affiliation is the result of our need for
belongingness and love. People want to be part of a group, and the need to pursue a
relationship to love and to be loved can be used in persuasive speech.
• After showing the couple the features of the house, Michelle will have to consider
how to satisfy her clients’ belonging and love needs. Michelle may talk about the
pleasant surroundings of the house, such as a beautiful sea view, spectacular sunsets,
and excellent air quality. These elements suggest a romantic environment that will
enhance the couple’s affection and intimacy.
D. Self-esteem needs
• Self-esteem needs refer to our desire to feel good about ourselves. For example,
most of us want to be perceived as competent, and seek to improve our reputation
and status. Our self-confidence and sense of self-worth are thus enhanced by gaining
recognition and respect from others.
• Michelle may want to assure the couple that their status will be greatly enhanced by
purchasing the upscale house in a respectable district.
E. Self-actualization needs
• In addition to the other needs, some people may want to do the best with what they
have. Self-actualization needs thus refer to the genuine fulfillment and realization of
potential.
• Michelle knows that the couple may want to sell the house for a profit in the future.
She could consider explaining to them about the supply and demand of similar
properties on the market, and could highlight the possibility that the house will
increase greatly in market value over the next five years. This will lead the couple to
consider whether it would be a wise decision to buy the house, and to determine
whether there is a potential for their wish to be portrayed.

Emotional appeals
Emotions, such as joy, surprise, sadness, fear, and anger, are subjective
experiences triggered by verbal and non-verbal acts. An audience is more likely to be
impressed by a persuasive speech that links logical and emotional elements. This is
because people are not only looking for good reasons and facts, but also expect
support, which, if well phrased, is more likely to elicit certain emotions.
Persuaders need to consider the kind of emotion to be elicited; the information
needed to arouse the emotion; and the phrasing of the information to arouse the
emotion.
Power Concern plans to organize a charity ball to raise funds for small, non-profit
charities that do not receive funding from the government or other donors. The
spokesperson of Power Concern will deliver a speech at the ball. To enhance its
effectiveness, the spokesperson will need to think about the following three elements
when writing the speech.
A. Kind of emotion to be elicited

• Note that different persuasive speeches tend to arouse different emotions. In a
speech calling for donations, for example, the spokesperson may want listeners to feel
grief, urgency, or even guilt in order to encourage donations.
• Deciding which kind of emotion or feeling to elicit is thus the first step in formulating
a persuasive speech. It forms the basis of the speech and gives direction to the
persuader as to what to include or how to present the speech.
B. Information needed to arouse the emotion

• For the speech to be delivered at the charity ball, the spokesperson may want the
audience to feel the urgency of the situation, in that small non-profit charities risk
closure and will be unable to help the needy because they are running short of funds
from the government and other donors.
• To encourage donations, the spokesperson could include data collected from
interviews with charity directors explaining how little money they have to run their
organizations, or statistics showing that the amount of funds given by the government
has been decreasing over the years. The speaker could also mention that corporations
are showing little interest in becoming donors or sponsors of such charities.
C. Phrasing the information to arouse the emotion

• With the objectives and information in mind, how well the information is organized
will affect the persuasiveness of a speech. At the charity ball, the spokesperson could
make the speech more emotionally powerful by including a case study with snapshots
of the needy waiting for help and support. The speaker could also suggest how serious
the problem might be if the non-profit charities are forced to close. Through the
provision of vivid information embedded in a real-life context, the audience is more
likely to feel as the persuader wants them to feel.

Logical appeals
A well-organized, logical speech is a persuasive speech. A logical speech will bring
benefit to both the persuader and the audience. A logical speech allows the persuader
to follow an organized flow, which facilitates a more confident delivery, and helps the
audience to understand the main point easily, making them more likely to be
convinced. There are five main ways to show logic in persuasive speaking: time, space,
cause/effect, pros/cons, and topic. Consider the following case:
Martin is the event organizer of a public relations company. He is going to present
a proposal to a customer about a forthcoming book festival. He has to cover a number
of elements in the presentation, including the project schedule, the division of the
exhibition areas, the recruitment of participating publishers, the venue, and the time
and duration of the festival. With so many elements to include, he will have to be well-
organized about his presentation to obtain the customer’s approval.
A. Time
• People are more able to comprehend things that are told to them in chronological
order, such as from past to present or from present to future. This is because the
chronological pattern of time is a natural way of organizing events according to the
sequence of their occurrence, and gives the listener a direction to follow.
• When Martin presents his idea, he should include a project plan that gives a weekly
or monthly schedule that states when things will happen and what tasks must be
completed in preparation for the book festival.
B. Space
• Giving spatial and geographical information can provide an audience with a concrete
idea of what the speech is about. Visual aids or gestures that represent concepts such
as left to right, top to bottom, or high to low can be very illustrative, and will help the
audience to grasp the main idea of a speech.
• At the book festival, different areas may be reserved for certain kinds of books – one
part will be a Chinese section, another, an English section, and so on. The venue may
also be divided evenly between local and foreign publishers. Martin could illustrate this
in a geographical way by showing where the different areas will be located and
describing the size of each area.
C. Cause/effect
• When justifying an argument in persuasion, the speaker may refer to a cause and its
intended effects, or may support or oppose certain acts that have favorable or
unfavorable effects. The cause/effect strategy is useful when a speaker is trying to
persuade an audience to take action in support or opposition of a certain matter.
• For the book festival, Martin must suggest some promotional strategies to his
audience. These promotional strategies are causes that will (hopefully) lead to the
effect that people will come to the festival. The promotional strategies might include
placing advertisements in newspapers, organizing road shows, and inviting guest
speakers to deliver talks.

D. Pros/cons
• Many problems have several solutions, each of which must be weighed before a
decision is made. Conducting a logical analysis of the pros and cons of an issue is thus
important in organizing a persuasive speech.
• Martin will need to consider and analyze various alternative strategies for attracting
people to the book festival, and must point out the advantages and disadvantages of
each alternative. For example, it may be cheaper to put an advertisement in the
newspaper, but a TV commercial may reach a wider audience. The same deliberations
must be made over the choice of venue for the festival: some places may be more
convenient in terms of transportation, whereas others may be cheaper. Evaluating the
alternatives, supported by fact and reason, is a fundamental part of a logical appeal.
E. Topics
• If there are many aspects or issues that need to be covered in a persuasive speech, it
may be better to organize them by topic. A speech with well-categorized content will
be much more comprehensible to the audience.
• Martin could divide his proposal into several topics, such as venue, publicity, and
logistics, to make it more logical and systematic.
Credibility appeals
Credibility in persuasive speaking is the degree to which the audience perceives
the speaker to be believable. The more competent, knowledgeable, and charismatic
the audience sees a speaker as being; the more credible they perceive the speaker to
be. For example, a well-known and successful medical practitioner delivering a speech
about medicine or providing expert advice on the outbreak of a disease would be
regarded as highly credible.
Kelvin has just worked as an insurance agent for one year. He has taken two
major examinations, the Insurance Intermediaries Qualifying Examination (IIQE) and
the Mandatory Provident Fund Schemes Examination (MPFE), to strengthen his
qualifications. Tomorrow, Kelvin will visit a newly established corporation to explore
business opportunities. Although he does not have much work experience, Kelvin
wishes to give his potential customers a professional image, and must thus consider
the following points.
A. Impress people by appearance

• When meeting an audience for the first time, their first impressions of you are
important. Neat and appropriate dress gains people’s recognition, as they will
appreciate the effort that you have taken to make yourself look presentable. Your
appearance reflects your respect for the audience and the event.
• Kelvin could consider wearing a suit to tomorrow’s meeting. This would make him
look smart and professional, and possibly increase his attractiveness to the potential
customers. Once he has made a good first impression on his audience, he can then tell
them about his professional knowledge, which qualifies him to speak on the topic.

B. Show expertise
• Preparation is always needed to show that you are really making an effort in the
things that you are doing. Being organized can also help with delivery. A persuader’s
expertise is judged by the way in which he or she tells the audience about something
with which they are unfamiliar.
• As an insurance agent, Kelvin has to show his knowledge and expertise to others to
enhance his credibility. As he has little work experience, he will have to show his
competence through other methods. In addition to showing his qualifications, such as
the IIQE and MPFE, he could include in his speech some high-quality information
supported by facts and figures that is relevant to the needs and interests of his
audience. Providing factual evidence to support one’s knowledge helps the audience
develop a positive perception of a persuader’s expertise.
C. Gain trust
• It can be hard to gain people’s trust and confidence, and it may require substantial
effort to gain an audience’s recognition. The following strategies are useful for winning
an audience’s trust and belief.
1. Tell the truth. Trustworthiness cannot be built on lies; only the truth can sustain a
relationship and build confidence. When people think that you are lying to them, they
will doubt your credibility. Thus, if there is something that you do not know, it is better
to admit it. In Kevin’s case, when he introduces the Investment-linked Long-term
Insurance to the CEO of the corporation, he may be asked some difficult questions that
he does not have sufficient confidence to answer right away. In such cases, he should
admit that he will need to search for more information to provide the CEO with an
accurate answer. Being able to provide an appropriate follow-up response in an
efficient manner will enhance his credibility and also show that he cares about the
customer.
2. Keep information as precise as possible. In persuasive speaking, people may
sometimes exaggerate their information a little to make it more attractive. Some
listeners may accept a bit of distortion, whereas others may find it unacceptable. To
convince his audience to commit to a long-term insurance plan, Kelvin could suggest
setting a minimum guaranteed return as part of the package.
3. Acknowledge the downsides of the information delivered. For every claim made,
there is more often than not a counter-argument. If a persuasive speech does not
consider this counter information rationally, then it may not be considered sufficiently
comprehensive, thus diminishing the speaker’s credibility. If Kelvin wants to show that
he has taken the downsides of the insurance plan into account, he should mention the
risk that the customers would be taking on. For example, he could bring their attention
to the fact that the return may be affected by economic fluctuations. This presentation
of the information from both sides is likely to enhance his credibility.

Propositions
In persuasion, we try to influence people by supporting our thesis with sound
reasoning, and urge people to adopt our suggestions or to agree with us. Three kinds
of propositions can be embedded in the process of persuasion: propositions of fact,
value, and policy. In the process of persuasion, we look for facts. With reference to the
facts, we generate our own values about the issue under consideration. Then, using
both facts and values, we propose policies to convince people and encourage them to
take action.
In the 2006 Hong Kong census, several major trends were identified. The annual
average growth rate in Hong Kong decreased from 1.8% in 1996 to 0.4% in 2006. It was
also found that the number of people over 65 years of age is increasing, constituting
12.4% of the Hong Kong population in 2006 compared with 10.1% in 1996. Given these
figures, the population policy of Hong Kong must be revised, and specific policies will
be suggested, supported by propositions of fact and propositions of value.
Propositions of fact
Factual information is essential for influencing people in one way or the other,
and also forms the basis of propositions of value and policy. Facts can be drawn from
observation, research, statistics, and experiment. For instance, to support its claims
about the decreasing birth rate and the increasing aging of the population, the Census
Department provided actual figures drawn from the results of the census exercise.
A persuasive speech based on propositions of fact should contain logical proof,
preferably taken from the most recent and credible sources. Before justifying his or her
values and proposing a policy, a speaker should provide the audience with background
facts to raise their awareness of certain points of the argument.
In the census example, the facts help the audience realize the current population
trends in Hong Kong. However, the viewpoints or values that people form around
these facts will differ.
Propositions of value
Values are subjective judgments, which mean that people often see things
differently. Propositions of value concern what we consider to be good or bad,
favorable or unfavorable, just or unjust, and moral or immoral. Although, in a sense,
value propositions are also subjective, they still require supporting facts if they are to
persuade others successfully. Some values are clear cut, but others can be quite
ambiguous. The following is a proposition of value drawn from the aforementioned
data on population trends.
The aging population is worsening the competitiveness of Hong Kong. Such value
must arise from fact; otherwise it would not be necessary to discuss it. If, for example,
the population is not aging, then it would not be worthwhile to discuss whether it is
worsening the competitiveness that the population is aging. Clearly, the fact of the
aging population is essential to support this proposition of value. In other words, there
must be an aging population in the first place for the proposition to be asserted.

Propositions of policy
After a proposition of value has been verified by fact and considered by the
audience, the speaker can then move on to the question of policy. Propositions of
policy concern the policy that should be followed, or what should be done, adopted or
changed in terms of procedures and laws. As the decreasing birth rate and an aging
population are likely to have an adverse effect on Hong Kong, certain actions must be
taken to restore the societal balance. Government officials could consider proposing a
policy that encourages couples to have babies, such as providing them with more
attractive educational allowances and medical benefits for their offspring. Officials
could also consider proposing a policy that attracts immigrants to work and live in
Hong Kong. To be persuasive, these propositions of policy must be supported by
propositions of fact and value.
To enhance a policy’s persuasiveness, a persuader must prove that the policy is
needed, that it is practical and reasonable, and that it will bring direct benefits to the
audience. In the population scenario, expected results or sample policies could be
provided. For instance, government officials could make reference to the policies of
the Singapore Government, which introduced a baby bonus scheme for couples to
counter the decreasing birth rate in the country. The government could also attempt to
persuade the public of the importance of launching a revised immigration policy,
emphasizing how immigrants’ expertise could enhance the competitiveness of Hong
Kong and add value to its economy.
Designs (Reasoning) for Persuasive Speeches

The expected reaction of the audience may influence the design or structure of a
persuasive speech, and a persuader should thus consider the likely response of the
audience whenever possible in outlining a speech. The following four design patterns
for persuasive speeches may be useful in this regard, although the choice of which
pattern will depend on the interaction between the topic, the audience, and the
speaker.
Inductive Patterns
An inductive pattern of speech moves from the specific to the general. It starts
by using specific reasoning to build a case before giving a general conclusion. The
persuader only makes his or her central claims when sufficient reasons or observations
have been provided. This approach safeguards the persuader from potential resistance
from the audience to the presentation of a controversial topic. The inductive pattern is
the best choice when it is expected that the audience will require a lot of explanations
and justifications to be persuaded. Consider the following scenario:
Susan works for a company that sells healthcare products. As a sales manager,
she has to promote a new product that is good for strengthening the bones. As the
product is new to the market and the brand is not popular in the industry, Susan
expects that she will have to use substantial persuasion to promote the new product to
her target customers.

In this scenario, using the inductive pattern to frame the persuasive speech could
work well. As the brand is not a popular one, customers may not have much confidence
in it or any understanding of the product. Thus, before Susan urges people to buy the
product (the central claim), she could consider giving her customers some background
information about the brand and about the unique functions and benefits of the
product, supported by scientific evidence (the reasons).
Deductive Patterns
A deductive pattern of speech is the opposite of an inductive pattern, as it flows
from the general to the specific. The conclusion is stated right at the beginning of the
speech and the specific supporting data and reasons follow afterward. Because the
conclusion (the central claim) is stated first, the audience has a clear picture of what
the speech is about and how it will be developed, and understand what they are
supposed to have learned by the end. As the central claim is made right at the start,
this pattern is best used when the audience is expected to have a rather moderate or
calm reaction toward the speech. If the audience were radical, then the speaker would
not have the chance to present evidence to support the claim, because the audience
might stop the speaker from talking immediately after the conclusion has been given at
the start. Consider the following scenario.
Eric is a sales representative for a leading global mobile phone manufacturer
company. Next month, the company will launch a new mobile model on the market.
Eric will have to sell 200 of the new model each month to meet his target sales quota.
Although Eric feels stressed about meeting the quota, he believes that he can
accomplish the goal.
Both Susan and Eric have to persuade others to buy the products that they are
selling. However, Eric feels confident about the job assigned, whereas Susan feels that
she may need to spend more time and energy in persuasion. Both salespeople are
doing more or less the same kind of job in selling a new product, but the difficulty of
their tasks is different. This difference can be explained by the perceptions of their
respective audiences. Because the brand that Eric is selling is well known, his audience
or potential customers may already possess some background knowledge about it.
Also, as the product is produced by a leading mobile manufacturer, its quality and
reliability may be perceived more positively. These factors mean that he can expect less
resistance from his audience. As the audience resistance toward the two products is
likely to be different, the two speakers should use different patterns to design their
persuasive speech. In contrast to Susan’s use of the inductive pattern, Eric would be
better off using the deductive approach by first prompting people to buy the product
and then giving them reasons why the new mobile phone is worth buying.

Causal Patterns
A causal pattern of persuasive speech moves either from cause to effect or from
effect to cause. A persuader using this pattern will try to establish a relation between
cause and effect when persuading the audience. Whether the cause or the effect
comes first depends on the content of the speech.
Some recent health reports have stated that local children are generally
overweight and consume too much greasy food and too few vegetables. At a parent-
teacher association meeting, some parents suggested changing the contents of the
lunch boxes that the school provides for its pupils. Those who made the suggestion
stressed the importance of having their children maintain a balanced and healthy diet,
and emphasized that the health of the children could be affected by their intake of
unhealthy foods.
In this case, the parents want to change the lunch menu, which is the effect that
they would like to see after the meeting. The parents’ dissatisfaction with the current
lunch boxes and their perception that their children’s health is being endangered by
unhealthy food are the causes of the lunch menu change. At the meeting, the parents
could begin their proposal with the conclusion of a change in the lunch menu, and
proceed to support their proposal with the causes that have driven them to suggest
the change (an effect-to-cause pattern). Alternatively, the parents could suggest the
causes first before discussing the need to change the lunch menu (a cause-to-effect
pattern).
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

In his Principles and Types of Speech Communication (1990), Professor Alan H.
Monroe introduced a five-step motivated sequence for structuring a persuasive
speech. He suggested that the sequence has two advantages. First, it provides a clear
and definite pattern to follow, from defining and analyzing the problem to proposing a
solution. Second, it follows the normal process of human reasoning, and thus coincides
with the way in which people normally think. The five steps of the motivated sequence
are Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, and Action.
The Fair Trade Scheme was introduced to protect farmers from being exploited
by traders. It guarantees that farmers will be paid a fair price for the crops that they
sell. In the coffee industry, many large international corporations have already started
to participate in the scheme as a means of showing their social responsibility, and only
use coffee beans sold under the scheme. However, the majority of the public is
unaware of the scheme. Joanna, a representative of the Fair Trade Scheme, is going to
give a speech at a coffee trade conference to urge the representatives of various
beverage manufacturers to join the scheme and buy only coffee beans with the Fair
Trade label.
Raise attention
It is important to grab the audience’s attention at the beginning of a persuasive
speech. If the speaker cannot hold the attention of the audience, then the audience will
not show any interest in the speech. Grabbing the audience’s attention can be achieved

by letting the audience know what topic you will cover, why you are speaking about it,
why it is important, or why they should be concerned. You could even begin by telling a
story to arouse their motivation to follow your speech.
In the speech that Joanna is going to give, she could first explain what the Fair
Trade Scheme is and why it is necessary. She may want to tell her audience that people
should support the Fair Trade scheme when consuming coffee, because otherwise
poor workers will be exploited.
Address need
After the audience’s attention has been drawn to the problem, the speech can
move on to deal with why the issue requires the audience’s attention and concern now.
The persuader must explain the problem and show that there is a relationship between
the problem and the audience.
In Joanna’s case, she could provide some figures to prove that coffee beans have
been selling at an unreasonable price, and could show that the standard of living of the
farmers is low and that they have not been benefited from the substantial growth in
the coffee industry in recent years. She may also want to explain that large
corporations have been showing their social responsibility by joining the scheme, and
that this is highly valued by the public and the media.
Enhance satisfaction
In this step, the speaker must provide solutions to the needs raised in step 2. The
solutions provided should, of course, be workable and easy to implement, but must
also address any potential reservations that the audience may have.
Joanna’s solution is to suggest that by joining the Fair Trade Scheme and buying
products with the Fair Trade label, the corporations will be able to show their social
responsibility by not exploiting farmers.
Visualize outcome
Some members of the audience may agree with the proffered solution, whereas
others may not. It is thus necessary to make the audience visualize the impacts and
benefits of the solution, or what the solution will mean for them if they adopt it.
At the coffee trade conference, Joanna could create a mental picture for her audience
of how a win-win situation could be achieved in which the corporate image of the
companies was enhanced and the farmers’ living standard simultaneously improved.
Suggest action
The last step of the motivated sequence is to suggest action. This should be
practical advice that tells the audience exactly how to adopt the solution suggested
and the steps that they must take to do so. If the recommendation is not concrete and
specific, then the audience is unlikely to take any action.
To end her speech, Joanna could explain, in detail, how the participants can join
the Fair Trade Scheme and sign a contract to agree to buy coffee beans that bear the

Fair Trade label. If possible, Joanna should provide contact information for the Fair
Trade Scheme to those interested.
Theory into Practice

This section discusses how persuasive speaking functions in three specific types
of campaigns: social action campaigns, election campaigns, and sales campaigns. It
also suggests some strategies for handling opposing persuasive arguments.
Social Action Campaigns

Social action campaigns vary in size and complexity. Any campaign that aims to
make certain changes in society or in a community can be regarded as a social action
campaign. For example, a community group might encourage people to donate in a
fund-raising activity, a government department might organize a job fair to attract
fresh graduates to apply for government positions, and a company might reform its
internal communications to increase its efficiency and productivity.
Karen is a communications associate at an event-organizing company. At the next
meeting, she will present a proposal which suggests that the company should set up a
new electronic communications platform that is accessible to all employers. The aim of
the proposed platform is to enhance the efficiency of internal communications among
the various departments.
To achieve the action that is sought, a persuader should take into consideration
the following steps in launching a campaign.
Set a goal
The goal of the campaign must first be identified before any further plans are
made. The goal will be judged by the audience to see if it is worth supporting. If the
goal is not sound and clear, then people will be unwilling to take action to support the
campaign. The goal of Karen’s campaign is to improve the internal communications
within the company by setting up an electronic communications platform. Thus,
enhancing the efficiency of internal communications will be the key message that she
will seek to convey throughout the campaign.
Analyze the target audience

For a campaign to be successful, it must target the right people. Winning the
support of the most influential group of people is particularly important. Karen will find
it essential to obtain the support of the managers of the various departments, as
together they form the group that holds the power to make decisions. If those
managers are supportive and feel that the electronic communications platform will
benefit internal communications, then the proposal will have a better chance of being
implemented in the departments.

Analyze the situation
In addition to gaining support from the right people, it is necessary to consider
whether the context will allow the proposed campaign to be realized. The context
includes any political, economical, and cultural issues that might affect the campaign.
As Karen is going to propose a reform that must be supported by advanced
technology, the first contextual factor that she may have to consider is the financial
support available from the company. If the company does not have sufficient capital,
then the campaign is unachievable. However, even if the company does have enough
money, Karen should consider whether her colleagues are flexible enough to accept
the change. If most of the staff are reluctant or unable to learn the new technology,
then the campaign will also be infeasible to achieve. Moreover, if the company is not
large, then the communications platform may not be needed at all. Thus, contextual
factors may affect the feasibility of a campaign.
Develop a strategy
It is at this stage that the action plan is outlined. The plan should include both a
theme and a procedure that can be followed as the campaign unfolds. A slogan should
be chosen that emphasizes the theme of the campaign. For example, Karen’s campaign
could use the slogan “Get connected.” The campaign procedure may include
petitioning, writing internal notices, outsourcing the platform’s development work,
testing the system, and on-site training. Karen will also need to gather opinions from
the executives, the managers, and her colleagues, and will need to prepare speeches
aimed at these different groups in order to poll opinions about the proposal.
Mobilize resources
People and money are usually the resources most needed in social action
campaigns. Whether the campaign is large or small, there should be a paid group of
people handling the campaign. Setting up a small committee to support Karen during
her campaign may be a good idea. The committee members would be assigned
different tasks, such as drafting notices, working with the information technology
support team, and managing and controlling the budget. Karen’s campaign will also
need money for organizing speeches, arranging demonstrations, and conducting
training sessions.
Build your case

The most important part of a social action campaign is to build a case that tells
the audience why the campaign is worth supporting and the benefits that it will bring.
The case should be well framed and rich in information for refuting counterarguments.
A sound case determines the life and death of a campaign. In the coming meeting,
Karen will present her case, which will include all of the elements that have been
mentioned, from setting the goal to mobilizing resources. She will have to state the
problem, the proposed solution, the feasibility and practicality of the proposal, and the

benefits that the solution will bring. However, the content and form of the case will
need to be adapted and customized for the different groups involved. It is important to
KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE WELL.
Election Campaigns
An election campaign usually involves a candidate running for the post of
president, chairman, or representative. Regardless of how large or small the election,
there are four main stages in an election campaign. The following speech is likely to
appear during the initial stages of an election campaign.
Good afternoon everyone. Thank you for coming to this forum today. My name is
Frank Morrison. I am a candidate for the president of the Media Society. I am going to
tell you a little about myself and what my committee will do for you in the coming year.
I hope that after today, you will know more about me and my team so that you can
make a wise decision on polling day at the end of this month.
Make oneself known as a candidate

At the beginning of an election campaign, a candidate might not be known to
people. This stage is thus a chance for the candidate and the electorate to get to know
each other. The candidate will have to determine the issues that he or she will cover
and the position that he or she is going to take on these issues. First impressions are
important.
Frank, at this time, organizes a forum for people to join. Through the forum, he
can demonstrate his personal character, qualifications, and experience and his team’s
strengths to his audience. The forum will be an opportunity for him to outline and
explain his working plan to the electorate and to help the electorate understand more
about the team.
Get oneself taken seriously

After the initial publicity, the next step is to create a sense of legitimacy by
seeking endorsements and financial support. Supporters who endorse the candidate’s
plan and proposed actions will be needed. Frank’s endorsements will come from the
students and professors of the Media Department.
In some large-scale election campaigns, candidates need to secure financial
support to be able to run their campaigns. Nationwide presidential elections, for
example, need a huge amount of financial support for advertising and promotion.
Obtaining financial support from a certain party means that the party has taken the
candidate seriously. In other words, it legitimizes the candidate’s status. Although
Frank is running in a relatively small-scale election, he could consider seeking funding
from his department to support his election campaign.

Promote oneself and educate the audience
At the promotion stage, the candidate must consolidate the achievements of the
previous stage, develop a personal identity, and build credibility to make sure that the
support gained in the previous step is long-lasting. The candidate will have to deliver a
lot of speeches to impress the audience and to educate them about his or her policies.
Frank may need to give several speeches to his peers and his professors, but can also
let people know about himself and his team by giving out leaflets.
Analyze and evaluate one’s performance

Regardless of whether the candidate wins or loses the election, a proper analysis
and evaluation of one’s performance will allow him or her to do better in similar
campaigns in the future. This should be a process of analyzing what went right and
what went wrong during the campaign. Frank may want to evaluate the speeches that
he gave and the promotion strategies that he deployed during the campaign.
Sales Campaigns
Sales campaigns are different from social action campaigns and election
campaigns, in that they are not always standalone entities. Rather, in most cases sales
campaigns are an integral part of long-range ongoing corporate campaigns. Sales
campaign speaking can occur in a one-to-one, one-to-many, or small-group context.
Selling a product to the general public is a very typical context that requires sales
campaign speaking. Consider the following extract from a speech.
You may not have noticed this new machine. This 4-in-1 PDA, Pocket 4, includes a
computer operation system, a mobile phone, a camera, and a portable game player.
The 4-in-1 PDA allows you to work anywhere you want, play anywhere you want,
and connect with people with no boundaries. The 4-in-1 PDA will make your life easier,
and will give you an even better experience than the previous 3-in-1 PDA, Pocket 3.
This extract follows the four stages of marketing: creating awareness,
stimulating endorsement, triggering purchase, and reinforcing commitment.
Create awareness
At the first stage of marketing, it is assumed that potential customers are
unaware of the products or services being sold. Thus, the task of the marketer is to
create product awareness in the first place, at the very least letting customers know
the name of the product or service. In the foregoing extract, the marketer or
salesperson creates awareness by saying “you may not have noticed this new machine
. . . Pocket 4,” which draws the audience’s attention to the fact that a new product has
been launched.
Stimulate endorsement
After introducing the new product to potential customers, their interest must be
sufficiently aroused to buy it. Giving out information on the quality of the product and
its functions can stimulate customer endorsement. The Pocket 4 includes four major
functions: it is a computer, mobile phone, camera, and game player. This is the

product’s main selling point, and is what makes this multifunctional PDA a much better
choice than other similar products on the market.
Trigger purchase
Persuading people to actually buy the product constitutes the third step of
marketing. To sell a Pocket 4, the salesperson must outline the benefits that customers
will gain if they have the product in their hand, in this case the fact that they can work,
play, and connect with people anywhere. The salesperson can also offer incentives,
such as discounts, cash coupons, and warranties, to encourage customers to make a
purchase.
Reinforce commitment
Marketing does not end when a customer buys the product. Reinforcement and
improvement are also needed, otherwise better quality products will supersede the
existing product or a new brand will supersede the existing brand. The foregoing sales
speech extract mentions that the Pocket 4 is a newer version of the Pocket 3, and a
comparison is made between the two to highlight the improvement in functioning of
the newer product.
Successful sales campaign speaking involves hiring the right salespeople who
meet the following four criteria. Regardless of the superiority of the product, good
sales are unlikely without the right salespeople.
A. Knowledge of the product or service

• Good salespeople must have a thorough understanding of the product or service
that they are selling. Only with a full understanding and mastery of the functions and
benefits of the product or service can they make a comprehensive and confident
presentation to their customers.
B. Fluent communication
• A fluent and enthusiastic presentation will enhance customer confidence in the
product or service. If a salesperson is unsure about the features of the product that he
or she is selling, then he or she will not make a good presentation or persuade people
to buy it.
C. Ability to identify customer needs

• In the process of persuading a customer to buy a product, the salesperson must stay
alert and identify the customer’s needs and interests. The salesperson can then
highlight certain functions or suggest alternatives that best suit the customer. In this
way, the salesperson is more likely to win the customer’s trust, which leads to a greater
chance of making a successful sale.
D. Ethical selling
• Successful salespeople always care about and value their customers, and thus give
them truthful information from credible sources. If a salesperson attempts to sell by

unethical means, such as cheating or exaggeration, then the brand’s reputation will be
affected and no trust will be established.
Opposing Persuasive Arguments

Different people often have different perspectives, opinions, and arguments on
an issue. Some may strongly support the issue, whereas others may oppose it.
However, expressing a different point of view does not necessarily constitute the
refutation of an argument. Refutation is fundamentally the process of proving that a
reason, argument, or evidence is false or inappropriate. Consider the following speech
extract. What are the weaknesses and fallacies that can be refuted?
Parents, as the chairperson of the Parent-Teacher Association, I am helping the
school to coordinate and launch a reading scheme. The scheme will involve the
preparation of extensive reading materials for students from P.4 to P.6 in a bid to
arouse students’ interest in reading and to improve their comprehension skills. I believe
that the students’ academic results will improve as a result of extensive reading. I hope
that you will give me your support on this scheme. Let’s look forward to seeing our
children become more knowledgeable and confident.
Outline the argument

The speech is not without its flaws. However, it is better to listen to the whole
argument and take notes before posing a counterargument, as one otherwise runs the
risk of being accused of distorting the speaker’s statements.
An opponent of the reading scheme might prepare the following outline before voicing
a refutation.
Conclusion: The students’ academic results will improve as a result of extensive
reading.
Premise: The scheme will arouse students’ reading interest.
Evaluate the evidence

After outlining the argument, the premise must be evaluated to determine
whether it supports the conclusion. This means distinguishing fact from opinion,
searching for the source of the evidence presented, and analyzing the process of
reasoning in the speech.
In the foregoing speech, “I believe that the students’ academic results will
improve as a result of extensive reading” is opinion rather than fact. Although the
reading scheme may indeed improve the students’ academic results, this assertion
must be supported by sound evidence. Fact is worth more than opinion, and opinion
given by an expert is worth more than opinion given by non-experts. Thus, supporting
a conclusion with expert opinions and data from empirical research can be more
persuasive than simply stating one’s own opinion, which may be subjective. One good
way of refuting a claim is to invalidate the “warrant.” The warrant connects the
evidence (data) to the claim (conclusion). The warrant answers the “because” portion
of a claim; For example, “Because the defendant’s fingerprints were on the gun, and
because the defendant was seen leaving the apartment at the same time the shooting

occurred, the prosecutor charges the defendant with the crime.” Without a valid
warrant we can dismiss the conclusion, for example, “Because the defendant’s
fingerprints were not on the gun, and because the defendant can show he was
somewhere else at the time, the defense argues that the defendant could not have
committed the crime,” thus invalidating the prosecution’s claim that he or she did.
Therefore, a good way of refuting a shaky conclusion of the abovementioned
speech is to challenge the validity of the scheme by asking for figures and factual
evidence. There is no source of evidence in the chairperson’s speech. The chairman
claims that the scheme will provide extensive reading materials for students, but the
resources that are actually available and whether such resources will suit the students’
abilities, needs, and interests are uncertain. Moreover, the flow of reasoning can be
easily attacked. For example, what is the relationship between extensive reading and
reading interest? What is the relationship between extensive reading and academic
results? If the cause and effect relationship cannot be confidently established, then the
reasoning becomes questionable and hence refutable.
Use the results of the critical evaluation to refute the argument

The final step is to prepare the refutation, which must be as well organized as a
planned speech. There are four steps to complete.
A. State the argument that you will refute.
B. State what you will prove.
C. Present the proof with evidence and facts.
D. Draw your own conclusion.
Someone opposing the effectiveness of extensive reading in raising academic
results and improving students’ interest in reading must present an alternative
argument. For example, an opponent might suggest that a drama workshop would be
more effective in encouraging students to read. However, the opponent would need to
provide sufficient evidence to persuade others to adopt the drama workshop over the
reading scheme.
Persuasion and Ethics

Both persuaders and persuadees have a responsibility to adhere to appropriate
ethical standards of persuasion. It is incumbent upon all of us to encourage freedom of
inquiry and expression, even if we disagree with that expression, and it is a cornerstone
of democracy to be afforded the right to do so. Promoting healthy public debate is
crucial to the decision-making process and the continued right to employ persuasion in
a public forum.
Ethical principles guide the evaluation of persuasion as right or wrong, fair or
unfair, and moral or immoral. Ethical principles are standards or rules that are used to
evaluate an action, or, in the case of persuasion, communicative behavior. These
principles are derived from moral reasoning. Moral reasoning, which is sometimes
referred to as moral philosophy, is philosophical inquiry about norms or values, that is,
about ideas of right and wrong, good and bad, and what should and should not be
done. Moral philosophy addresses the question, “What ought I to do?” the answer to

which requires much more than adhering to the fundamental principles of morality.
The term moral philosophy is often used synonymously with ethics, which is the
philosophical discussion of assumptions about right and wrong, good and bad, both as
general ideas and as applied in the private lives of individuals. Three elements govern
the application of an ethical principle to the evaluation of a persuasive attempt: our
perspective in viewing the situation; the values that we believe are relevant to the
situation; and our loyalties to the people involved in the situation. People may agree on
the merit of a given ethical principle, but often differ in their perceptions of whether
the principle applies to a given situation. The following is a partial list of ethical
principles for evaluating persuasion with which you should be familiar.
1) Self-interest versus mutuality: Is it ethical for a persuader to accomplish his or her
own goals with little regard for the needs of others? Does the persuader have any
responsibility to others, or are others responsible for satisfying their own goals?
2) Individual dignity and justice: If compliance with a persuasive message causes
another person embarrassment or loss of dignity, is this ethical?
3) Accurate information: Is it the ethical responsibility of the persuader to ensure that
the audience has accurate information on all sides of the issue? Is the persuader
responsible for things said and things hidden or omitted? Under what conditions is
deception ethical?
4) Information evaluation: Is it ethical to bolster the impact of a persuasive message by
preventing people from communicating with each other or by hindering thoughtful
analysis of the message?
5) Consequences of the message: Is the persuader responsible for the audience’s
responses to the message? Is the persuader only responsible for the reactions that the
message is intended to provoke?
6) Receiver responsibility: Does the audience have any ethical responsibility in a
persuasive encounter? If so, then what? Is the audience responsible for being duped by
a skillful persuader?
7) Relative truth: Is it unethical for a persuader to proclaim that his or her position
reflects the truth and that alternative positions on the same issue are inherently false?
Can we ever know the truth?
8) Situational ethics: Are ethical principles absolutes that should be adhered to in all
situations? Is there an ethical standard that clearly differentiates between right and
wrong and can be applied in all situations?
9) Relative power and increased responsibility: Should people in positions of power or
influence be held more accountable for their persuasive messages?
10) Freedom of speech: Does freedom of speech make all persuasion ethical? Is there a
difference between your right to say something and your ethical responsibility for the
message?
If a message has the power to change people’s beliefs, attitudes, and behavior,
then it is persuasive and its ethical burden is great. Although democratic societies
adhere to the principle of freedom of speech, they continue to struggle with the
effects of communication. Who is responsible for the effects of persuasion, and to

what degree – the persuader, the receiver, or both? You should think about these
questions when creating your persuasive message.
The foregoing section raises some issues of which you should be aware when
evaluating persuasive messages, but still does not tell what you should do as an ethical
persuader or what guidelines you should follow. The following are some characteristics
of ethical persuasion that you may want to use or consider when developing your
message.
1) Ethical persuaders are clear, direct, and honest about their intentions.
2) Ethical persuaders promote mutual respect and the mutual satisfaction of goals,
rather than self-interest.
3) Ethical persuaders use strategies that confirm others and preserve their dignity.
4) Ethical persuaders seek input and elaboration from each other.
5) Ethical persuaders avoid the use of active deception and the withholding of relevant
information, except when the truth may cause significant harm to others.
6) Ethical persuaders listen to and critically assess each other’s messages.
7) Ethical persuaders welcome and explore dissent.
8) Ethical persuaders analyze their own and others’ biases without defending or
threatening their own or others’ egos.
9) All participants in the persuasion process share ethical responsibility for the
outcomes of their persuasion and respond to each other with resoluteness and
openness.
10) Ethical persuaders weigh opinions equally, rather than on the basis of individual
power or status.
11) Ethical persuaders assess the probable consequences of their message on others.
12) Ethical persuaders employ persuasion to celebrate the human qualities of diversity,
personality, intelligence, passionate belief, humor, and reasoning.
13) Ethical persuaders encourage social discussion and social contact.
14) Ethical persuaders critically challenge claims of certainty and truth.
15) Decisions are subject to revision over time.
16) The relative power of the persuader and the audience determines the degree of
ethical responsibility.
17) Ethical persuaders uphold free speech, but the probability of harmful consequences
guides their decision to produce a persuasive message.
Building Your Credibility

There are three basic types of credibility for a speaker. The first derives from the
established credibility that a speaker brings with him or her to the speaking occasion;
the second is the credibility that a speaker develops during his or her speech; and the
third is the credibility derived by the speaker after the speaking occasion.
The perfectly written speech that includes all the evidence in the world,
organized perfectly and delivered well, will not persuade an audience if the listeners do
not trust the speaker. What is trust; what is credibility? What makes some speakers
credible and others not? How can we build our own credibility before and during
persuasion? We have spoken, in another chapter, about Aristotle’s ethos and the

reputation of the speaker, the speaker’s delivery during the speech, and the audience’s
response to the speaker’s image. Although the terminology that Aristotle used may not
apply to today’s definition of a credible speaker, the concepts remain the same. We can
substitute the expertise of the speaker for reputation, and can link delivery and
charisma with sincerity and dynamism. Although we are a multicultural society, we still
hold that we cannot trust or believe a speaker who cannot maintain eye contact with
the audience. Similarly, speakers with an animated delivery persuade more effectively
than those who stand stiffly behind the podium. Language that excites an audience is
generally more persuasive than language that is dull and monotonous.
Moreover, a speaker’s personal appearance also has an effect on the audience.

We may think that these points are obvious, yet many speakers overlook them on
a regular basis.
We should learn good habits early on to become effective persuaders in the
future.
Trust
Trust is a powerful word. It is only five letters long, but it means so much. We
trust people for many reasons. We trust those who have proven to be trustworthy in
the past, because, for example, as speakers they maintained direct eye contact, or gave
accurate and reliable information, or performed as anticipated. As audience members,
we give feedback on our trust, for example, by returning that direct eye contact,
paying attention to the speaker, or offering confirming nonverbal language. We also
fulfill the anticipated duties of a trustworthy audience. Trust is thus atransactional
process developed between the speaker and the audience.
Expertise
There is an old maxim in persuasion: “Know what you know, know what you
don’t know, and know the difference between the two.” How does one know if a
speaker is really an expert on the subject just because he or she says so? Are they
faking their credentials? We often read or hear about people who have lied about their
expertise. Even if they appear to know what they are talking about, do they always
seem to know almost everything about the subject and can answer most questions?
Part of a speaker’s credibility and trustworthiness stems from having a reputation of
being an expert in the relevant field or topic. One of the most embarrassing moments
for any persuader is to fake an answer and then be corrected by a real expert in the
audience. This immediately undermines the speaker’s credibility.
Dynamism
Saying someone is a dynamic speaker is akin to saying that they are charismatic:
there really is no solid definition of the word because each person has their own
perception of what constitutes dynamism. Dynamism can refer to a speaker’s
appearance, tone of voice, delivery style, or some unseen connection with the
audience.

Delivery Style
Delivery style is determined by several factors, including variety of word choice,
and the use of figures of speech, vividness, conciseness, imagery, and humor. How a
speech is delivered to the audience is as important as all of the research and
construction put into developing it, and indeed the success of a speech may actually
hinge on its delivery. Good delivery does not come naturally for many speakers: they
have to practice.
Using a variety of words helps the audience to stay focused on the message and
avoid becoming bored. Metaphors and similes are figures of speech that can make
words come alive and help an audience visualize a speaker’s message, when a speaker
uses an extended metaphor, the audience ties information in the speech to the
metaphorical structure, which enables them to remember it better. Alliteration or
assonance can also enliven a speech. Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds,
and assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds. Both help to create a type of cadence
or rhythm in delivery, which makes a speech more lively and memorable.
It is vital to choose words that will catch the interest of the audience. Vivid
language can be used, but sparingly. Too much vivid language will bore the audience
and they will quickly lose interest.
Being concise also means using language sparingly; using one or two words to
convey a message instead of seven or eight. The main points of a speech should be
stated in a short introductory declaration that is as concise as possible. You have the
entire speech to say what you want, and can always elaborate on the main points.
Imagery appeals to our senses, experiences, and impressions, and helps an
audience to see, feel, smell, and touch a speech, figuratively speaking, as they cannot
do so physically. State your points using imagery so that they appeal to one or more of
the senses.
Humor is a great way to capture an audience and maintain their attention. Humor
is definitely a stylistic tool. It is a good way to create what Aristotle called “common
ground,” or identification, with an audience. However, too much humor has the
opposite effect. As with vivid language, use humor sparingly.
As a last thought on credibility, it is the audience – each individual member – that
determines a speaker’s credibility. You may be seen as credible by one member of an
audience and not by another. Use as many ethically rhetorical devices as you feel
necessary, and use as much concrete and varied language as you think the audience
may require creating that connection with your audience. Credibility can be difficult to
earn, and most of the time it is. Few people are viewed as credible after their first or
second speech. It can take a long time, and may come only after many speeches or
attempts at persuasion. However, also remember that it takes only one occasion to
destroy all the credibility that you have built up. Always do the right thing; always
consider your credibility before you attempt to persuade an audience.
To be successful in persuasive speaking, you must be perceived as credible and
trustworthy. Several strategies have been discussed in this chapter that help enhance a
speaker’s credibility. These can be summarized as follows. First, always prepare a
speech thoroughly by analyzing your topic in detail and gathering sufficient evidence to

support your proposal. Second, try to present your ideas in an organized and logical
manner to help the audience comprehend your message and its meaning. Third, be
confident when you deliver your speech. Your articulation, tone, and gestures will
reveal to your audience how confident you are with the topic. Fourth, identify the
needs and interests of your audience and put these at the top of your agenda. Impress
the audience by demonstrating how well you know them and how sincerely you want
to help them. Fifth, know your material and be willing to admit when you don’t know
something. Persuasive speaking is not a one-sided presentation; it is a process of two-
sided communication between the persuader and the audience, or persuadees.
textcommons.org
Entertainment Speeches
In broad terms, an entertaining speech is a speech designed to captivate an

audience’s attention and regale or amuse them while delivering a message. Like more
traditional informative or persuasive speeches, entertaining speeches should
communicate a clear message, but the manner of speaking used in an entertaining
speech is typically different. Entertaining speeches are often delivered on special
occasions (e.g., a toast at a wedding, an acceptance speech at an awards banquet, a
motivational speech at a conference), which is why they are sometimes referred to as
special-occasion speeches. However, they can also be given on more mundane
occasions, where their purpose is primarily to amuse audience members or arouse
them emotionally in some way. Remember, when we use the word “entertain,” we are
referring not just to humor but also to drama. The goal of an entertaining speech is to
stir an audience’s emotions.
Of all the types of speeches we come in contact with during our lives, the bulk of
them will probably fall into the category of entertainment. If you spend just one
evening watching a major awards show (e.g., the Grammys, the Tonys, the Oscars),
you’ll see dozens of acceptance speeches. While some of these acceptance speeches
are good and others may be terrible, they all belong in the category of speaking to
entertain.
Other speeches that fall into the entertaining category are designed to inspire or
motivate an audience to do something. These are, however, different from a traditional
persuasive speech. While entertaining speeches are often persuasive, we differentiate
the two often based on the rhetorical situation itself. Maybe your school has hired a
speaker to talk about his or her life story in an attempt to inspire the audience to try
harder in school and reach for the best that life has to offer. You can imagine how this
speech would be different from a traditional persuasive speech focusing on, say, the
statistics related to scholastic achievement and success later in life.
Entertaining speeches are definitely very common, but that doesn’t mean they
don’t require effort and preparation. A frequent trap is that people often think of
entertaining speeches as corny. As a result, they don’t prepare seriously but rather

stand up to speak with the idea that they can “wing it” by acting silly and telling a few
jokes. Instead of being entertaining, the speech falls flat. To help us think through how
to be effective in delivering entertaining speeches, let’s look at four key ingredients:
preparation, adaptation to the occasion, adaptation to the audience, and mindfulness
about the time.
Be Prepared
First, and foremost, the biggest mistake you can make when standing to deliver
an entertaining speech is to underprepare or simply not prepare at all. We’ve stressed
the need for preparation throughout this text, so just because you’re giving a wedding
toast or a eulogy doesn’t mean you shouldn’t think through the speech before you
stand up and speak out. If the situation is impromptu, even jotting some basic notes on
a napkin is better than not having any plan for what you are going to say. Remember,
when you get anxious, as it inevitably happens in front of an audience, your brain
doesn’t function as well as when you are having a relaxed conversation with friends.
You often forget information. By writing down some simple notes, you’ll be less
likely to deliver a bad speech.
Be Adaptive to the Occasion

Not all content is appropriate for all occasions. If you are asked to deliver a
speech commemorating the first anniversary of a school shooting, then obviously using
humor and telling jokes wouldn’t be appropriate. But some decisions about adapting to
the occasion are less obvious. Consider the following examples:
 You are the maid of honor giving a toast at the wedding of your younger sister.
 You are receiving a Most Valuable Player award in your favorite sport.
 You are a sales representative speaking to a group of clients after a mistake has
been discovered.
 You are a cancer survivor speaking at a high school student assembly.
How might you adapt your message and speaking style to successfully entertain
these various audiences?
Remember that being a competent speaker is about being both personally
effective and socially appropriate. Different occasions will call for different levels of
social appropriateness. One of the biggest mistakes entertaining speakers can make is
to deliver one generic speech to different groups without adapting the speech to the
specific occasion. In fact, professional speakers always make sure that their speeches
are tailored for different occasions by getting information about the occasion from
their hosts. When we tailor speeches for special occasions, people are more likely to
remember those speeches than if we give a generic speech.
Be Adaptive to Your Audience

Once again, we cannot stress the importance of audience adaptation enough in
this text. Different audiences will respond differently to speech material, so the more
you know about your audience the more likely you’ll succeed in your speech. One of
our coauthors was once at a conference for teachers of public speaking. The keynote

speaker stood and delivered a speech on the importance of public speaking. While the
speaker was good and funny, the speech really fell flat. The keynote speaker basically
told the public speaking teachers that they should take public speaking courses
because public speaking is important. Right speech, wrong audience!
Be Mindful of the Time

The last major consideration for delivering entertaining speeches successfully is
to be mindful of your time. Different entertaining speech situations have their own
conventions and rules with regard to time. Acceptance speeches and toasts, for
example, should be relatively short (typically under five minutes). A speech of
introduction should be extremely brief—just long enough to tell the audience what
they need to know about the person being introduced in a style that prepares them to
appreciate that person’s remarks. In contrast, commencement speeches and speeches
to commemorate events can run ten to twenty minutes in length.
It’s also important to recognize that audiences on different occasions will expect
speeches of various lengths. For example, although it’s true that graduation
commencement speakers generally speak for ten to twenty minutes, the closer that
speaker heads toward twenty minutes the more fidgety the audience becomes. To
hold the audience’s attention and fulfill the goal of entertaining, a commencement
speaker would do well to make the closing minutes of the speech the most engaging
and inspiring portion of the speech. If you’re not sure about the expected time frame
for a speech, either ask the person who has invited you to speak or do some quick
research to see what the average speech times in the given context tend to be.
Types of Speeches: The Entertaining Speech

Posted on July 15, 2011 by Carma
If you decide to become a professional speaker or use speaking as an integral part of
your marketing strategy, it’s a good idea to familiarize yourself with the various types of
speeches you might be asked to give. In this series of posts, I’ll give you the basics on a
variety of types of presentations you can prepare. At the end of this post, I’ve listed
previous articles in this series.
What is an entertaining speech? O.K. Let’s be honest here, entertainment truly is
in the eye of the beholder. What one person finds entertaining, another may find duller
than dish water. So, you really have to know your audience in order to entertain them.
But what does that mean? What is an entertaining speech?
In the context of this series, an entertaining speech is one whose sole purpose is
to have the audience enjoy the presentation. The purpose of an entertaining speech is
not to educate, inform or inspire … it is to make the audience smile, relax, enjoy and
maybe even laugh their heads off. (Figuratively, of course … real heads falling off
would cause a nasty mess!).

Of course, although many — if not most — entertaining speeches are funny, they
do not need to include humor to be entertaining. Dramas are entertaining but not
funny, right?
How do you make a speech entertaining?
There are many ways to entertain an audience. You can:
 tell jokes
 tell funny stories
 dramatize an anecdote
 tell a scary story
When it comes right down to it … there are probably as many ways to entertain
as there are entertainers … and audiences. That said there are some guidelines to
creating an entertaining speech.
Chose an appropriate topic:
You don’t want the topic to be too dense, complicated or heavy. Remember,
you’re not trying to give your audience a greater understanding of anything. You’re
there to help them have a good time.
Enjoy yourself:
Believe it or not, it is hard for an audience to enjoy your presentation if it looks
like you are not enjoying presenting it!
Keep it simple:
Your presentation should be easy to follow. Don’t make it hard for your audience
to keep up with you mentally … or in any other way.
Make it visceral:
Use vivid word pictures. This is not the type of presentation where you can be
lazy in your descriptions. Make your words pop with strong images that pop in their
minds.
Say it like a roller coaster, baby!
Add unexpected twists and turns to your presentation. When you surprise your
audience with where your story is going, that adds to the entertainment factor.

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CLASS MATERIALS

Ana Paulina Suárez C

Brainstorm – the gathering of ideas* (*goal is to generate lots of ideas without

When determining your purpose statement:

a. What do you want your audience to know?

b. What do you want your audience to feel?

c. What do you want your audience to do?

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Your responsibility is to tell them how to prepare for this trip.

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Write your specific purpose in each situation.

1. You’re speaking to university students about the hazards of smoking.

2. You’re speaking to neighborhood residents about the importance of recycling

4. You’re speaking to a group of athletes on the value of a healthy diet.

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Understand what you want to achieve:

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Public Speaking Tips

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In a Written Piece In a Speech

Someone introduces the speaker, gives

Speaker tells the audience what s/he's going

Overheads, slides, the blackboard, a live

Speaker writes word on blackboard, lingers on

Speaker tells anecdotes or stories which

Speaker pauses for a few seconds between

Speaker counts off items in numerical order

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Speaker says "as X once said..." or uses the

Speaker takes a brief moment to explain

Speaker lets the audience know where s/he is

Speaker calls people, places and things by the

Speaker indicates by summarizing (saying "in

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Mapping the Content of Your Speech

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RATING (speaking skills)

RATING (organization skills)

OVERALL RATING: ________

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Informative Speakers Are Credible:

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Informative Speakers are Knowledgeable:

Types of Informative Speeches:

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Sample Definitional Speech Outline

Title: “Life is suffering,” and Other Buddhist Teachings (15) Specific

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