in Egyptian Hieroglyphics SIR E. A. WALLIS BUDGE EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE Easy Lessons EGYPTIAN ; LANGUAGE oe eta SS SE ee mel WALLIS BUDGE~ J The ancient Egyptians expressed their ideas in writing by y means of a large number of picture signs, known as Hiero- glyphics. They began to use them for this purpose more than seven thousand years ago, and they were employed uninter- ruptedly until about roo BC, that is to say, until nearly the end of the rule of the Ptolemies over Egypt. It is hardly probable that the hieroglyphic system of writing was invented in Egypt, and evidence indicates that it was brought there by certain invaders who came from north-east or central Asia; they settled down in the valley of the Nile, somewhere between Memphis on the north and Thebes on the south, and gradually established their civilization and religion in their new home. Little by little the writing spread to the north and to the south, until at length hieroglyphics were employed, for state purposes at least, from the coast of the Mediterranean to the most southern portion of the Island of Meroé, a tract of country over 2,000 miles long. This book is intended to form an easy introduction to the study of the Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions, and was prepared in answer to many requests made both in Egypt and in England. SOME RELATED BOOKS EGYPTIAN MAGIC E, A. Wallis Budge EGYPTIAN RELIGION Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life E. A. Wallis Budge THE BOOK OF THE DEAD ‘An English Translation of the Chapters, Hymns, etc., of the Theban Recension With an Introduction and Notes E. A. Wallis Budge ‘THE NILE AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION Alexandre Moret History of Civilization Series ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL ISBN 07100 1129 6 Printed in Great BritainEGYPTIAN LANGUAGEBy the same author THE BOOK OF THE DEAD An English Translation of the Chapters, Hymns, etc., of the Theban Recension, with an Introduction and Notes Illustrated with twenty plates, over four hundred line reproductions, and a seven-colour facsimile from the Papyrus of AniEGYPTIAN LANGUAGE EASY LESSONS IN EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS | WITH SIGN LIST BY | SIR E. A. WALLIS BUDGE M.A., LITT.D., D.LIT. LATE KEEPER OF THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES LONDON: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd NEW YORK: Dover Publications IncPublished in Great Britain by Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited Broadway House, 68-74 Carter Lane London EC4V 5EL and in the U.S.A. by Dover Publications Inc. 160 Varick Street New York, roorg Eleventh Impression 1971 Twelfth Impression 1973 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except for the quotation of brief passages in criticism Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-21262 ISBN 0 7100 1129 6 (Great Britain) ISBN 0-486-21394-3 (United States of America) Printed in Great Britain by Redwood Press Limited Trowbridge, Wilishirefo HENRY EDWARD JULER, ESQUIRE, F.R.C8 re., BIC, HTC. "TO WHOSE SKILL AND KINDNESS MX EYESIGHT OWES 80 MUCH.PREFACE. Tims little book is intended to form an easy intro- duction to the study of the Egyptian hieroglyphic in- scriptions, and has been prepared in answer to many requests made both in Egypt and in England. It con- tains a short account of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphies, and a sketch of the hieroglyphic system of writing and of the general principles which underlie the use of picture signs to express thought. The main facts of Egyptian grammar are given in a series of short chapters, and these are illustrated by numerous brief extracts from hieroglyphic texts ; each extract is printed in hieroglyphic type and is accompanied by a transliteration and translation. Following the exam- ple of the early Egyptologists it has been thought better to multiply extracts from texts rather than to heap up a large number of grammatical details without supplying the beginner with the means of examining their application. In the limits of the following pagesVIE PREFACE, it would be impossible to treat Egyptian grammar at any length, while the discussion of details would be quite out of place. The chief object has been to make the beginner familiar with the most common signs and words, so that he may, whilst puzzling out the ex- tracts from texts quoted in illustration of grammatical facts, be able to attack the longer connected texts given in my “First Steps in Egyptian” and in my “Egyptian Reading Book”. Included in this book is a lengthy list of hierogly- phic characters with their values both as phonetics and ideograms. Some of the characters have not yet been satisfactorily identified and the correctness of the positions of these is, in consequence, doubtful ; but it has been thought best to follow both the classi- fication, even when wrong, and the numbering of the characters which are found in the list of “Hiero- glyphen” printed by Herr Adolf Holzhausen of Vienna. E. A. WALLIS BUDGE. Barmsx Museum, February 14th, 1910,onAPTER L a. mL Iv. VL VIL. Vu. Ix. XL xIL CONTENTS. PAGE Hirociyeaic Wirina c a . 1 ‘Tue Roszrra Stoxx ano THe DeciPHERMENT OF BIERO- oxxPHics on o aaa as 18 Hierocryruics as Iprocrarus, Puonerics Axo Deren- eo ea ed se 28 A Srizcrioy or umnociypmie CHARACTERS Wirlt THEIR aINaTiVvEs PHONETIC VALUES, ETC... ; D 43 Pnoxouns AND PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES 95 Nouxs ... ee 5 oo ae 105 Tus Anrioue ... ae i toe ve LD Apsxcrives, Nowrnars, Tre, rue Year, eto, « 123 ‘Tue Vern... = a at Apvenns, Pnerosirions (SiMPLE AND couPounn), ETc. 155 Coxsuxcrions AnD Parniciss ea 192 Exrnacts vor Reaper a ve 812246 1, Ixsommprton o Pert 1 ve 212 2 Gewsnan Sreve or Panenust 215 8. Inscriprion ov Axunxt we 228 4, Tex rnow me cxxy7H Cuapren op tam Boox or Tz Deap eee . oo 226CHAPTER L HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. Tux ancient Egyptians expressed their ideas in writing by means of » large number of picture signs which are commonly called Hieroglyphics. They began to use them for this purpose more than seven thousand years ago, and they were employed unin- terruptedly until about B.C. 100, that is to say, until nearly the end of the rule of the Ptolemies over Egypt. It is hardly probable that the hieroglyphic system of writing was invented in Egypt, and the evidence on this point now accumulating indicates that it was brought there by certain invaders who came from north-east or central Asia; they settled down in the valley of the Nile at some place between Memphis on the north and Thebes on the south, and gradually established their civilization and religion in their new home. Little by little the writing spread to the north and to the south, until at length hieroglyphics were employed, for state purposes at least, from the coast2 HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. of the Mediterranean to the most southern portion of the Island of Merod, that is to say, over a tract of country more than 2000 miles long. A remarkable peculiarity of Egyptian hieroglyphics is the slight mo- dification of form which they suffered during a period of thousands of years, a fact due, no doubt, partly to the material upon which the Egyptians inscribed them, and partly to a conservatism begotten of religious con- victions. The Babylonian and Chinese picture charac- ters became modified at so early a period that, some thousands of years before Christ, their original forms were lost. This reference to the modified forms of hieroglyphics brings us at once to the mention of the various ways in which they were written in Egypt, i.e, to the three different kinds of Egyptian writing. The oldest form of writing is the hieroglyphic, in which the various objects, animate and inanimate, for which the characters stand are depicted as accurately as possible. The following titles of one Ptah-hetep, who lived at the period of the rule of the IVth dynasty will explain this; by the side of each hieroglyphic is its description. 1.1 <—> a mouth 2. @ a door made of planks of wood fastened together by three cross-pieces 3, 2-2 the fore-arm and hand 1 The brackets shew the letters which, when taken together, form words.| | | HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 3 4. _ a lion’s head and one fore paw stretched out 5. 21 see No. 3 6. doorway surmounted by cornice of small serpents 1. Aap a jackal 8 ty a kind of water fowl 9. Ran owl 10. i. 12, 13. e a growing plant a cake ff reed to which is tied a seribe's writing tablet or palette, having two hollows in it for red and black ink see No. 9 14. <> see No. 1 15. {LJ the breast of a man with the two arms 16. 17. stretched out see No. 11 % a seated man holding a basket upon his head.4 PICTURESIGNS. In the above examples of picture signs the objects which they represent are tolerably evident, but a large number of hieroglyphics do not so easily lend themselves to identification. Hieroglyphics were cut in stone, wood, and other materials with marvellous accuracy, at depths varying from ¥/,, of an inch to 1 inch; the details of the objects represented were given either by cutting or by painting in colours. Jn the earliest times the mason must have found it easier to cut characters into the stone than to sculpture them in relief; but it is probable that the idea of preserving carefully what had been inscribed also entered his mind, for frequently when the surface outline of a*character has been destroyed sufficient traces remain in the incuse portion of it for purposes of identification. Speaking generally, celestial objects are coloured blue, as also are metal vessels and instruments ; animals, birds, and reptiles are painted as far as possible to represent their natural colours ; the Egyptian man is painted red, and the woman yellow or a pinky-brown colour; and so on. But though in some cases the artist endeavoured to make each picture sign an exact representation of the original object in respect of shape or form and colour, with the result that the simplest inscription became a splendid piece of ornamentation in which the most vivid colours blended harmoniously, in the majority of painted texts which have been preserved to us the artists have not been consistent in the colouringPICTURE-SIGNS 5 of their signs. Frequently the same tints of a colour are not used for the same picture, an entirely dif ferent colour being often employed; and it is hard not to think that the artist or scribe, having come to the end of the paint which should have been employed for one class of hieroglyphics, frequently made use of that which should have been reserved for another. It has been said that many of the objects which are represented by picture signs may be identified by means of the colours with which they are painted, and this is, no doubt, partly true; but the inconsistency of the Egyptian artist often does away entirely with the value of the colour as a means of identification. Picture signs or hieroglyphics were employed for religious and state purposes from the earliest to the latest times, and it is astonishing to contemplate the labour which must have been expended by the mason in cutting an inscription of any great length, if every character was well and truly made. Side by side with cutters in stone carvers in wood must have existed, and for a proof of the skill which the latter class of handicraftsmen possessed at a time which must be well nigh pre-dynastic, the reader is referred to the beautiful panels in the Gizeh Museum which have been published by Mariette.! The hiero- glyphics and figures of the deceased are in relief, and are most delicately and beautifully executed ; 1 Seo Les Mastaba del’ Ancien Empire, Paris, 1882, v. 74 fl6 ‘THE PAPYRUS PLANT. but the unusual grouping of the characters proves that they belong to a period when as yet dividing lines for facilitating the reading of the texts had not been in- troduced. These panels cannot belong to a period later than the IIIrd, and they are probably earlier than the Ist dynasty. Inscriptions in stone and wood were cut with copper or bronze and iron chisels. But the Egyptians must have had need to employ their hiero- glyphics for other purposes than inscriptions which were intended to remain in one place, and the official documents of state, not to mention the correspondence of the people, cannot have been written upon stone or wood. At a very early date the papyrus plant’ was made into a sort of paper upon which were written drafts of texts which the mason had to cut in stone, official documents, letters, etc. The stalk of this plant, which grew to the height of twelve or fifteen feet, was triangular, and was about six inches in diameter in its thickest part. The outer rind was removed from. it, and the stalk was divided into layers with a flat needle; these layers were laid upon a board, side by side, and upon these another series of layers was laid in a horizontal direction, and a thin solution of gum wis then run between them, after which both series of layers were pressed and dried. The number of such sheets joined together depended upon the length of the roll required. The papyrus rolls which have come 1 jyyblus hieraticus, or Cyperus papyrus.HIERATIC WRITING. 7 down to us vary greatly in length and width; the finest Theban papyri are about seventeen inches wide, and the longest roll yet discovered is the great Papyrus of Rameses III, which measures one hundred and thirty-five feet in length. On such rolls of papyrus the Egyptians wrote with a reed, about ten inches long and one eighth of an inch in diameter, the end of which was bruised to make the fibres flexible, and not cut ; the ink was made of vegetable substances, or of coloured earths mixed with gum and water. Now it is evident that the hieroglyphics traced in outline upon papyrus with a comparatively blunt reed can never have had the clearness and sharp outlines of those cut with metal chisels in a hard substance ; it is also evident that the increased speed at which government orders and letters would have to be written would cause the scribe, unconsciously at first, to ab- breviate and modify the picture signs, until at length only the most salient characteristics of each remained. And this is exactly what happened. Little by little the hieroglyphies lost much of their pictorial character, and degenerated into a series of signs which went to form the cursive writing called Hieratic. It was used ex- tensively by the priests in copying literary works in all periods, and though it occupied originally a sub- ordinate position in respect of hieroglyphics, especially as regards religious texts, it at length became equal in 4 Harris Papyrus, No. 1. British Museum, No. 9999.8 HIEROGLYPHIC AND HIERATIC WRITING COMPARED. importance to hieroglyphic writing. The following example of hieratic writing is taken from the Prisse Papyrus upon which at a period about B. C. 2600 two texts, containing moral precepts which were composed about one thousand years earlier, were written. BERSTIECAS SHEE SHE T | Now if we transcribe these into hieroglyphies we obtain the following :— 1, Q) areea Sa mouth Sa hare awww the wavy surface of water roan 800 No. 4 aa kind of vessel me an owl == a bolt of a door vfp a rested Sgure of a man 10. | a stroke written tomakethe word symmetrical OPN ae 11.) see No.1 12. 4 aknee bone (2) 13, <=> sce No. 2. 14, <5 a roll of papyrus tied up 15, <> an eye 16. QI q a ew Is au = e om Pe were )oZe-fosi[l ieee} (>'Z ros oy (oh Ato (3) S4Qo} ow } aan Now on looking at these passages we notice that the men, the chicken, the owls, the hawk, and the hares all face to the left; to read these we must read from left to right, i.e, towards them. The second extract has been set up by the compositor with the characters te] Pee12 METHODS OF WRITING HIEROGLYPHICS. facing in the opposite direction, so that to read these now we must read from right to left (No. 3). ‘> 5 # 1Q > Sey No 1 = pp § =£ go le & wo A pane = oh ¢- Hieratic is usually written in horizontal lines which are to be read from right to left, but in some papyri dating from the XIIth dynasty the texts are arranged (ofA Ul wsdl wet Rafer (hy we} 2=>) > ode in short columns. Before we pass to the consideration of the Egyptian Alphabet, syllabic signs, etc., it will be necessary to set forth briefly the means by which the power to read these was recovered, and to sketch the history of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics in connection with the Rosetta Stone.CHAPTER II THE ROSETTA STONE AND THE DECIPHERMENT OF HIEROGLYPHICS. The Rosetta Stone was found by a French artillery officer called Boussard, among the ruins of Fort Saint Julien, near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile, in 1799, but it subsequently came into the possession of the British Government at the capitulation of Alexandria. It now stands at the southern end of the great Egyptian Gallery in the British Museum. The top and right hand bottom corner of this remarkable object have been broken off, and at the present the texts inscribed upon it consist of fourteen lines of hieroglyphics, thirty- two lines of demotic, and fifty-four lines of Greek. It measures about 3 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 44/, in. X 11 in. on the inscribed side. The Rosetta Stone records that Ptolemy V. Epiphanes, king of Egypt from B. C. 205 to B. C. 182, conferred great benefits upon the priesthood, and set aside large revenues for the maintenance of the temples, and remitted the taxes due from the people at a period of14 THE ROSEITA STONE distress, and undertook and carried out certain costly engineering works in connection with the irrigation system of Egypt. In gratitude for these acts the priest- hood convened a meeting at Memphis, and ordered that a statue of the king should be set up in every temple of Egypt, that a gilded wooden statue of the king placed in a gilded wooden shrine should be established in each temple, ete.; and as a part of the great plan to do honour to the king it was ordered that a copy of the decree, inscribed on a basalt stele in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek characters, should be set up in each of the first, second, and third grade temples near the king’s statue. The provisions of this decree were carried out in the eighth year of the king’s reign, and the Rosetta Stone is one of the stelae which, presumably, were set up in the great temples through- out the length and breadth of the land. But the im- portance of the stone historically is very much less than its value philologically, for the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics is centred in it, and it formed the base of the work done by scholars in the past century which has resulted in the restoration of the ancient Egyptian language and literature. It will be remembered that long before the close of the Roman rule in Egypt the hieroglyphic system of writing had fallen into disuse, and that its place had been taken by demotic, and by Coptic, that is to say, the Egyptian language written in Greek letters ; the widespread use of Geek and Latin among the govern-KIRCHER AND WARBURTON. 15 ing and upper classes of Egypt also caused the dis- appearance of Egyptian as the language of state. The study of hicroglyphics was prosecuted by the priests in remote districts probably until the end of the Vth century of our era, but very little later the ancient inscriptions had become absolutely a dead letter, and until the beginning of the last century there was neither an Oriental nor a European who could either read or understand a hieroglyphic inscription. Many writers pretended to have found the key to the hiero- glyphics, and many more professed, with a shameless impudence which it is hard to understand in these days, to translate the contents of the texts into a modern tongue. Foremost among such pretenders must be mentioned Athanasius Kircher who, in the XVIth cen- tury, declared that he had found the key to the hiero- glyphic inscriptions ; the translations which he prints in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus are utter nonsense, but as they were put forth in a learned tongue many people at the time believed they were correct. More than half a century later the Comte de Pahlin stated that an in- scription at Denderah was only a translation of PsalmC., and some later writers believed that the Egyptian inscriptions contained Bible phrases and Hebrew com- Positions.t In the first half of the XVIIIth century Warburton appears to have divined the existence of alphabetic characters in Egyptian, and had he pos- 4 See my Mummy, p. 126.16 AKERBLAD, YOUNG, CHAMPOLLION. sessed tho necessary linguistic training it is quite pos- sible that he would have done some useful work in decipherment. Among those who worked on the right lines must be mentioned de Guignes, who proved the existence of groups of characters having deter- minatives, and Zoéga, who came to the conclusion that the hieroglyphics were letters, and what was very important, that the cartouches, i. ¢., the ovals which occur in the inscriptions and are so called because they resemble cartridges, contained royal names.1 In 1802 Akerblad, in a letter to Silvestre de Sacy, discussed the demotic inscription on the Rosetta Stone, and pub- lished an alphabet of the characters. But Akerblad never received the credit which was his due for this work, for although it will be found, on comparing ‘Young’s “Supposed Enchorial Alphabet” printed in 1818 with that of Akerblad printed in 1802, that fourteen of the characters are identical in both alphabets, no credit is given to him by Young. Further, if Cham- pollion’s alphabet, published in his Lettre M. Dacier, Paris, 1822, be compared with that of Akerblad, sixteen of the characters will be found to be identical ; yet Champollion, like Young, seemed to be oblivious of the fact. With the work of Young and Champollion we reach firm ground. A great deal has been written about the merits of Young as a decipherer of the Egyptian hiero- 1 De Um e Origine Obeliscorum, Rome, 1797, p. 465.CHAMPOLLIONS WORK. W glyphics, and he has been both over-praised and over- blamed. He was undoubtedly a very clever man and a great linguist, even though he lacked the special training in Coptic which his great rival Champollion possessed. In spite of this, however, he identified cor- rectly the names of six gods, and those of Ptolemy and Berenice ; he also made out the true meanings of several ideographs, the true values of six letters? of the al- phabet, and the correct consonantal values of three? more. This he did some years before Champollion published his Egyptian alphabet, and as priority of publication (as the late Sir Henry Rawlinson found it necessary to say with reference to his own work on cuneiform decipherment) must be accepted as indicat- ing priority of discovery, credit should be given to Young for at least this contribution towards the de- cipherment. No one who has taken the pains to read the literature on the subject will attempt to claim for Young that the value of his work was equal to that of Cham- pollion, for the system of the latter scholar was eminently scientific, and his knowledge of Coptic was wonderful, considering the period when he lived. Besides this the quality of his hieroglyphic work was so good, and the amount of it which he did so great, that in those respects the two rivals ought not to be compared. He certainly knew of Young’s results, and the admission by him +16, & Sm, mmm Ow Hoe * heb Ba, fl18 THE OBELISK OF PHILAE. that they existed would have satisfied Young’s friends, and in no way diminished his own merit and glory. In the year 1815 Mr. J. W. Bankes discovered on the Island of Philae a red granite obclisk and pedestal which were afterwards removed at his expense by G. Belzoni and set up at Kingston Hall in Dorsetshire. The obelisk is inscribed with one column of hieroglyph- ics on each side, and the pedestal with twenty-four lines of Greek. In 1822 Champollion published an account of this monument in the Revue encyalopédique for March, and discussed the hieroglyphic and Greek inscriptions upon it. The Greek inscription had reference to a petition of the priests of Philae made to Ptolemy, and his wife Kleopatra, and his sister also called Kleopatra, and these names of course occur in it. Champollion argued that if the hieroglyphic inscription has the same meaning as the Greek, these names must also occur in it. Now the only name found on the Rosetta Stone is that of Ptolemy which is, of course, contained in a car- touche, and when Champollion examined the hiero- glyphic inscription on the Philae obelisk, he not only found the royal names there, enclosed in cartouches, but also that one of them was identical with that which he knew from the Greek of the Rosetta Stone to be that of Ptolemy. He was certain that this name was that of Ptolemy, because in the Demotic inscrip- tion on the Rosetta Stone the group of characters which formed the name occurred over and over again, and in the places where, according to the Greek, they oughtTHE NAMES PTOLEMY AND CLEOPATRA. 19 to occur. But on the Philae Obelisk the name Kleo- patra is mentioned, and in both of the names of Ptolemy and Kleopatra the same letters occur, that is to say L and P; if we can identify the letter P we shall not only have gained a letter, but be able to say at which end of the cartouches the names begin. Now writing down the names of Ptolemy and Kleopatra as they usually occur in hieroglyphics we have :— Pooley (op la= All Kleopatra ss q ¥I oh jg 8 Let us however break the names up a little more and arrange the letters under numbers thus :— Ptolemy. LQ 4. 5 6. 7 oo flo = Mf Kleopatra. 2 84 56. 9, 10. 11. 1 a 8 420) foQKQeHKeoo ‘We must remember too that the Greek form of the name Ptolemy is Ptolemaios. Now on looking at the two names thus written we see at a glance that letter No. 5 in one name and No. 1 in the other are identical, and judging by their position only in the names they must represent the letter P ; we see too that letter No. 220 RECOVERY OF THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. in one name and No. 4 in the other are also identical, and arguing as before from their position they must represent the letter L. We may now write down the names thus :— 2 8 4 5. 6. eae ih 10. 11, srbae Kose As only one of the names begin with P, that which begins with that letter must be Ptolemy. Now letter No.4 in one name, and letter No. 3 in the other are identical, and also judging by their position we may assign it in each name the value of some vowel sound like O, and thus get :— 2 5 6, 7. PoeOQL& qq fl 1 i 10. 11, 4u jorRoes\es But the letter between P and O in Ptolemy must be T, and as the name ends in Greek with §, the last letter in hieroglyphics must be 8, so we may now write down the names thus :—RECOVERY OF THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 21 Now if we look, as Champollion did, at the other ways in which the name of Kleopatra is written we shall find that instead of the letter => we sometimes have the letter a which we already know to be T, and as in the Greek form of the name this letter has an A before it, we may assume that Q = A; the initial letter must, of course, be K. We may now write the names thus :— 5. rPtote [is 3, 8. ik KLJopParTsatro The sign {| (No. 8) in the name Kleopatra represents some vowel sound like E, and this sign doubled (No. 6) represents the vowels AI in the name Ptolemaios; but as represent EE, or I, that is to say I pronounced in the Continental fashion, the O of the Greek form has no equivalent in hieroglyphics. That leaves us only the signs <=, <> and 0 to find values for. Young had proved that the signs § always occurred at the ends of the names of goddesses, and that © was a feminine termination ; as the Greek kings and queens of Egypt were honoured as deities, this termination was added to the names of royal ladies also. This disposes of the signs 6, and the letters —— (No. 5) and <> (No.8) can be nothing else but M and R. So we may now write :— PTOLMIS,i.e,, Ptolemy, KLEOPATRA, i.e, Kleopatra.22 RECOVERY OF THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. Now a common title of the Roman Emperors was a 4 be written hieroglyphically <> q fl —>—. We know that {| =I, fl—s, and S=R; and asm is used as a variant for the first sign in the name of Kleopatra given above, <= must be K also. ‘The last tign —> is interchanged with (, and we may thus write under the hieroglyphics the values as follows:— = lo K IS R §S that is to say Kawoapog or Caesar. From the different ways in which the name of Ptolemy is written we learn that Js — U, and that @ has also the same value, and that & has the same value as <=, i. ¢., M, is also apparent. Now we may consider a common Greek name which is written in hieroglyphies (JS (la Wo we may break it up thus :— A 2 38. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8 9 J) so ~~ Us Res Of these characters we have already identified Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 and 9, and from the two last we know that we are dealing with the name of a royal lady. But there is also another common Greek name which may be written out in this form :— 42 8 4 & & mB PSone mee and we see at a glance that the only letter that weRECOVERY OF THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 23, have not met with before is »m, Reading the values of this last group of signs we get ER (or L) KS TR(orL)S, which can be nothing else but Eleks- ntrs or “Alexander” ; thus we find that w~ = N. Now substituting this value for sign No. 4 in the royal lady's name given above we read. ERNI.AT; and asthe Greek toxt of the inscription in which this name occurs mentions Berenike, we conclude at once that No. 1 sign J =B, and that No. 6 sign 2) =K. From other Greek and Latin titles and names we may obtain the values of many other letters and syllables, as will be seen from the following :— P.HLU.L.LU.P.U L GUS == SeAp euataheton ; P.LL.A.T.R.A, ive, 2. (ofl = B=Q) pricier a — 3. Y Qdas BA.R.N.LK.T,, é. 6, Berenice. A.R.S.LN.ATy ie, Pe’ renee ee SJ T-R-A.P.N.T, i. ¢, Tryphaena, l= NyI= T.BA.R.I.S.K.1.8.R. =) S., io, Tiberius Caesar. ‘| Me ler2B RECOVERY OF THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 7GCRUoQKMe— 0287 K-A-1I-S K-A-IS-8-8 K-RM ie, Gaius Caesar Germ- 2) NL-K-I-8 anious. 4 @ a( 2 Ee (ly — KLUT-S T-I-BA-R-SA i.e, Claudius Tiberius. «(Qese-= S=— AU-TU-K-R-T-R K-I-S-R-S ie, Autocrator Caesar. Mey 2efdoe TA-T-AS AR-I-S ATR-I-N-S Titus Aclius Hadrianus, ( e } 10. Nee wom wm | oy AUR-L A-I-S AN-TA-N-I-N-S ie, Aurelius Antoninus. In the Ptolemaic and Roman times the titles of the kings or emperors were often included in the car- touches, and from some of these Champollion derivedTITLES OF PTOLEMIES AND CAESARS. 25 a number of letters for his Egyptian alphabet. Thus many kings call themsolves © f x=, and 9. “a) which appellations were known to mean “Of Ptah be- loved” and “living ever”. Now in the first of these Of xt we know, from the names which we have read above, that the first two signs are P and T, i. ¢., the first two letters of the name Ptah; the third sign § must then have the value of H or of some sound like it, If these three signs °§ form the name of Ptah, then the fourth sign =r must mean “beloved”. Now as Coptic is only a dialect of Egyptian written in Greek letters we may obtain some help from it as Champollion did; and as we find in that dialect that the ordinary words for “to love” are mei and mere, we may apply one or other of these values to the sign x=. In the same way, by comparing variant texts, it was found that + was what is called an ideograph meaning “life”, or “to live”; now the Coptic word for “life” or “to live”, is Onkh, 80 the pronunciation of the hieroglyphic sign must be something like it. We find also that the variant spellings of 7- give us 9." and a8 we al- ready know that »»m —=N, the third sign @ must be KH; incidentally, too, we discover that ¥ has the syl- labic value of ankh, and that the a has become é in Coptic. If, in the appellation ? “Sy, i. ¢, “living ever”, t means “life”, it is clear that <) must mean “ever”. Of the three signs which form the word we already know the last two, a and =~, for we have26 RECOVERY OF THE EGYPTIAN ALPHALET. seen the first in the name Ptolemy, and the second in the name Antoninus, where they have the values of T and TA respectively. Now it was found by comparing certain words written in hieroglyphies with their equi- valents in Coptic that the third sign was the equi- valent of a letter in the Coptic alphabet which we may transliterate by TCH, i. e., the sound which c has before iin Italian. Further investigations carried on in the same way enabled Champollion and his followers to deduce the syllabic values of the other signs, and at length to compile a classified syllabary. We may now collect the letters which we have gathered together from the titles and names of the Greek and Roman rulers of Egypt in a tabular form thus :— Ma mW q Aor fou tA e KH QQ on wt —orfls } oreor £) 00rd ow J B yt oP =T orem “1H =k swoon or Sf N aX 5 0r >R BKRECOVERY OF THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 27 It will be noticed that we have three different kinds of the K sound, three of the T sound, two of the H sound, and three A sounds. At the early date when the values of the hieroglyphics were first recovered it was not possible to decide the exact difference be- tween the varieties of sounds which these letters re- presented; but the reader will see from the alphabet on pp. 31, 32 the values which are generally assigned to them at the present time. It will be noticed, too, that among the letters of the Egyptian alphabet given above there are no equivalents for F and SH, but these will be found in the complete alphabet.CHAPTER Ii. HIEROGLYPHICS AS IDEOGRAPHS, PHONETICS, AND DETERMINATIVES. Every hieroglyphic character is a picture of some object in nature, animate or inanimate, and in texts many of them are used in more than one way. The simplest use of hieroglyphics is, of course, as pictures, which we may sce from the following :— <, a hare ; an eagle; Ga a duck ; Ga bectle ; Nf) a field with plants growing in it; x a star; § a twisted rope ; ey a comb; f\ a pyramid, and so on. But hiero- glyphics may also represent ideas, ¢. 9, SS, a wall falling down sideways represents the idea of “falling” ; a hall in which deliberations by wise men were made represents the idea of “counsel” ; “] an axe re- presents the idea of a divine person or a god; J a musical instrument represents the idea of pleasure, happiness, joy, goodness, and the like. Such are called ideographs. Now every picture of every object must have had a name, or we may say that each picture wasDIFFICULTIES OF HIEROGLYPHIC WRITING. 29 a word-sign ; a list of all these arranged in proper order would have made a dictionary in the earliest times. But let us suppose that at the period when these pictures were used as pictures only in Egypt, or wherever they first appeared, the king wished to put on record that an embassy from some such and such a neighbouring potentate had visited him with such and such an object, and that the chief of the embassy, who was called by such and such a name, had brought him rich presents from his master. Now the scribes of the period could, no doubt, have reduced to writing an account of the visit, without any very great difficulty, but when they came to recording the name of the distinguished visitor, or that of his master, they would not find this to be an easy matter. To have written down the name they would be obliged to make use of a number of hieroglyphics or picture characters which represented most closely the sound of the name of the envoy, with- out the least regard to their meaning as pictures, and, for the moment, the picture characters would have represented sounds only. The scribes must have done the same had they been ordered to make a list of the presents which the envoy had brought for their royal master. Passing over the evident anachronism let us call the envoy “Ptolemy”, which name we may write, as in the preceding chapter, with the signs :— 42 8 & & 6 T ae fee = iif Now No. 1 represents a door, No.2 a cake, No. 3a30 ALPHABETIC AND SYLLABIC PHONETICS. knotted rope, No. 4 a lion, No. 5 (uncertain), No. 6 two reeds, and No.7 a chairback ; but here each of these characters is employed for the sake of its sound only. ‘The need for characters which could be employed to express sounds only caused the Egyptians at a very early date to set aside a considerable number of picture signs for this purpose, and to these the name of phone- ties has been given. Phonetic signs may be either syl- labie or alphabetic, e. 9. 8) pel, PY mut, B maat, g xeper, which are syllabic, and Bp, Jd, Q m, <=> 1, <> k, which are alphabetic. Now the five al- phabetic signs just quoted represent as pictures, a door, a foot and leg, an owl, a mouth, and a vessel respective- ly, and each of these objects no doubt had a name ; but the question naturally arises how they came to represent single letters? It seems that the sound of the fist letter in the name of an object was given to the picture or character which represented it, and hence- forward the character bore that phonetic value. Thus the first character P, represents a door made of a number of planks of wood upon which three cross- pieces are nailed. There is no word in Egyptian for door, at all events in common use, which begins with P, but, as in Hebrew, the word for door must be con- nected with the root “to open” ; now the Egyptian word for “to open” is OF pila}, and as we know that the first character in that word has the sound of P and of no other letter, we may reasonably assume that the Egyptian word for “door” began with P. The thirdTHE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 31 character M represents the horned owl, the name of which is preserved for us in the Coptic word mélotch (mov Aoax) ; the first letter of this word begins with M, and therefore the phonetic value of Ais M. In the same way the other letters of the Egyptian alphabet were derived, though it is not always possible to say what the word-value of a character was originally. In many cases it is not easy to find the word-values of an alphabetic sign, even by reference to Coptic, a fact which seems to indicate that the alphabetic characters were developed from word-values so long ago that the word-values themselves have passed out of the written language. Alveady in the earliest dynastic inseriptions known to us hieroglyphic characters are used as pie- tures, ideographs and phonetics side by side, which proves that these distinctions must have been invented in pre-dynastic times. The Egyptian alphabet is as follows :— DB AW oe F @ q AO iN M — Ay moon or of N @ dors 10 Sores Rand Ld Sore vw fa H @ J B () rt Hq @ a P © ° KH (,) (Arab. ¢)32 POLYPHONOUS CHARACTERS. —s © B K ® ff sw o T oo) cm SH (§) () =_> T w) =k © }= THO) 42 Ter) ® The Egyptian alphabet has a great deal in common with the Hebrew and other Semitic dialects in respect of the guttural and other letters, peculiar to Oriental peoples, and therefore the Hebrew letters have been added to shew what I believe to be the general values of the alphabetic signs. It is hardly necessary to say that differences of opinion exist among scholars as to the method in which hieroglyphic characters should be transcribed into Roman letters, but this is not to be wondered at considering that the scientific study of Egyptian is only about ninety years old, and that the whole of the literature has not yet been published. Some ideographs have more than one phonetic value, in which case they are called polyphones ; and many ideographs representing entirely different objects have similar values, in which case they are called homo- phones. As long aa the Egyptians used picture writing pure and simple their meaning was easily understood, but when they began to spell their words with alphabetic signs and syllabic values of picture signs, which hadDETERMINATIVES. 33 no reference whatever to the original meaning of the signs, it was at once found necessary to indicate in some way the meaning and even sounds of many of the words so written; this they did by adding to them signs which are called determinatives. It is impossible to say when the Egyptians first began to add determinatives to their words, but all known hieroglyphic inscriptions not pre-dynastic contain them, and it seems as if they must have been the product of prehistoric times. They, however, occur less frequently in the texts of the earlier than of the later dynasties. Determinatives may be divided into two groups; those which determine asingle species, and those which determine a whole class. The following determinatives of classes should be carefully noted:— Character Doterminative of Character Determinative of L tocall, beckon 6. god, divine be- 4 ou eee der ing or thing 2.\h man 1. goddess 3. 4 to eat, think, 8, 4 free speak, and of whatever is 9, lant, flower done with the pany mouth 10.¥, 3 earth, land inertness, idle- 4. a 11.222 road, to travel 5. a woman 12.0% foreign land34 Character Determinative of 13, SEE 14, ren 16. 3 16. \ wl 18.9 19. 5 20. > [ 21. e aN 2. we nome water house to cut, slay DETERMINATIVES, Character Determinative of 26, 4 fish 21. wT rain, storm 28. © day, time 2. © village, town, city 30. om stone fire, to cook, burn smell (good or bad) to overthrow strength to walk, stand, and of actions performed with the legs flesh animal bird little, evil, bad ° 31.8 or metal 32. ov grain 83.2% — wood 34,272 wind, air 35. | foreigner 36. ‘liquid, ungu- ent BT. mes abstract crowd, collec- 38.8. ion of people 39. Ped children. A few words have no determinative, and need none, because their meaning was fixed at a very early period, and it was thought unnecessary to add any ; examplesEXAMPLES OF THEIR USE 35 of such are hena? “with”, Vw am “in”, SS mak “verily” and the like. On the other hand a large number of words have one determinative, and several have more than one. Of words of one determinative the following are examples :— 1, J Sh am to eat; a picture of a man patting food into his mouth 4) is the determinative. 2. ou any a flower ; the picture of a flower Uy is the determinative. 3. AN sma to slay; the picture of a knife \ is the determinative, and indicates that the word sma means “knife”, or that it refers to some action that is done with a knife. 4, “"~ s ses bolt; the picture of the branch of a tree >» is the determinative, and indicates that ses is an object made of wood. Of words of one or more determinatives the follow- ing are examples :-— 1. rel { Xx renpit flowers ; the pictures of a flower in the bud }, and a flower GH are the determinatives ; the three strokes 11 are the sign of the plural. * Strictly speaking there is no ¢ in Egyptian, and it is added in the transliterations of hieroglyphic words in this book simply to enable the reader to pronounce them more easily.36 SPELLING OF WORDS. 2. Qa ss } Hap god of the Nile; the pictures of water enclosed by banks =r, and running water “ws, and a god d are the determinatives. 3. Re he Bb a nemmel poor folk ; the pictures of a child ry and a man ff, and a woman ¢ are the determinatives, and shew that the word nemmeh means a number of human beings, of both sexes, who are in the condition of helpless children, Words may be spelt (1) with alphabetic characters wholly, or (2) with a mixture of alphabetic and syllabic characters ; examples of the first class are :— fies, afent a knife \> = dsfet wickedness sat a book DP] Rms ta a boat § 2-9) teger to be hungry, hunger Mh. semehi left hand side (Ss al sebeb a sistrum,PHONETIC COMPLEMENTS. 37 And examples of the second class are :— 1 a % lenkset hair, in which « has by itself the value of hen ; so the word might be written fs e written ei™ r Ys ~~ 2. AR @ neledet neck, in which A has by itself e the value of neh; so the word ie bewritton A [as wellast | eo = Ale SB vb a reyit men and women, in which @@ has yi tt. we value ot exit; thus in se the word is seas (es twice, for C= In many words the last letter of the value of a syl- labic sign is often written in order to guide the reader as to its pronunciation. Take the word M\\ «>. ‘The ordinary value of y is mester “car”, but the which follows it shews that the sign is in this word to be read mesfem, and the determinative indicates that the word means that which is smeared under the eye, or “eye-paint, stibium”. For convenience’ sake we may call such alphabetic helps to the reading of words phonetic complements. The following are additional examples, the phonetic complement being marked by an asterisk.38 PHONETIC COMPLEMENTS. fire mester ear PS Re hai rain Jee fenar storm a fk MASE a hememu — mankind, We may now take a short extract from the Tale of the ‘T'wo Brothers, which will illustrate the use of alphabetic and syllabic characters and determinatives; the determinatives are marked by *, and the syllabic characters by +; the remaining signs are alphabetic. (N. B. There is no ¢ in Egyptian.) 1 mi te st un dn paif a er His brother elder Bto Qt) st toW* Ne et —* q FJen oh ; @ i q c— | yeperu ma abu shemitu auf er became like panthers southern. He at ont sooo . a) SKeta AG Sly tat temtu paif nui made sharp his dagger,EXTRACT FROM TALE OF TWO BROTHERS. 39 e@ et ara => &t qe 1 seem & oe ee wl, Gu-f her aia Sf em tetf un an he placed it in his hand. BM Vat paif sen aa aha on His brother elder_—_stood We a MEW BY sbai paif Pca he door of his Wels. = Steet Bee ahait er ——gatbu paif stable to stab his a aN Be WM. sen ferdu em paif em brother younger at his coming at era born So BRA ruha er’ tat aq naif eventide to make to enter his (WIR = as (soi daut or cattle into the ue40 EXTRACT FROM TALE OF TWO BROTHERS. a os Pod! f Sof Qe yer ar er hetep — duef Now when i god oe was setting he ay t Qe at! t * Dome MRR = her atep-f stimu neb was loading himself with green herbs of all kinds vm UN BAR Sef en seyet em paif sexeru of the fields according _to his habit wn OF +) © et ytyy® evi — qe 1 Orgy. je \ enti hru neb duff her i du ta of day every, he wascoming{home]. The tl Ot X* Ot +4 t Wal Te at i A K alt qauti der aq er pa cow leading entered into the et sono lamps fe fe 7 ahait du set fer = tet en stable, she said to —— ary @ = UT WIL, NS US pai-set sadu makua paik her keeper, ‘Verily thyEXTRACT FROM TALE OF TWO BROTHERS. 41 WP I ho = SL Se sen da aha er hat-tuk yert brother elder standeth in front of thee with et owt dst — en = Siem paif er athe - ok his dagger to stab thee; Ft 2 ote St e @ el sane mannan rua - k tu er-hat-f un dn- run away from before him. He 2 gt + me ST is SU ler setem ‘Gh taif hearkened a the speech of his cow Dts x = +4 cows IS HT) FP a hauti du ta hee 06 ler aq leading. ‘The next entered, [and] fe flo TM & VEE AS du set her tef-0d-f om mdtet auf she was saying to him likewise. He ot te ay is LY ERS mmm jer enn geri aba en looked under the door of42 EXTRACT FROM TALE OF TWO BROTHERS. BN Aso Yo paif Ghait auf ler stable, he a l{te sss ee mn BK NY petra en paif saw the _ of his te ty Pe a duf brother elder [as] he pen ae AMER fo SY SAN abe au paif nui he door his dagger HS Th RH taif em tet-f duf her uak in his hand. He set his eet Ras = gr er, Io ft atep er aufent auf her load upon he ground, he betook AY ES) ote “ho = flefles in eS in . or seysey, tau death to flight rapid.CHAPTER TV.? A SELECTION OF HIEROGLYPHIC CHARACTERS WITH THEIR PHONETIC VALUES, ETC. 1. Figures or Mev. Phonetia Meaning as ideoy:raph or determinative. value. 1 h aon man standing with inactive arms and hands, submission 2, \ 4 to call, to invoke ; man in besecching attitude, propi- 3 off bee) fition 5. 4 {ua to pray, to praise, to adore, to entreat 6. 4 tua Wh i 1. ca en to praise 8. x 92, baa to be high, to rejoice man motioning something to go back, s K an to retreat 1 ‘The numbers and classification of characters are those given by Herr Adolf Holshauson in his Hieroglyphen,10. 1. 12. 13, 14. 15. 16. 1. 18. 19, 20. 21. 22. 23. 24, pp BE BeBe IP Sy Sp dk oe Pe ak Se DE De oe DS ab ab ab ab kes sati heter dmen LIST OF SIGNS. man calling after someone, to beck- on see No.7 see No. 10 man hailing some one to dance to dance to dance to dance man bowing, to pay homage man bowing, to pay homage man running and stretching forward to reach something to pour out water, to micturate two men grasping hands, friendship a man turning his back, to hide, to conceal39. 40. 41. nem tut, salu, geres tetta i} j M fo [Rp aou, on 4 i tf & next MEN. 45 pygmy image, figure, statue, mummy, transformed dead body a dead body in the fold of a serpent great, great man, prince, chief man leaning on a staff, aged man aboutto strike with astick, strength man stripping a branch to drive away two men performing a cere- mony (?) man holding an instrument man holding an instrument man about to perform a cere mony with two instruments see No. 31 to play a harpLIST OF SIGNS. to plough to give a loaf of bread, to give to make an offering man performing an act of worship man throwing water over himself, a priest man sprinkling water, purity aman skipping with a rope man building a wall, to build man using a borer, to drill to build a man with a load on his head, to bear, to carry, work man supporting the whole sky, to stretch out to bear, to carry ; see No. 52 man holding a pig by the tail...... to bind together, to force something together man holding the ( keg sceptre, prince, kingg = Sa SB SS) nF AL te hoe She OS SH SS GE Gh GR SE 68. 69, 70. m1. 72. 14, . 16. 78. 79. 80. 82. ur ur hen hen hen mestem en | ‘MEN. 47 prince, king prince or king wearing White crown prinee or king wearing Red crown prince or king wearing White and Red crowns great man, prince prince, king a baby sucking its finger, child, young person a child a child wearing the Red crown a child wearing the disk and uraeus a man breaking in his head with an axe or stick, enemy, death, the dead man armed with a bow and arrows, bowman, soldier man armed with shield and sword, bowman, soldier48 LIST OF SIGNS. 84, 86. 87. 88, 89. sa, remt 90. » 91. = 92. 8 3 Be (D> Wh [fe SEF EB 3 Se bap | 93. 94, sid tua 96. i amen 97. 4 - 98. ft dub, sur 99. oh sa 100. % amen, hab tol. (S ab Bee $ man with his hands tied behind him, captive man with his hands tied behind him, captive man tied to a stake, captive man tied by his neck to a stake beheaded man tied by his neck to a stake man kneeling on one knee to cry out to, to invoke man with his right hand to his mouth, determinative of all that is done with the mouth submission, inactivity to praise to pray, to praise, to adore, to entreat to hide to play a harp to give or offer a vessel of water to a god or man to make an offering man hiding himself, to hide, hidden man washing, clean, pure, priest106. 107. 108. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114, 115. 116. 117. 119, BS BS Seseefio ink HS reve ‘fa, kat heh heh man washing, clean, pure, priest man carrying aload ; see No. 52 man wearing emblem of year, a large, indefinite number a god wearing the sun’s disk and grasping a palm branch in each hand to write dead person who has obtained power in the next world dead person, holy being dead person, holy being a sacred or divine person a sacred or divine king divine or sacred being holding the sceptre 7 divine or sacred being holding the sceptre { divine or sacred being holding the whip or flail ¢\ divine or sacred being holding [ and f\123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128, 129. 130. 131. 132, 133. E BOP O ySpeed eA ee tee ie “= 2 & & 135. 136, 137. sa sa sa -| Seps nefem yer mit LIST OF SIGNS. king wearing the White crown and holding 7 and 4\ king wearing the Red crown and holding ? and f\ king wearing the Red and White crowns and holding { king wearing the Red and White crowns and holding ? ibis-headed being, Thoth a sacred person holding a cord? a guardian? a sacred person holding a cord? a guardian? a watchman, to guard, to watch a sacred person, living or dead a sacred person a person sitting in state to fall down a dead person to swim @ man swimming, to swimWOMEN. 61 2. Fiaures or Woman 1. U4 heter 8. # Ochem 4.57) heb 5. Fey) Nut 6. 1. a sat (?) 8. — | 9. Sh _ 10. a = | 11. ny = 12. ¥ ari 13, of Ochem 14, a beg 16. & mes, papa 16. a mena, 17. af renen two women grasping hands, friendship woman beating a tambourine, to rejoice to bend, to bow the goddess Nut, i. ¢., the sky woman with dishevelled hair & woman seated a sacred being, sacred statue a divine or holy female, or statue @ guardian, watchman see No. 3 @ pregnant woman 4 parturient woman, to give birth to nurse, to suckle a child to dandle a child in the arms52 12S. Be awe By Kn Ke KB ee Bi Me SR Fe om Ie. e LIST OF SIGNS. 8. Fiaures or Gops anp Goppzsszs, Ausdr (or Asdr) the god Osiris Ptah Ptab Ta-tunen Tanen Ptah-Tanen An-herw Amen Amen Amen Amen Amen Aah yensu the god Ptah Ptah holding a sceptre, and wear- ing a mendt the god Ta-tunen the god Tanen the god Ptab-Tanen the god An-hera Amen, or Menu, or Amsu in his ithyphallic form. Amen wearing plumes and hold- ing { Amen wearing plumes and hold- ing Maat Amen wearing plumes and hold- ing a short, curved sword Amen holding the user seeptre 4 the Moon-god the god Khensu the god ShuGODS AND GODESSES. 53 19, § Bu 0. haat 21. #h Ra 22. PY Ra 23, ¥ Ra 24, ¥ Ra 25. i Ra 26, f Heru 27. $ Ra 29, f Ra 31. g Set 32. YW Anpu 33. G Tobutt 36, Xnemu gs Sy Hy 39, Bt Hapi the god Shu god Ra as the mighty one of Maat the god Rawearing the white crown Ra holding sceptres of the horizons of the east and west Ra holding the sceptre § Ra wearing disk and uracus and holding } Ra wearing disk and uraeus Horus (or Ra) wearing White and Red crowns Ra wearing disk and holding sym- bol of “life” Ra wearing disk, uraeus and plumes, and holding sceptre the god Set the god Anubis the god Thoth the god Khnema the Nile-godBa 41. 42, 51. 52. 53. 55. 58. 62. 63. 64. Nebt-het Nut Seseta Usr-Maat LIST OF SIGNS Auset (or Ast) Isis holding papyrus sceptre Auset (or Ast) Isis holding symbol of “life” Auset (or Ast) Isis holding papyrus sceptre Nephthys holding symbol of “ife” the goddess Nut the goddess Sesheta the goddess Maat with sceptre of strength the goddess Maat the goddess Anget the goddess Bast the goddess Sekhet the hare-god Un the goddess Mohit a deity a god who frightens, terrifies, or drives awayMEMBERS OF THE BODY. 60. off” 10. Seher uf Bes 8. i Reperd u. ¥ 4, Manners L@ tep, tata 3. @ her, kira 5,6, 1 yr, of nt 8 2 Sere (2) 9. J yabes Wm emaes ll. <> - 12. as maa Boe = 14. FE rem 16.> oan see No. 68 the god Bes the god Khepera or THe Bopy. the head, the top ofanything the face, upon the hair, to want, to lack a lock of hair the beard the right eye, to see, to look after something, to do the left eye to see an eyewith a line of stibium below the lower eye-lid an eye weeping, to cry to have a fine appearance56 16. = 17. 18. 19. Ss a FR wy 23. 0 24. 07 26. 9 3. F 7 29. 30. * LIST OF SIGNS. merti, maa_ the two eyes, to see utat the right eye of Ra, theSun utat the left eye of Ra, the Moon utatti the two eyes of Ra toh en uthat in a vase, offer. ar the pupil of the eye tebh twoeyesinavase, offerings am eyebrow mester ear yent nose, what is in front re opening, mouth, door septi the two lips sept lipraised shewing theteeth art jawbone with teeth tef, dtet exudation, moisture ‘met @ weapon or tool dat, pest the backbone38. TF 3.0 “Q a. [\ 41 46.14 49, 50. 1D 61. Wi 59. a 62. 1 63, op 65. On MEMBERS OF THE BODY. 67 bat ‘mena 40, 41.(, a sagen an, dn ka ser, teser xen aha ufen xe 4, ta mek, ermen a ma the chine the breast to embrace not having, to be without, negation the breast and arms of a man, the double hands grasping a sacred staff, something holy hands grasping a paddle, to transport, to carry away arms holding shield and club, to fight to write hand holding a whip or flail, to be strong, to reign hand and arm outstretched, to give to bear, to carry to give to give58 66. ap 67. a4 68, xD 69. LA 12.2 9 13, 16, <3, <= fet “4 aS 82. 84, 85.},) 90. 91. D ma, henk nini next werp Sep hep am teba meter, aq an maa bah, met, tai, ka utet LIST OF SIGNS. to offer to offer fruit an act of homage to be strong, to shew strength to direct hand to receive to hold in the hand to clasp, to hold tight in the fist finger, the number 10,000 to be in the centre, to give evi- dence thumb a graving tool phallus, what is masculine, hus- band, bull to beget 92,98. =F, fo sem, seshem94 96. 98, 99, 100. 101. 102. 103. 106. 107. 109. lll. o oté-Uori an KW~u Pb 4 g Pe ‘MEMBERS OF THE BODY. 59 yerui hem i an, hem uar, ret, ment teha ker qd b ab teb ab sesem. \ nefer J male organs woman, female organ to go, to walk, to stand to go backwards, to retreat to flee, to run away to invade, to attack to hold, to possess a knee a leg and foot arm + hand +- leg hand + leg horn + leg piece of flesh, limb 5. Axpurs. horse60 3 0. 18. Ay 14. hy 15. FR 16.9 11. S53 19, aS 22. Sgt 23. +) 24 3 25. ot 29. 3 af 32. LIST OF SIGNS. aka ox aut cow ba calf au calt ba ram ba Nubian ram of Amen ar oryx sah oryx, the transformed body, the spiritual body en a water bag aa donkey uher (2) dog dmhet ape _ the ape of Thoth = ape wearing Red crown ape bearing wichat or Eye of the sun 36. Say ma, or méaw lion 38. gs 1,1, ru, re lion couchantANIMALS, 61 aoe the lions of Yesterday and To-day ned cat jackal, wise person the god Anubis, the god Ap-uat sebeta 6... 1h @ mythical animal - wild boar un a hare ab elephant apt hippopotamus yeb rhinoceros rer pig ser giraffe set the god Set, what is bad, death, ete. set the god Set pennu rat62 LIST OF SIGNS. 5. Mempers or Animas 3. yy Gh ox 4,5. &, B yent nose, what is in front 6. 10% head and neck of an ox 8. befit strength 2 — head and neck of a ram ns Sesa to be wise = Gow CP EWI Soke b oe peh head and neck of a lion, strength pelti two-fold strength head and paw of lion, the fore- ‘a part of anything, beginning at hour, season ap the top of anything, the forepart dat rank, dignity opening of the year, the now apt renpet eaeMEMBERS OF ANIMALS. 63 41. \ ab 44, abeh 45. » adbeh Daten, mester SD poh 49. CA xepes ] [ x 63. Qua, aud, isu horn, what is in front tooth tooth to do the duty of someone, vicar, ear, to hear to attain to, to end thigh leg of an animal, to repeat paw of an animal skin of an animal skin of an animal, animal of any kind an arrow transfixing a skin, to hunt bone and flesh, heir, progenya i e pe 4X 6. bane A 8. Here 9. bak 10. QQ Herui u® Herw 12, q Heru LIST OF SIGNS, 7. Bros. eagle eagle + sickle eagle + <= a bird of the eagle class? hawk, the god Horus, god hawk with whip or flail the two Horus gods Horus with disk and uraeus Horus wearing the White and Red crowns 13. Sy Herw nub the “golden Horus” 15. RR neter 16, > dment god, divine being, king the west 21. . Heru sma “Horus the uniter of the two taut lands” 22. 3€ Heru Sept Horus-Sept24. ale yu 28, Kagem, agem 29. Herw-buti 30. » ‘mut, ner 33. wet 36, 4.4, XY nm 38. & 39. ae ma sacred form or image Horus of the two plumes vulture the vulture crown and th uraeus crown, owl to give before ibis to find to snare, to hunt i the god Thoth the heart-soul souls58. 60. 61. 63. BR Ez Pg PPE Lah Ce Ts bak we bennu bah usa teser tofa sa tofa (2) set LIST OF SIGNS. to toil, to labour the spirit-soul abird identified with the phoenix to flood, to inundate to make fat red bread, cake, food goose, son food to make to shake with fear, to tremble duck, to go in to destroy to fly to hover, to alight gema, ben tomake, to liftup, to distinguish teba 2 PURAWSAWY YT eS S 82. 83, 87. 88. 90. 91. ety~yas BIRDS. — PARTS OF BIRDS. 67 ur berau ti reyit u ta seg gent ba swallow, great sparrow, little a bird of the eagle kind intelligent person, mankind chicken birds’ nest dead bird, fear, terror soul 8. Parrs or Birps. sa, apt ner pel me rey amay goose, feathered fowl head of vulture head of the bennu bird eye of a hawkll. Gama tenh 13. 6 fu, maa 17, 9 ermen 18. wl, fa 20-— —_ 219 sa LIST OF SIGNS. wing, to fly feather, what is right and true to bear, carry foot of a bird to cut, to engrave son, with = ¢ daughter 9, Aupnrsious Annsats. 1. Gi Set 2c as Am at, ooga S= ali, henti = 5, 6. Sn, Sis at 1. FAV Sebek 8239 gam 9. Sy ext 10. Se hefen 1. \ ea 16. 2, turtle, evil, bad lizard, abundance crocodile, to gather together prince crocodile the god Scbek crocodile skin, black the goddess Heqt young frog, 100,000 serpent, goddess4 @ ». B 19, 22. WR 24, hh 2.) at. fh 30. % 32. X= 33. = 37. = 1 ay 6. seme && AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. — EISLL 69 Mehent dtur bef, fent Apep t, tet met f sof per aq pial betu sepa the goddess Mehent shrine of a serpent goddess worm the adversary of Ra, Apophis serpent, body a cerastes, asp to come forth to enter in to break open 10. Fisa. fish fish centipede70 LIST OF SIGNS. 10. “> xa dead fish or thing 1. ® Fy 14. oa xept thigh @) bee to transport 11, Inszers. LZ net, bat bee a WA tutennet vexing of the South and North” aa (or dat) 4, eper to roll, to become, to come into GB we being 1 & af fly 8. agg seneiem grasshopper 9.42 serg scorpion 12. Trees ano Pranzs, 1,2. 0, 4 am tree, what‘is pleasant 6. * bener _palm tree TR 6... moncia 9s xet branch of a tree, wood13, 14. ff \| 15, 16,17. {, {,f | 18. { _ eternal year w J — time renp, ter shoot, young twig, year 20, 21. hb f sept a thorn 22, |. neyeb —_shoot,name ofa goddeseand city ip owm = 24, } su, suten king of the South 25, 27. a - shema south, name of a class of priestess 26. res, south 28, 29. ae | 30, 81. 4, | res south 33. J a feather qs - a to go 35. AN seyet plants growing in a field 36. 8 ab an offering72 LIST OF SIGNS. 37. Lt a, akh 'tseand papyrus flowers growing, 38, Tht field 40. JJ hen cluster of flowers or plants 42, 43, f, k Ja cluster of lotus flowers the North, the Delta country, the 44. mele ana of the lotus w¥ 46. a. J \ 43. | BR — flower the South, the papyrus country uat young plant, what is green 58. <> nehem flower bud oz W 63. >> 61 ume 68. J ya flower - lotus flower to. fen eee 73, TT. } { ut, uf to give commandsTREES AND PLANTS. 3 14, 15. t A let white, shining, light 8. & yesef an instrument, to turn back 80. ff] me to give birth 81. {AE — the union of the South and North 83, ! beti barley 83. ¥ 86, oo = — grain 88. ft,| Sen granary, barn, storehouse 29. 2] wi out 92. 6 mar pomegranate 93, 94. J, ) | bener weet, pleasant wT 98. { — netem sweet, pleasant arp grapes growing, wine4 LIST OF SIGNS. 18. Heaves, Eanra ax Warer. 1. pet, her ae | kerk 3. FRR 4. wT afet 5. ATT Oehen 6. = gert 1 © Ra, hru 9. < ome 10, 11. Q, ® Ra 13. fi yu, uber 4. il Sept 16. Os — lic< — 23,25. a, @ 18 26. © paut 28, sper what is above, heaven sky with a star or lamp, night water falling from the sky, dew, rain lightning one half of heaven the Sun-god, day radiance the Sun-god the sun sending forth rays, splen- dour the star Sothis, to be provided with the sun’s disk with uraci winged disk the rising sun cake, offering, ennead of gods a rib, to arrive atHEAVEN, EARTH AND WATER. xt) 29. —~ 35. ok 36. @ tuat 37. = ta 38, Fert om set (or semt) 48, 50. Kes, m aah, abt — moon, month sba, tua star, star of dawn, hour, to pray the underworld land mountainous land foreign, barbarian mountain, wickedness horizon hesp, sept nome the land on one side of the Nile ; 2 = all Egypt land x 49.2.2 uat,ler aroad, a way = side 51,652.00, amdner stone 53, © 6a (?) 55. wm sand, grain, fruit, nuts surface of water, water16 61. = 58, = 60. 61. GP 62. qm 64. 66. > 68. 8 69. tee Ww hey TY L@ 3.01 ap LIST OF SIGNS. ma water mer ditch, watercourse, to love sha lake sem to go — lake Amen the god Amen aa island ti the two horizons (i. ¢., East and ae West) eh swamp, marsh Jemt, bia metal, iron ore (or copper ore ?) 14, Bunpmas. nu town, city per house, to go out per-yeru sepulchral meals or offeringsBUILDINGS. wv 1 cfs per het “vhite house”, treasury 8. h rd i quarter of a city (?) 10. Lo mer 11, 12. Lh het house, temple 13. hetu temples, sanctuarics 14. iil neter het god’s house 16. ft het aa great house 11. TT weveyee ‘Edy of thehouse, i.e, Neph- id thys 19./Q] Het-Heru House of Horus, i. e., Hathor 29. § aha great house, palace 32. FA) useyt hall, courtyard 36. if dneb, sebti wall, fort 31. Sy, hen to overthrow 41. CG = fortified town 43. t seb door, gate 44. a 45. [P gend corner, an officiat18 LIST OF SIGNS. 48. J] hap 51, 52. A; A- 58. fl tegen 54.) ute 56. ff uy 61. yaker 62. (T] seh, arg 64. ids set heb (2) 65. @ heb 6 A 68. x] xet 69. um aa 10. 8 U1. - —ds, seb, mes 72, 13, mex, moe Oe8 74. ‘1. 16. ula wu. Ge uda, yet 16. > nef, tau 19, § aha 21. N\ hem 22, | yeru 23, ANE segep 61. hd benny boat, to sail down stream loaded boat, to transport to sail up stream wind, breeze, air, breath to stand helm, rudder paddle, voice the name of a sacred boat boats of the sun 16, Sears, Tastes, xt0. 1 J dst, Auset 2G] det ia 3. seat, throne, the goddess Isis seat, throne80 LIST OF SIGNS. 5,6. Sa, SS as LR 8 9. 8 1h sem, seéem 12, ey 15. oS serer 16. 2 hetep 19. 0 02 0 \.. 23, 24. a) ES 25. Gat 21. A teb 28, 29. bb i an 30. it hen 31, 33. fh, fe “HH 1. to lie down in sleep or death clothes, linen table of offerings what is under, beneath funeral chest, sarcophagus zone, district to provide with pillar, light tower (2) squeezing juice from grapes, the god Shesmu or SeshmuSEATS, TABLES, ETO. — TEMPLE FURNITURE = 81 38. 58) meter to use violence 39. oa 4 [yl ses linen, clothing, garments 43. SC ound pillow 44, g un-hra mirror 45, 46.9, T serit, yaibit fan, shadow 47. KT) omaya scales, to weigh 50. Al uta to balance, to test by weighing Sl. A 52, 53,54. | i to wak — | } t { utes, res to raise up, to wake up bt. a mane 2 TeUd whistle, what is right or straight 58. “Fo dat standard 117, Terre Forsirons. 247 xaut altar 4 - fire standard axe or some instrument used in 13. al neter the performance of magical ce- remonies82 16. 18. 20. 22. 23. 26. 28, 9 il. 12. 13, 14. Ba Se pe < | 4 sefaut mendt kep Gper xerp seyem dment ye Abt heq tchiim Uast usr dmes ye Beb sexer LIST OF SIGNS. a seal and cord an instrament worn and carried by deities and men to be equipped to direct, to govern to be strong, to gain the mastery the right side fly-flapper the emblem containing the head of Osiris worshipped at Abydos sceptre, to rule sceptre Thebes strength, to be strong name of a sceptre flail or whip the firstborn son of Osiris fringe (2)ARMS AND ARMOUR. 85 19, Arws ann Armour. 1] aam, nehes, } foreign person, to make, . gema, teba J finger )) aq what is opposite, middle 3. | ab se eeeee | teteb, seteb what is hostile 7,8. t iN eh axe 9. j tep the first, the beginning 10. ) xepes scimitar 1 yaut knifo ak knife 13 | get dagger 14, 16. YQ ~~ tes knife 19. D> nemmet block of slaughter 20. Sp sesem see Qs pet 2%. = | sta, or sti the front of any thing 26, ex |86 28, 33, << 38. EP Al. oo 42. — 0. 58) Le 2s 3. DN 4S 5. Lay 8. D 9. => LIST OF SIGNS pet to stretch out, to extend set arrow, to shoot 3a the side or back aa great sun arrow xa body urit chariot 20. Toous, ero. ™ denenes tat emanation sctep to select, to choose en adze bu to fight, to smite ma sickle maa sickle cutting a reed (?)1 18. Ww 14, for ». | 21. I 26. 2 TOOLS, ETO. 87 mer, hen heb, ar, per tem bat sa ® ta meny emt aba ab, (db, ab,) mer net ua Net Ses, bema to love to plough, hall, growing things tomakeperfect, thegod Temu miraculous, wonderful metal fire-stick (?) good, to perform workman to open out a way disease, death to break one the goddess Neith to follow after, follower bone88 LIST OF SIGNS. Ba. ry asm, em 55. xt sexet estate, farm to hide away gold silver refined copper fowler’s net 21. Corpwonx, Nerwor. 1. @ 4, faa 2.-e- sta 5B. tau A, dmay 65 bes, ges, ged & % 9,10. S35, -S — 13. 3 arg 15, 16, os, oP meh cord, one hundred to pull, to haul along to be long, extended pious, sacred to fetter, linen bandage to unfasten, book, writing to bring to the end to fill17, 21. 22. 23. 26. 27. 28, 29, 8 ~ ppm pregame! ti e 8 8 ry e — CORDWORK, NETWORK 89 bet at (ant) fen sent rut sa ~ wah uten feben to gain possession of part of a fowler’s net circuit outline for foundation of a building magical knot (?) plant, growing things amulet, protection rope her bta to place, be permanent offerings to go round about90 rer, peyer, 41.=> aes a 43, => 0 (th) 44, 55> vet (2) 45. ut 46. (ty eet 22. 1. u Bast a |] 4 ke 5. ff gebb 6. J hen 1. Q_ neter hen 8. (A ae 9. qh | 1. nem 14. % art 11D toy LIST OF SIGNS. to go round about to take possession of to bandage, substance which has a strong smell flowing liquid Vesszrs. name of a city and of a god- dess to sing, to praise, to be fa- voured cold water, coolness king, majesty, servant divine servant, priest what is in front to unite, to be joined to milk unguentVESSELS, 91 arp an # 21. G nu, get, net o ab %. \ 0, 26, 20: TH | ae 31. Wy — hent, ab, usey 33. G ta 37, 38. Qh fl yet 39. & ba 40. FR ter 4. BD & 43. ned 44. kk 49, heb 0. wine liquid to bring heart to beclean, ceremonially pure as, like mistress, lady, broad cake, bread- fire bowl containing grains of in- cense on fire bowl containing fruit (2) libation vase lord, all, bow! flat bow! with ring handle festival92 LIST OF SIGNS. dt, beti —_ grain, barley and the like 55. gw 23. Orrerinas. 1, 2. c=, E> 3, 4. cD, >} ta bread, cake 5,6. 8, 8 10. @ paut bread, cake e paut company of nine gods 14 © sep time, season 1l. @ x asieve 22, A ta to give 23. fe oter Perce 24, xemt bronze p ta erent 24, MusicaL INSTRUMENTS, WRITING MATERIATS, ETC. writing reed, inkpot and pa ‘ , i fh an, sesh Jette, to write, to paint 2 ese, bat!) aw papyrus roll, bookMUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, ETC.—LINE CHARACTERS. 93 3, ths mesen 5. a hes “4 to play music sistram instrument like a lute, good the god Nefer-‘Temu syrinx, to know to abide 25. Liv cmanacrzns, 270. . ; sebes 9. J nefer 10. ve Nefer-Temu ll am sa 12, 645 men Loiooua 24. I} — 5B WY out Lx 88 9% 1 met 10. }, 1 herit I. ten Wait one sign of plural sign of dual to split ten, NN = taut twenty, ann = mab thirty fear, awe to split, to separate cake94 LIST OF SIGNS. 14,—+- tet Coie T kite 15.44 gen, set, at 19, oO oren 20.5 sen 22. 4 seger 25. A apt QT, 225 per, dt, beti 29, 30. ( J nem 38,40. BO p 46, = bes what is said “another reading”, @. ¢., var- iant reading boundary, border name to depart captive part of a palace or temple grain, wheat, barley door side, halfCHAPTER V. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. ‘The personal pronominal suffixes are :— Sing. 1. , we a dh 1 A » 2m K » BL 9, =, 9 T, THE) » Bem ke F » Bf — ofl 8 Plat" N » 2 aon, ton TEN, OEN » 8 mem SEN ‘The following examples illustrate their use :— oe & bad my soul gage! = seyetk thy field96 EXAMPLES OF PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. Qe a emmat with thee BHq tow ; buit-f his shade is a mefet-s her words 1g — 1, Gtfenn what was said by us Ar ! | sn nut-ten your cities | § a hati-sen their heart. These suffixes, in the singular, when following a word indicating the noun in the dual, have the dual ending \ i added to them ; thus Xm esti fi “his two eyes”; ST we muti iF nis two serpent mothers”; ee auisi “his two arms”; — §¢ — retuiy ft “his two legs”. “Phe forms of the pronouns are :— IL. Sing. 1. oe v1 UA » 2m ch ==> TU, eu » 3m. +> su » BE fle > SET Plo 4 N meow, Som TEN, OEN ree » 3 yy pow, SEN Por » 2PRONOUNS. 97 O Sing 1. 2, qe, NUK, ANUK » &m, "Ss", se ENTEK, ENTUK a » 28 Se ENTET, ENTUT » 8m 8", 8 ENTEF, ENTUF 3.6 “S",“"G—— ENTES, ENTUS. Plur. 1. (wanting) nner mont. o ENTETEN, oP Ae ood ENTUTEN a ENTESEN, ” Hive we tt ENTUSEN. The following are examples of the use of some of these :— log KS Lib > dnuk paik sen Serdu 1 thy brother younger. 2 Mf 2 428 Dll DR—d ds ben dnuk taik mud Behold, not am] I thy mother? oe ee | ee entek smen her duset en Gtef ‘Thou [art] stablished upon the seat of the divine father.98 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. = Fh bi entef seSem He leadeth me. mn x 1 @ NT A fe Be Le ‘tet an hen-f —entuten dy Said to — his majesty, ye [are] what? The demonstrative pronouns are :-— Sing. m. PEN this en TEN this » me oe ® PEF, PEFA that mh 2, NY TEF, TEFA that » m KY PA this f -K TA thie. Plar. m. J o.oo APEN, PEN these maaan? nanan nf qe ode APTEN, PETEN these hc se NEFA those non NA these EDR! PAU these.EXAMPLES OF THEIR USE. 99 The following are examples of the use of these :— mon oy a LES MA hens ap pen With messenger this. 2M MT S&S CIS Ses hes - sen em hetu nu sat (2) ten They shall recite the chapters of book this. 3 ip hRl--y = ser pef en Sa sper er Behold, prince thet of Sais wentforth to Hts = tie Aneb-hetet em uya Memphis in the night. a Q 40 2% eam oR ds pefa pu tet seen setem Behold, that which is said to the listener{s]. e = — “NeiSe SF TH nuk tefa hetet sat Ra I [am| that scorpion the daughter of Ra. s100 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. ‘IK ¢ Thad — ok aGmma - tu amu-i en ta Grant thou that I may eat the lef, BRYA madst en pai ah liver of this ox. = FF iuAda I erta - nd hekau apen May be given to me words of power these. soe an “ENS AS SS an ag gemtu em Not shall enter thy disasters into — Oe re Ut at-& — dpten my members these. PS MS WoNs Sd aha - 0d erek ma nefa Asértin Thou art standing like these divine Osiris beings. eo ae 0." oP a av MS RE os na enti em-sa vreped These are who [are] behind de Thigh.RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 101 eo Ri MN om an pau setem en neteru peers these heard of the gods. Other words for “this” are "oY ennu, and}, , oF at enen, and they are used thus -— Loh Set —~ 22 ennu ennui en pet This canal of heaven. ta-k maa-a enen xeper Grant thou [that] I may see this [which] happeneth = AS ol em maat-k in thine eye. The relative pronouns are 4 @and “™ ent, or a \ Mtior & SOS entet, and they are used thas: = 1 U ‘er mt q § as! Sets ail we Denru ast Glorious things [and] mighty deeds many which a~ & ltd ari-f em suten hedid as king.102 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. * le ee 4 Sr Us ementuf & dri-tu nef — hebsu rr washe who made for him clothes. : iat =NI SS 1 ent yer, ——stuten pees — which (he had] with the king. oe eg! ~n el 4S pr exdlimM ov \& sill Grit-nef dput neb enti_ em —seget He did errand cookin the fields. oo SO fla entet em ae - sen Which [was] in city their. ‘The reflexive pronouns are formed by adding the word ~ [I ts to the pronominel suffixes thus :— “D yp tera myself TS tek thyself “Tye test thyself (fem) Sx taf himself tees herself ae, tes-sen themselves. eyREFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 103 Examples of the use of these are :— Ole FP Todt Tk Tut i - na neta tet-a tea-a Thave come, and I have avenged my body my own. TRIM —de 0) PRU suta - kua ma sulfa - Ihave made myself strong as thou hast = tu tes-k strong thyself. *S\ Ai 1 2 an neter tesef Inth the writing of the god himself. ‘Rel SD Allin — anuu - f nek Sait en He writeth = forthee — the Book of —T XS Wn 2 sensen em tebau-f —tesef Breathings with his fingers his own104 USE OF REFLENIVE PRONOUNS. sD hk Ta tet ta netert em re - & tes -8 Speaketh the goddess with her mouth her own. © gay mem 2 8 ee = & reat tourna ‘\ 7s yer - sen her bra - sen em ta They fall down upon face their... . in land nna fes - sen beir own.CHAPTER VL. NOUNS. Nouns in Egyptian are either masculine or femmnine. Masculine nouns end in U, though this characteristic letter is usually omitted by the scribe, and feminine nouns end in T. Examples of the masculine nouus are :— ry Tee Seo BY hru day fhe vt anu scribe JIS kerku night, mm there words are just as often written sk ye Sie. Other examples are :— WA » Ys ap envoy 24 eres sopulchre 1 neter god = i re chapter, mouth.106 FEMININE NOUNS. Examples of feminine nouns are :— —N aan MBS. ica Qe sat book pet heaven sexet field sebyet pylon netert goddess tept boat. Masculine nouns in the plural end in U or IU, and feminine nouns in the plural in UT, but often the T is not written ; examples are :— Fo Ue SAdAl A fMosa TERT a Bind al =~‘ el fel anyiu living beings the forms in which a@éemu the gods appear people who live in the Delta. sbau doors haw suteniu netiu (or batiu) Kingsof the South and North hemut women satut daughters mehut offerings asut places.PLURAL NOUNS. 107 ‘The oldest way of expressing the plural is by writ- ing the ideograph or picture sign three times, as the following examples taken from early texts will shew:— $§§ ret legs Se cacaca ~~ per __ houses, habitations vu" vee hemut — women e nut cities eo Ado Qo AD seyet fields Rte wat ways, roads. Sometimes the picture sign is written once with three dots, 8 or 000, placed after it thus :— °° re > Su spirits ‘The three dots or circles 8 afterwards became modi- fied into | or iil, and so became the common sign of the plural. ‘Words spelt in full with alphabetic or syllabic signs are also followed at times by 3— —>o reé men =o +o 5 %.2, bunut young women108 MODE OF EXPRESSING THE PLURAL =I$3 Sue Sem urdu Serru great onca little ones. The plural is also expressed in the earliest times by writing the word in alphabetic or syllabic signs followed by the determinative written thrice :— 2Y JIsB S-PrP tea dl feR-% Mee P2000 O00 ANd Det a * ONS AAT bat besek arrt qesu seteb ermen dyemu-seku sezet aed petet m s hearts intestines abodes bones obstacles arms a class of stars fields stars bows sceptros. In the oldest texts the dual is usually expressed by adding UI or TI to the noun, or by doubling theTHE DUAL. 109 picture ‘si sign thus :— <2 the two eyes, Jf the two ears, ——! the two hands, the two lips, and the like. Frequently the word is spelt alphabetically or syllabically and is determined by the double picture sign, thus :— oN HK the two divine souls oR the double heaven, i.e, North and om South afl= the two sides oD RR the two lights. Instead of the repetition of the picture sign two strokes, 11 were added to express the dual, thus i re i Hap, the double Nile-god. But in later times the two strokes were confused with », which has the value of I, and the word is also written I 3 but in each case the reading is Hapui. The following are examples of the use of the dual : = — Il =k 2 Grit - F teyenui urui em He made two obelisks great of = z a ell Sh teyenui The two obelisks —110 THE DUAL. ° @m oe a 9 2 = BAM Sh nefer rd em but urui Beautiful of face with two plumes great. ° @ ca GS +> XS JAG NS er amtu dexenti urti Between the two pylons great. “ad Bll — WS fee Baui-f ‘pul en Toet His double soul that which ee in Tata {Busiris). ee 6 NO 8) | &Tdd baud herd tafui The divine souls within the two divine Tchafui. ta fd es do Sod tad bauifi here abut tafui His double soul within the two Tchafui [are] the a } — off sal obo Ba eon Ra ba on Asir of Ra, [and] the sou of Osiris, * Elmo S eidd FF ya - sati - Gen Thave risen a8 two daughters your.EXAMPLES OF ITS USE. 1 IT Thad Ladd Gnet hirdw-0en Relti Homage to you [ye] two opponents, [ye] two — hh Merti [ye] two Mert goddesses. a 10. © =} YJeo = tep aui senti - k Upon the two hands of thy two sisters.CHAPTER VII. THE ARTICLE. The definite article masculine is AC or a PA, the feminine is 2} TA, and the plural is NA or Y won NAEN ; the following examples will explain the use of the article. Rod TV KD LS na pu enti emsa — pa xepes Those are who [are] behind the _ star Thigh Va em pet in heaven. * 18S JI. — 2 i dS en sebet nD he a of fire 7 he baa" HESS, uat en Behent tablet of crystal.THE ARTICLE. 113. & KD Sd DOM S nuk pa ba en ta yat dat Iam} the | Soul of the Body great. sTi dt I KB rey - Kua ren en pa —neter I know the name _—of the god[s] ant om Selle {= SUI en uneniu =—s end - ke forty-two who exist with thee. TSK M&S & oi dee nefer pa stimu Good [is] the grass ne a — =f pS ment such and such. uv a-h Td om KM be ta emt en paif sen da. The wife of his brother elder eo vw 2 a je eM 1 dw fle du-tu lems her nebt - set she was sitting at her hair.? 11, e, she was sitting dressing her hair14 HE ARTICLE. oa to oR A! EY S27 0 (4 na Sergeru en pla] abet The winds (air) of the acacia tree Nd — ied eps en Annu venerable of Annu. @ e —_ ~~ uv ah F SJes Alle 2d duff her ——zatbu taif emt He slew his wife, e @ — wenn in a Cl Yo 9 TRNn fle Wome 50°F] auf her yaa - set na en au he threw her [to] the dogs. “ 2s e Qc 9 1K wnt Be \ un dn pa até her yeperu em The smell became in Wom UM = cod na en = hebsu = en Aa-perti the garments of Pharaoh. ‘The masculine indefinite article is expressed by oe “que | wm ud en, and the feminine by way en mat‘THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 5 en; the words ud en and wat en mean, literally, “one of”, Examples are :— Be SE J&e & get - nef ua en bexennu = em He built a house with => —o a Ss oh a 1K 0 tet-f em ant pa a his own hand in cf valley of the cedar. © 8 Ravn “To mm [SE O 24 ¢ i fS> SN auf her an 7 en afent keba He brought aknife [for cutting] reeds. aJ8 Hea * 73 2d get - &k al en hemt ay O fashion thou a roe Ge Dal en Bataw for Batau. ° o arc til Ro el yer dr wk gem - f emtuk When thou findest it, thou shalt16 THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. Pree eS Em oR her tatu-f er ud en kai en put it) into pot of = RES hh ae mu gebh any-a water cold, [and] =n I shall live. s (e Kod FT Be Tm du pa s-~Ra her tat yeperu ua en The Ra caused to become a Wn oe & a e oo FS BL FS BL mu aa er ae - ; er dut stream great between him [and] between KW Le oo paif sen at his brother elder. From the union of the definite article with the per- sonal suffixes is formed the following series of words :— MASCULINE. FEMININE. KB | “lls ia | pai UGE | ofa tai-dPMRW PAAR AR DEFINITE ARTICLE WITH PERSONAL SUFFIXES. 117 — paik “\ = tai-k ° ° tai-t Oe | ON -| = Jx— pairs Ql] — ar q fl pai-s | iN q —— tate | fle pai-set ai fle tat-set mn pain h& qq tan q wm pai-ten -& q witoe—tacten QQ pe" pai-sen “NIRS tai-sen 5 rote ll mo tae ; nai-d RIT, naen nate Qa nai v4 min nai-ten = viriviriviry| == nail d nai-t xm onaief x 44 Ir nai-sen f n| nai-s nai-w118 DEFINITE ARTICLE WITH PERSONAL SUFFIXES. The following examples will illustrate their use :— PRUE Le Tt Mess paid sen aa fe sdnnw = nd My brother elder hurried me. xe » KU —g Jad paid ned nefer My lord beautiful. oh, A OM, Rok = ay pai - i em-sa-d er Fie on thy coming afterme to a Jes xatbu slay [me]. *S Sd old Ke yer pai-t emma-d For thy ea fis) to me \ feed ~~ Lit em seyeru en —sitef in the guise of a father.EXAMPLES. 119 AN BS Sd — AS I ta emt en pat sen Beuela the wife of his brother ce oe f \ senju - 04 was afraid. ele fle $ Tm KT AS du -set her fet en pai - set sdu She said to her keeper. The 88 TF ASNT F RU au Rati - sen fer netem her pai - sen Were their hearts rejoicing over their Ss wes ' eve ra doing of work. ‘yell efi “Nd Sle uyaa That oe may fall my is e ' ot her uat on the way120 DEFINITE ARTICLE WITH PERSONAL SUFEIXES. & Bl FD oa )] Pe tak “ai ab-ta om ‘nasagu Thy letter abounds in breaks. 0.42 = 0 A LE Soll suten neb lena tai-u suten hemut King[s] all with their queens, OKAY heme SE RW SH amma dn-tu-né = nated ure Let be broughttome = my nobles NW daiu great, 2= VS Ti Sul nail re-het Gain To thy storehouses great & fe em Uast in Thebes. a RYH — SSAg naif en yartu His children.EXAMPLES, 12 a wn oe muon SFR tN we Sm SK mer nai - sen ya en ra as- With their weapons, numerous e _ i- = = mn 000 set em 6a were they as the sand, as | ae an Nay nai-w me em — xemt Their bolts of _ copper (or branse). Sy! Qe @ We = S Zell & sh, ji RM an Ketey em = herti. her nau aa Goods on porter[s] and upon their —_ asses. wed 2h Tilesetd aud — hems reyit em T caused to sit the people in Wn Bede “od PRA -& nai-u quiu fwd Bem ta their shadow. I caused to travel the 2 SUfSy Ae f fefs) vt Tamera “itu - seusey.0 woman of Egypt on her journey making long [her journey]122 DEFINITE ARIICLE WITH PERSONAL SUFFIXES. = 12, 36 7 KE er set = mer - nes dn teha- to the place she wished [togo], not attacked he Jvtd f set kaui bu-nebu her her any person whatsoever on then wayCHAPTER VIII. ADJECTIVES, NUMERALS, TIME, THE YEAR, ETC. ‘The adjective is, in form, often similar to the noun, with which it agrees in gender and number ; with a few exceptions it comes after its noun, thus :— eos eoa ase (PRET bb FE yet nebt nefert abt yet nebt netemet beneret Thing every, good, pure; thing every, pleacant, sweet. Tho following will explain the use of the adjective in the singular and plural. LPT it SX eB m Het Te ea tau en beti hetet Let me live upon bread of barley white, 45! ago! oa a8 MS) Se heget-a em —pertu fegeru my ale [made] of grain red.124 ADJECTIVES. ° v ez 2 We Wht i Ie nefer er end - set happy _with her. 5 Ze ( v oy @ xm em - ta ferdu nefer Thou didst find the girl pretty ah 8 ees mM a STP ANE VP UARS ta enti her sau na kamu who was watching the gardens. ho — ld S RNs) Sed aria nek ~—hebsu—neferu Tnaeed I will make for thee clothes beantiful. fe iF Sod & MND Jet > o du-sen her rut em sauabu They grew _into trees " 1 Ns a aaiu two great.ADJECTIVES. 125 “Ios Ka TH MNS Gu-d em-bah — neteru aaiu I am in the presence of the gods great. The adjectives “royal” and “divine” are usually written before the noun, thus :— yo - t ie t suten an royal scribe 2 e@ VE EE otten femw royal workman ronan beatin e Ss js 12, (Halas auton uaa royal boat or barge ao = royal acquaintance or } suten rey 1° mown kinsman } ° d 0 3 A suten heme Toyal woman, i, e, mom queen Lf vi sutenuhenu royal servants divine servant, i. ¢., 1 q neter ten driest 4 o neter het divine house, i. ey Joa temple 1 q ° neter ditef divine father. ae Adjectives are without degrees of comparison in Egyptian, but the comparative and superlative may be expressed in the following manner :—126 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. tle fle JK Beeld le = Ta du-set nefer em ie - set er set She was fair in her body more than vu vauoe B of SA Km Se hemt nebt enti em pa ta tor-f woman any who[was]in the earth the whole ofit. eS Tih 2. —_— > di ur - ik er neteru Great art thou more than the gods. 3. we wg SS om oul vil ge - ast - wu er $a ‘They were numerous more than the sand. “IT 2 e= or = jl dnet pre. k er neteru Homage to thee [0 thou one] lovious more than the gods. eo An =— t ea Sn S Ell Tian betenu er Oesemu. ‘yaxet Fleet ‘more than greyhounds, swift = dds er butt more than light.NUMERALS, 127 a — yeper ager - ke eref em It shall happen thou shalt be wise more than he by 45h fer being silent, xe senonn WS Oh = Tl nefer setem er entet neb Goodis hearkening more than anything, i.e. to obe is best of all. Nowerats. t= 7 ua =1 aa n= sen =2 mw = fom xemet = 8 ma w= =o (ftw or aftu 4 | = «e ou mb n= PQN sas = 6 aw — oo r sefex = 7128 tu ii m wu b) — wo o $3 33 33 333333 3 2 > NUMERALS. Mee semen Moe 8 a pest Ss = met A e taut a mab — i hement Q) @) @) ® Show ASQ) zemennus @) @) tht, —f] baa aj) @ SED befennu 100,000ORDINALS. 129 ¥ ee keh = = 1,000,000 a2 = 85 % fennu = 10,000,000 The ordinals are formed by adding 5 nu to the numeral, with the exception of “first”, thus -— Mase. Fem. First Eee tepi ne tept Second 115 uo Third = 8 me 0 Fourth =m ms . o Fifth Mo ns : m Mo Sixth iT Ilo m lo Seventh 1, 0 te i Mm mo Eighth 44 te i Mm ws Ninth ji? Mba Tenth nd a> o and so on. From the following examples of the use of the numerals it will be noticed that the numeral, like the adjective, is placed after the noun, that the lesser numeral comes last, and that the noun is sometimes in the singular and sometimes in the plural.180 USE OF NUMERALS. vd —bi SRT on rex on pa neter SLI I a the name of a god forty-two, i. ey I know the names of the forty-two gods. 2T— Cbd re en tekaw Chapter of the flames re 4.6, “four flames”. eS Te he om au-f Belong to him ear in his length, = ee v et nnn RK as yet 230 em —usext-f measure[s] 230 in _ his breadth. ‘2 1 thoi meh 1000 pu auf Cubit{s] one thousand Jake in in _hiis length. ran soonn 5. ca eS } seven C3 monn fau-4 nek met en tba en fep en T have given ‘eer 10 of tion | bushels of i.e, tons of ton thousands ceo > MONS TES neferu er setefau neter-hetep-k grain for the supply —_—of thy offerings.‘USE OF NUMERALS. 181 A411 6 25] a PEpppnnr — aqu — daiu (100,000 X 9) + (10,000 x 9) Loaves large, 900,000 + — 90,000 eeee an eee nan + (1000 X 2) + (100 X 7) + (10 x 5) + 2000 + 700 + 50 4. ¢., 992,750 large loaves of bread. 7. In the papyrus of Rameses III we have the following numbers of various kinds of geese set out and added up thus :— TTT sess on = osm & o = 1410 Tq ee e nnn ~ 160 Hil ann 4060 W TM an = 26020 a TN Ss 9 = = 51810 eeee = I coe = 21700 | Tce Ah ipo gee n= 6510 ee ‘Total {10/000 X (000 32) + (1H) X10) 0X 2) A — 196,254132 DIVISIONS OF TIME. Ordinal numbers are also indicated by o>, meh, which is placed before the a thus :— ad = poe I one ro Na aa em madu = ud em madu Tn the temples of the first [rank], in the tomples ~ meh sen of the second [rank]. Ture, ‘The principal divisions of time are :—~ PAS Jat second «= GS at — minute Soe me ae unnut hour we hru = day =S abet month { S$ renpit year W see 80 years FE en 60 yoars . 100,000 Art henti 120 years fof heh aoa 1,000,000 . w teh Sears “S\ tia eternity. Q sen 10,000,000 Examples of the use of these are :— eo e @ = ee {i oil 1 ot a - f renput ast er fer renputd May he give years many over and above my yearsEXAMPLES. 188 pac mh - i ae 1 ent abetu as her of tie [and] months many (ei 7 jin addition to} * O ill onkt 0 ve Soin FS poe abet-a nu a“ ler ot 7 FT Sir] es 2 treog my months of ee eye many over hru-d nu any kerk aé her my days of life; [and] nights many over B ' Ale § kerh - @ my nights, S 23. 2B FOE fof untet - f enti heh His existence is [for] 120 years X 100,000 years. * sl! TT = Rho LAA uneniu any er — neheh henti Who exist living for ever, 120 years X tetta eternity.134 DIVISIONS OF TIME, 4)>a = a mo MPL au -k er en Thou art for millions ae years of millions of years, —t I fo. tt aha a period of millions of years. This was the answer which the god Thoth made to the scribe Ani when he asked him how long he had to live, and was written about the XVIth century B.C. The same god told one of the Ptolemies that he had ordained the sovereignty of the royal house for a period of time equal to :— = #6 iof @ fetta enti sefu An eternity of 120 year periods, an ae of 30 year periods, 1 a y ff 8s BRD leh renput —-Senu abet hefnu millions of years, ten millions of months, hundreds of thousands co NY G WW Be hru tebau unnut =. yau at of days, tens of thousands of hours, thousands of minutes,‘THE THREE SEASONS. 135 oe ae ee TRS oe BS faa hat met dnt hundreds of seconds, [and] tens of thirds of seconds Tre Eoverian Yuan. The year, Saf o renpit, plural > obef n consisted originally of twelve months, each containing thirty days; as the month contained three periods of ten days the year consisted of thirty-six weeks of ten days each. Later the Egyptians added five days' to the years, and thus madeit equal 10865 days @@@ '"'! won [0s Bach month was dedicated to a goa The twelve months were divided into three seasons of four months each, thus :— 1. [ATS akbet season of inundation and period of iu iS sowing. ze 2, = pert soason of “coming forth” or growing, ie,, spring. 3. age @ Hmut season of harvest and beginning of © inundation, Documents were dated thus :— 1 Called “epagomenal days”. * They discovered that the true year was longer than 365 days, that the difference between 865 days and the length of the true year was equal nearly to one day in four years, and that New Year's day ran through the whole year in 365 X 4 = 1460 years.186 THE DATING OF INSCRIPTIONS. et 1 {6 yoo Iifite e1 renpit IV dbe¢ IV akhet hru 1 Year four, month four of the sowing season, day one ° = ft yer hen en under the majesty of, ete. i.e, the first day of the fourth month of the sowing season in the fourth year of the reign of king So- and-so, on oO oO tt e 2 {5 MW m Ey ris renpit V abet II semut —hru pest yer Year five, month three of inundation, day nine under {— & hen en amlennet(or bat) Usr-Madat-Ra-setep-en-Ra the majesty of { the king ofthe Usr-Maiit-Ra-sotep-on-Ra, {south and North ee ee Lh sa Ra Ra-meses-meri-Amen son of the Sun, Rameses, beloved of Amen, ete. eo ° ° 3. { } ant ad { Tt renpit XXI = abet I akhet yer Year twenty-one, month one of sowing season underTHE DATING OF INSCRIPTIONS. 137 { — 2 hen en — suten bat Amen meri Pianyi the majesty of { the king of the | Pidnkhi beloved of Amen sesty of {south aud North} «(5 He Win=nE B= renpit 1X Apalius Year nine of Apellacus, day seven, i ca wt pea e@ => i MW tep per hru XVII en amu first[month] of spring, day seventeen of the dwellers in ee ba Ta-mert yer len suten bat mes der the yf { the king of the Beith under the majesty o {south and North ofl Mil t Dh Ptualmis any fetta Ptah meri Ptolemy, living for ever, beloved of Ptah. This date shews that there was a difference of ten days between the dating in use among the priests and thatof the Egy ptiansin the time of Ptolemy III Euergetes, king of Egypt from B. C. 247 to B. C. 222, {7 mn BoM renpit XXXII abet IIT Semut hru VI Year thirty-two, month three of sowing season, day six138 ‘THE DATING OF INSCRIPTIONS = hy bas wer en suten bit under the divine majesty of {the ing of the ofa Saat Ra-usr-maat - meri - Amen any ufa Ra-usr-maat - meri - Amen, life! strength! p sey CofMl fe ft send sa Ra Rameses eg Annu health! son of the Sun, Rameses, prince of Heliopolis, The words fl, which frequently follow royal names, may be also translated “Life to him! Strength to him! Health to him!” They often occur after any mention of or reference to the king, thus :— : a VWerix= om ood Odireda en Aa-perti ‘The door Pa of Pharaoh, $+ 1 0 any uta send life! strength ! health!EGYPTIAN MONTHS. 139 2m iS lo dd ua en suten emu uP en hen-f One royal workman first of His Majesty, send life! strength! health! It has been said above that each month was dedicated to a god, and it must be noted that the month was called after the god’s name. The Copts or Egyptian Christians have preserved, in a corrupt form, the old Egyptian names of the months, which they arrange in the following order :— “TWIG tet month of winter == ‘Thoth a » Qn » = Paopi SV» 8rd » = Hathor iio» 4th, » = Khoiak Ts 1st month of spring = Tobi ve » Qnd ,, » = Mekhir vn 8rd, ” = Phamenoth =~ Tie Athy » = Pharmuthi140 ‘THE EPAGOMENAL DAYS. somo 1 BB 1st month of summer = Pakhon see and ,, » = Paoni or ard, » = Epep ras 4th ,, » = Mesore. a” The epagomenal days were called © ul G5 {> “the Give days over (6, to be added to) the year"CHAPTER IX. THE VERB. The consideration of the Egyptian verb, or stem- word, is a difficult subject, and one which can only be properly illustrated by a large number of extracts from texts of all periods. Egyptologists have, moreover, agreed neither as to the manner in which it should be treated, nor as to the classification of the forms which have been distinguished. The older generation of scholars were undecided as to the class of languages under which the Egyptian language should be placed, and contented themselves with pointing out grammatical forms analogous to those in Coptic, and perhaps in some of the Semitic dialects ; but recently the relationship of Egyptian to the Semitic languages has been boldly affirmed, and as a result the nomenclature of the Semitic verb or stem-word has been applied to that of Egyptian. ‘The Egyptian stem-word may be indifferently a verb or a noun ; thus €} yeper means “to be, to become”, and the “thing which has come into being”. By the142 THE VERB. addition of <2 Yj the stem-word obtains participial meaning like “being” or “becoming”; by the addition of i in the mase. and of]! in the fem. yeper becomes a noun in the plural meaning “things which oxist”, “created things”, and the like; and by the addition of () §) we have Bla xeperé the god to whom the property of creating men and things belonged. The following examples will illustrate the various uses of the word :— ~— 9g 144 oe B= Aco ‘ neter yeper em sep ftep The god one [rho] came into being in time primeval. =! ° B= Irae ed xeper metet — nebt = Tem Came into being words all of Tem. ag ae => eo ~~ La es 8 e Sn ‘| an xepert sat tu Not had come into being earth [and] mountains. tARET BS FW ORS saut xepert i thing that hath ne a Guarding {eome into being m ee aEXAMPLES. 143 SF! a nov GTI ~ = ari-g xeperu neb er fata Ihave made transformations all _at the dictates o = if = Jos =f aha em neb mer kad of my heart in = every [which] wished my ka. cat Sab ts em rad en yeperu i - her-sa In the face of men and women ea those who shall come —Y sen after them. 7 a Foo a = ell 2 an ven -en-tu ——_yepert arit Not are known {thethingethatwill [as] the work come into being a neter of God. 3. QS => —A,9! 8=4 S= BC iH yeper-d yeper jeperu Tam he who } and J who made to ‘the beings who) jeameinto being! come into betngt {came intobeing J144 ‘THE VERB. Ge —it & Beli ~~ yeperu - ” kud yeperu en Teame into being in the forms of => @o gia 82 fj SF FS yepera yeper em sep {epi the god Khepera, who came into being in primeval time. Or again, if we take a word like 4 ager it will be seen from the following examples that according to its position and use in a sentence it becomes a noun, or a verb, or an adjective, or an adverb. ‘TASS Foal $Z Sti sma-d Sepsi dager May I join the ane holy [and] perfect 5 VA nu neter-yert of the underworld. ay TMA 4 sat) ent sdger mu The book of making fey (ream ate TEI QQ JH auf netri emma dgeru Heis divine among the perfect ones,EGYPTIAN STEM-WORDS. 145 AUST BAS Ss sen daut «enti_—ser_ ~ They, | the cattle which were before eas hte 4 -ec lz j= a her yeperu nefer er dager sep sen became fine, exceedingly, twice. L.c,, the cattle became very fine indeed. Stem-words in Egyptian, like those in Hebrew and other Semitic dialects, consist of two, three, four, and five letters, which are usually consonants, one or more of which may be vowels, as examples of which may be cited :— oral an to retu:n, go or send back nya ha to walk — 2 —} A aha to stand aK, sat to cut =\ir rerem to weep i No ee meron Dy [lee nemmes to enlighten TET TG neuet to convene146 STEM-WORDS OF MORE THAN TWO CONSONANTS. Fay PS rere a) heap up to over- me flowing. ERLE reemneton (probably pronounced nefemtem) to love. The stem-words with three letters or consonants, which are ordinarily regarded as triliteral roots, may be reduced to two consonants, which were pronounced by the help of some vowel between ; these we may call primary or biliteral roots. Originally all roots consisted of one syllable. By the addition of feeble consonants in the middle or at the end of the monosyllabic root, or by repeating the second consonant, roots of three letters were formed. Roots of four consonants are formed by adding a fourth consonant, or by combining two roots of two letters ; and roots of five consonants from two triliteral roots by the omission of one conso- nant. Speaking generally, the Egyptian verb has no con- jugation or species like Hebrew and the other Semitic dialects, and no Perfect (Preterite) or Imperfect (Future) tenses. The exact pronunciation of a great many verbs must always remain unknown, because the Egyptians never invented a system of vocalisation, and never took the trouble to indicate the various vowel sounds like the Syrians and Arabs ; but by comparing forms which are common both to Egyptian and Coptic, a tolerably correct idea of the pronunciation may be obtained. There is in Egyptian a derivative formation of the‘THE CAUSATIVE FORMATION. 147 word-stem or verb, which is made by the addition of 8, —— or f to the simple form of the verb, and which has a causative signification ; in Coptic the causative is expressed both by a prefixed S and T. The following are examples of the use of the Egyptian causative :— 1. From =i aa to be great :— Sh Ue 8-da-d neferuf I made great, é. ¢., magnified his beauties. 2. From ts any to live :— le Keo eed SIMU YY ein mennu daiu ma tuu Tee eer eae huge —_as mountains &R Sa Tie MTS em beset behes sany of white marble [and] alabaster, and I made[them]like sf] @ ° a NK => Tol ? PROS PAR em dri etep er —_-unemet sembi making[them]torest at the right[and] left ~~ PSY TAS ToS pai-s reat yeti o its door inscribed148 VERB WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. i =§ = li ler ren ur hen - with the name great of thy ae 3. From 9 = yeper to become :— 8 “~_ \&e q seyeperu == na I made to come _ into being his JASE RA bak em — yet [which were] flooded with things o Sco pice re-hetuf s treasure-houses mS ta neb f every land, The verb with pronominal personal suffixes is as follows :— Sing. <= , lcom. @ 1s read 2m. “SQ nelemk 2f. on] fe fett ay 3m. a bat f BE. #QI —— gems Plur. lcom. “111 2 com. Ke = mit-ten 3 com. seq r" xeper-sen arin I know thou deliverest thou speakest he cuts she finds we do ye die they become.AUXILIARY VERBS. 149 The commonest auxiliary verbs are fs aha to stand; SS unto be; au to be; 5S ari to a0; ot a ‘Wo give; the following passages Hlustrate their use — tS eta tle iy ant aia un dn her fe nes set Was he saying toher, ‘Stand up men ey —f ¥ Si fat oo nd_——portu give thou tome grain’, — anon O et pom 2 Ble Jee HIS aha tet - set nef bu pu ua metet Stood up said she to him, ‘Noone hath spoken Kod 2 Kil be » entma-d heru paik sen Serdu with me — except thy young brother’, —_— — . i vom RTS io wn et aha en gemhet en set Stood up glanced at them. mwenong Wh-§- = Shia = hen-f aha - nef yara er His Majesty, he stood up furious with rage against150 EXAMPLES OF USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS. as - e = 2 B3ir ft sen ma—tef ~— Mentu = neb- Uaast them like father Menthu, — lord of Thebes. 1&1 fe $f un dn - 8 eet fer aha Was she standing up. & 2 4! = 2S Vo 2 Ag he un dn-f her — tettu emma - 8 Was he speaking with —her fo RI set em tet saying :— Ss es vena aS Le RN un an-f her arqu- f en Was he taking an oath tohim by Kod SHASH & I pa Ra- Heru - uti tet the god Ra - Harmachis, caving: — i Sepsis 7 wn en atefu en her Was the young man coming (?) toEXAMPLES OF USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS, 151 bea KR KU Ih mefu emma paif sen speak with his _ brother. WIS] ae —$o —- Fo du-d sent - kud on baiu-k Tam fearing thy: souls (i. ¢., will). afer? S = Ke au-f er sper er paif per ‘Was he going into his house, je ¢ “aki KY Fd du-f ler taif hemt was he finding his wife (S5 Wik~ Wm 1s sefer - mer - en afau — sick a {uct | fe flo ? ved TR Se du - set her temt fat mu her tet-f Was she not putting water upon his hand DK KM Peedi de Je on em paif seyeru du bu opuk according to his wont. Was not152 EXAMPLES OF USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS. le PSSA = sh be KM act setaus—er “at - -f du paif she lighting a fire before him. Was his TR SBR per em —kekui house in darkness. Re YT mT) Be madi ari -n en - mn wnnut Come, let us make for ourselves an hour B e (2H, seferu lying down. oN % »R = Sea NSM ari meh ie k ayetu [Do] not make to fill heart thy [with] the wealth hilt of another. leh = TB fat per-f Not am I letting to come forth it tromEXAMPLES OF USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 153 = a Bom Soya re-d n red nebt my mouth to people any. 2RIS fem HON UNE emtuf an naif daut He brought his cattle 2D o> 1 Be e ej f7- Se TART er - hat-f er tat seler - wu em before him to make lie down them in e! SMG NT, AGrH ME pai - sen ahait their stalls. In the limits of this little book it is impossible to set before the reader examples of the use of the various parts of the verb, and to illustrate the forms of it which have been identified with the Infinitive and Imperative moods and with participial forms. If the Egyptian verb is to be treated as a verb in the Semitic languages we should expect to find forms corresponding to the Kal, Niphal, Piel, Pual, Hiphil, Shaphel, and other conju- gations, according as we desired to place it in the Southern or Northern group of Semitic dialects. Forms undoubtedly exist which lend themselves readily to Semitic nomenclature, but until all the texts belonging154 THE VERB. to all periods of the Egyptian language have beon published, that is to say, until all the material for grammatical investigation has been put into the Egyptologists’ hands, it is idle to attempt to make a final set of grammatical rules which will enable the beginner to translate any and every text which may be set before him. In many sentences containing numerous particles only the general sense of the text or inscription will enable him to make a translation which can be understood. In a plain narrative the verb is commonly a simple matter, but the addition of the particles occasions great difficulty in rendering many passages into a modern tongue, and only long acquain- tance with texts will enable the reader to be quite certain of the meaning of the writer at all times. More- over, allusions to events which took place in ancient times, with the traditions of which the writer was well acquainted, increase the difficulty. This being so it has been thought better to give at the end of the sketch of Egyptian grammar a few connected extracts from texts, with interlinear transliteration and translation, so that the reader may judge for himself of the dif- ficulties which attend the rendering of the Egyptian verb into English,CHAPTER X. ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, PARTICLES, Apverss, In Egyptian the prepositions and certain substantives and adjectives to which <> er is profixed take the place of adverbs ; examples are :-— 1. The cattle which were before him became xo = pene JS = IAf on JE 1 nefer er dager sep sen ged - sen fine exceedingly, twice, they doubled fhlexah Ir = Sou mesu - er dger sep sen their births, exceedingly, twice. ree Ile - EP? un set nefer er da - ur her ab Was the woman fair exceedingly to the mind man156 PREPOSITIONS. ¥ iar = fs ° en henef or yet ned of his majesty more than any thing. au-f sent er da - ur Was he afraid exceedingly. tiv @ iS LEMy —> naqu + tu hetra er Were cut(wounded) ts horses menor Ne es ball ennuit immediately. Prerosrrions. Prepositions, which may also be used adverbially. are simple and compound. The simple prepositions are — 1, mm en for, to, in, because, 2. & em from, out of, in, into, on, among, as, conformably to, with, in the state of, if, when. 3 —Ser to, into, against, by, at, from, until. 4. @ or © her upon, besides, for, at, on account of, 1s 5. © yep upon.PREPOSITIONS, 157 6. 4 yer under, with. 1. a yer from, under, with, during. 8. Re ma from, by. 9. Rena. with. 10. «2 xeft inthe face of, before, at the time of, 1 dh = ent in front of, at the head of. 12. YP RE te behing. 13. gq mé like, as. 14, & fer since, when, as soon as. => The following are used as prepositions:— JAN ami dwelling in. (4A ari awelling at or with. oo levi dwelling upon. + zeri_ dwelling under. @ tepi. dwelling upon. Ma. xenté occupying a front position. These are formed from the prepositions Fm, <> ny 2 her, a zer, © yep, and (fh zent respec-158 PREPOSITIONS. tively. The following examples will illustrate the use of prepositions :— =i BAT US en ka en Ausdr an Ani Tothe ka of Osiris, the scribe Ani. (double) e aS mil & BSF i paut neteru em hennu en ‘The company of the gods [are] in praises because SJAS uben-k thou risest. | La S 7 => STIR! = ta em bertu en maa satet-k Theearth[is}in rejoicing at the sight of thy beams. mipio~ = & tes TS ubenf em mat abtet ent pet He riseth in the horizon eastern of heaven. TH Ose 2A 2 = KRM ufau pet ta em_—-mayait Weighers of heaven and earth in scales.EXAMPLES OF THEIR USE. 159 *2 ER WR IS ZY maa-ndé Heru em ari hemu May I see Horus f the guardian of} the rudder. ie, aoe at -Ahils =F) J2SI gem - f fal but May it be found on athe wood of the table of offerings. &§ SP TRS LT Ie nuk ud em ennu en enen neteru I[am] one of those gods. == “Vas i Seao QR} S 1 pest em Aah pert ra One shining from the Moon! Cometh forth = Nd 2 dusir Ani oan ris Ani J ell pen em ast-k this among thy multitude, 7 NK ART He e em hamemet In the state of the hamemet beings may I lift up any legs Sy, Ta ~ynun Ausir [as] doth lift up the legs Osiris,B 160 PREPOSITIONS. 8 eka 2 Kole ie an yent- & her-f em tebt - Not let me walk upon it with Sern 40 => ca 9. (aa S&S W& em —tept - re pert em Conformably to the utterance [which] came forth from = fiom re hen = en’ -Heru the mouth of the majesty of Horus. 1 t PRA RE auf her semi - 8a He followed eter YNcth = ds) daut er seyet cattle in the fields, = KK = Fell er pat per er tennw Into his house at each ak oat ruha evening.EXAMPLES OF THEIR USE 161 a tof] om & aha ti or ee + ta un Stand up, wait until the daybreak being aK Ved t Sod pa dten he uben the Disk, ie,Ra, shining (or rising), Q o ° *EN & y= SUS dept - tu Maat er — trdui Embraced art thou by Maat at the two seasons. 6S Lf Sth entek setemet er anyui-k Thou hearest with thy two ears. *h re =f K aN era meter Let none stand up against me in evidence, = $$ & LUT em yesef er oem tatat none make opposition to me among the chiefs, oy te Y= => PS men db-ke er ahau - f Stable is thy heart by (or on) its supports.162 SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. “Meo RTRs seyem - 4 uty I have gained the mastery Of what was commanded 2 =? drit oer-a re to be done for me upon earth. e—7 mi of ee Tehuti Maat her aui-f Thoth and Maat upon his two hands (i. ¢., on the right and left). & 2 . Batcm Zyeb ood RUS fa-k maatu her tep fuait Thou lettest be seen thyself at {te aa fy moraiag} é ning, ° (=> hru neb each day. a we ee afm he TS aba aha - nef her-« | He hath fought for it, | ion Ae => WS Ar So aqg- sen er dsi_ - & seé-sen her-f They enter into my sepulchre, [or] they pass by it.EXAMPLES OF THEIR USE. 163 & Mk Nb Ss 2 ta nek ai neb-@ her Ihave come to thee, O Prince, my lord, for the sake J¥4& Soe Bent-end-rest of Bent-enth-resht, Vil=BoT1 > 2. PSI av kert rey re pen —semaageru- If now be known chapter this he will be made Q = —_ of bois ®& ea f pu tep ta em Neter-ert victorious upon earth [and] in the underworld. a> ° Zz iy Ud = yl § loos maa-é —neferu-k ufa- tep ta Ishall see thy beauties, I shall be strong upon earth. Won samen eo A VL. Ios A aK Ro mmm SBR é en ser en Beyten iw rove envoy of ther " prinee of Bekhten hath come = in S\—™ 7 2 ner dmutaét en suten hemt with gifts many for the queen.164 SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS. n => a 2 NSemn 2 fim refiu segtet yer hen-k Vigorous _is the segtet boat under thy majesty, ! 6! Tes h fl satut - & em hrau thy beams [are] in [their] faces. we <> OO tt Oo 8 RN em DO ec gem-en-tu ” pen em Xemennu yer Was found chapter this in Hermopolis under —_— SSG wm Pt nme TY retin en hen en neter pen the two feet of the majesty of god this. fet an auten neter aa Spake the king, ihe god great 1 gmx thestL 2s] yer seru hauti with the princes [and] chiefs, = ° aT 2 te es mefeh yer sense Tete [Iwas] girded with the belt under the majesty of Teta,