FOUND ENGINEERING GEOLOGY second edition Tony WalthamFoundations of Engineering Geology TONY WALTHAM BSc, DIC, PhD Civil Engineering Department Nottingham Trent University Second Edition London and New YorkPreface Civil engineering is an exciting combination of science, a professional skill and enginoering achievement which always fas to rely on the ground on which its structures stand Geology is therefore vital to success in civil engineering, and this book brings fo the reader those many aspects of the ‘geological sciences specitcaly relevant to the profession This book is structured primarily for tne student of cil engineering whe starts with no knowledge of geology but is required to understand the ground conditions and geological processes which, both literally and metaphorically, are the foundations of his future professional activities. It'also ‘tovides an accessible source of information forthe practising {iil engineer. ‘All the material is presented in indwiduat double-page spreads. Each subject is covered by notes, diagrams. tables and case histories, alli bite-sized sections instead of being lost in a long continuous text, Ths slyie makes the infor: mation very accessible; the reader can dip in and find what ‘neneeds, ands also visually guided into relevant associated topics. There is even some intended repetition of small sections of material which are pertinent to more than. ane aspect within the interrelated framework of @ geological Understanding “The contents ofthe book follow a basic university course In engineering geology. The fr¢e-standing sections and sub: seetions permit infinite flexibility, so that any lecturer can use the book as his course text while tailoring his programme to his own personal style. The single section summarizing soi strength has been included forthe benett of geology students who do not take a comprehensive course it soil mechanics Within @ normal civil engineering syllabus. Preface to the Second Edition The second edtion of this book has been carefully updated and improved with addtional paragraphs while keeping fo the formal and structure that has proved $0 accessible and so popular. ‘The one new section is #37, Understancing Ground Conditions, whieh Was been included in an attempt at persuading the engineer to stand back and take a broader ‘iow ofthe overall geology ata site. Though this may seem to lack relevance in assessing the smalor details of a single urban buiting site, it does have real benef in assessing. ground conditions and evaluating potential ‘geohazards on larger construction projects. The concept of the big picture is aways useful, and this is very much the ‘adem approach 10 engineering geology. Keepin & the Same theme of contemporary geology, a box on Browns Sis has been included in the new section. “This Book wes never intended i be a handbook wih all the answers and all the procedures. It's aimed to ‘ntinduce the crtcal aspects of geology tothe student of engineering, trough t does appear to act as a convient “The sectionalized layout makes the information very ac- ccessible, 0 thal the practicing engines wil find the book to be a useful source when he requires a rapid insight or ro- minder 8s he encounters geological problems with dificult ‘ground. Reference material has therefore been added to any sections, mainly in tabulated form, to provide a more ‘complete data bank. The book has been produced only in the inexpensive saf-bound format inthe hope that it will reach as large a market as possible. ‘The mass of data condensed into these pages has beert drawn from an enormous variety of sources, The Book i unashamedly a derived text, relying heavily on the wortd- wide records of engineering geology. Material has been accumulated over many years in a lecturing role. A tow concepts and. case histories do derive from the author's personal research; but for the dominart part here is @ debt Of gratitude acknowledged to the innumerable geologists and Civil engineers who Rave described and communicated their ‘own experiences and research, all tne figures have been newly drawn, and many are dered from a combination of isparate sources, All the photographs are by the author, ‘9xc9p1 fr the Meridian air photograph on page 39, ue thanks are afforded to tne Department of Civil anc ‘Structural Engineering at the Nottingham Trent University where the engineering and teaching experience was gained to Neil Dixon for his assistance with the gentie ar of soi ‘mechanics, tothe staff of Blackie in Glasgow who made the innovative style of the book possible, and to the many colleagues and (cands without whom nothing is possible. Tw. reminder to the practising engineer, To enhance its role as '@ source book, a long list of turner reagiag has been ‘added to this edition. it cites the useful key texts in each Subject area, and also the primary papers on case studies Used within the text, in both cases without any need to include conventional references that can disrupt a text. ‘As inthe first edition, tere are no cross references to other ‘in fda 10 explain terms being used. The index is intentionally comprehensive, so rat itcan be used 8 a glossary. Each technical term in the tex! does appear in the index. so that the reader can check for a definition, usually atthe fist citation of a term. ‘Sincere thanks are recorded to Peter Fookes, lan Jefferson, Mike Rosenbaum, Jerry Giles and various ‘others wno rave contributed to the revisions within this second edition, and also to the students of Nottingham Trent University who have road-tested te book and made the author appreciate the minor omissions and ientations that could be smoothed out Tw.Contents 1. Geology and GW Enginaering 2 Igneous Rocks 3. Surface Processes 44 Sedimentary Rocks. 5. Metamorphic Rocks 8 Geological Structures 7. Gooloalcal Maps and Sections 8 Geological Map interpretation 8 Plate Tectonios 40. Boundary Hazards 31 Rocks of Briain 12 Roess ofthe United Stalos 33. Weatherng and Sols 14 Floodplains and Altium 18 Glacial Deposits 46 Climatic Variants 17 Coastal Processes 38 Groundwater 19 Ground Investigation 20 Desk Study 21. Ground Investigation Boreholos 22 Geophysical Surveys 23 Assescment of Difcult Ground 24 Rock Strength 25 Rock Mass Strength 26 Sol Strength 27 Ground Subsidence 2B Subsidencs on Clays 29. Subsidence on Limestone 120. Subsidence over O16 Minos 31, Mining Subsidence ‘82 Slope Faire and Landsldtos 33. Water in Landsiies 34. Soll Faluros and Flowslides 35. Landslide Hazards 98. Slope Stabilization 837. Understanding Ground Conditions 38. Rock Excavation 29. Tunnels in Flock 40. Stone and Aggregate Appendions Fock Mass Quality Q System ‘Abbreviations ard Notation Further Reading Index a701 Geology and Civil Engineering ‘THE GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT surlace, destroy ol rocks, create naw rocks and add to the complexity of ground conctons Cycle of geology encompasses al the major processes, which must be evel, or they would grind to an inevitable hal ‘Land: mainly erosion and rock destruction ‘Sea: mainly depostion, forming new sediments Underground: new rocks created and deformed, Earth movements aro vial to the eyele; without them the land would be eraded down to just below sea love. Plate tactonies provide the mechanism for nea all oath 's (section 08). The hotinterorof the Earth isthe nergy source whieh crives all geological Geological time is an important concept Eath is 400M years old and has evolved continuously towards its prosent form, Most rocks’ oncountored by enginoors aro 10-500M years old. They have been displaced and delocmed over fime, and some are then exposed at the surface, by ‘fosional removal of rocks that once lay above ther. Underground structures and the ground surface have ‘evolved steadily through geological tm. Most surface landforms visiblo today have been carved out by erosion within the last few milion yaare, whe older landforms have been destroyed. ‘This tie aiference fs important: the origin of tho rocks al the surface may bear no relationship tothe prasont ‘environment. The classic example is MI Everest, whose ‘Summit Imestone, formod in a 6ea 300M years ago. Geological time is dificult to comprehend butt must accepted as the time gaps account for many of the Contrasts in ground conditions. SIGNIFICANCE IN ENGINEERING Cuil engineering works are all carries out on orn the ground. Its properties and processes are therefore Significant ~ both the strengths of rocks and sols, and the erosional and geological processes which subject ‘them to continual change. Unstable ground does exist. Some ground Is not tera fma” ane may leas to unstable foundations. Site Investigation is where most civ engineers encounter geology. This involves the interpretation of (ground condions (often trom minimal evidence), some 5:D thinking, and the recognition of areas of dificult ‘ground or potential goohazards. Untoreseen ground conditions can stil occur, as ground geology can be almost infinitely varabio, but they are offen unforescon due to inadequate site investigation, Civil engineering design can accommodate almost any ground condtons which ae covrecly assessed and tinderstood ma ‘Conceps of eal sr mporartin goog rman | EE] | | sede feck etencng hundreds of ametes across county. + |) ieee toby uh nova | “ Rock structures reaching 1000 m below the ground surtace. oweesten _®* | | Strong limestone crumpled like plasticine by plate ‘ectonics. | {incase win over et ons. ting ce Crum | | Eethauacos ston tres more powetthen aslo bomb = ron of yeas geological. | = E__ | [ittsnsioctee | Commer See \ neti tes T \ sang <— Lae] ‘Components of Engineering Geology ‘The main lds of study: ‘Sections inthis book Ground materials and stuctues 02-06, Regional characterises oo12 Surface processes and materials 13-18 Grourd investigations 07,08,18-29,87 Material propertios 24-26,40 Dicult ground conditions 27-36,98,39 ther aspects fosals and historical geology, mineral 100 Mpa UGS < 10 MPa Lite fracturing Fractured and bedded inimal weathering Deep weathering Stable foundations ‘Setlement proviems Standin steep aces | Failoniow Slopes Aggregate resource ___ Require engineering care Ground profile through some Snonymous region inthe Englch Malands, Most rocks wore formed 200-3000 Years go, won the area was near the equator in'a deltaic swamp, disused by eath movements hen Iehin a shatow sea “Tha ground surface was shaped by erosion in the last milion yours, when tho alluvium and slope Soposts pay led the rver-cut valley “Tho more difcu ground conditions are provide by te loadpain, sok Seinen, dep rockhead,uneiabie Slopes ol mines and be backlog quay, ‘STRENGTH OF THE GROUND ‘Naturat ground materiale, rocks and sols, cover a great range of stongihs: granite Is 4000 times stronger than peat sai. ‘Some variations in rock strength are summarized by ‘contrasting strong and weak rocks in the table. ‘Assessment of ground concitions must cstnguish * Intact rock = strength ofan unractured, smal block; reler to UCS, + Fock mass ~ properties of a large mass of actures Fock in the ground, reler to rock mass classes (section 25), Note — a strong rock may conn 60 many tactures in a hilsde thatthe rock mass is weak and unstable. Ground conditions also vary greaty due to purely local features such as underground cavities, inclined shear surfaces and artical dieturbanco. lore rok SBP ues: Pye] Unconfined (or uniaxial) compressive ain A strength load fo cause fare of cube ofthe ‘material crushed between two fat oletes with no latoral restraint. (Strong and weak iis aro simplod; seo Section 24 for BS criteria) SBP: Sale (or acceptable) bearing pressure: load that may salely be imposed upon rockin the | Tosa (ground: the estmated (or measured) ultimate Bearing pressure to fal the rock (allowing for fractures and local zones of weakness) vided by a salty factor between 3 and §, ROCKS AND MINERALS. Rocks: mixtures of minerals: variable properties Minerals: compounds of elements: fixed properties. Rock properties broadly depend on: * strength and stably of constituent minerals; * interocking or weaknesses of mineral structure; * fractures, Bedaing and largor rock structures, All rocks fll info one of three families, ‘each with broadly definable orgins and properties. Most roc-forming minerals are slicates compounds of oxygen, silicon and other elements. Fock proper can show extreme varatons. ts usoul to generalize, asin he tabi below, inorder to bull an Understanding of geology, Dutt must be accepted that rocks are nok engineered materials and thelr properties do vary trom ste to ste For example: most sedimentary rocks are quite weak, and limestone is a sedimentary rock, but some of the Fimestonos are very song ocktamily | Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Tatra ong] Cotalized Tor ian magna | Bosna debs on Ears stace | Aered oy Peal andor presse Exiroamert™ | Underauandaslava flows | Depston bcs; many saa | Nosy doopnte muni chara Rocktenure | Noseieotnlefockng ents | Monty gander and cemented | Monbe arocin crystals Rook sete | Masse nett). Layered bec, bed ares | Cyt orton ceo pressure Rook strengt_| Unto ghsrengh Vata iow planar wesinesses | Variable ig planar nenensses Nojotpes_| Gra oat ‘Sanasoe, neste Sehist te a02 Igneous Rocks Magma is gonorated by local heating and melting of rocks within tho Eartys crust, mostly at depths between 10 and around 100 km. Most compositions of rock melt at temperatures of 860~1200°C. When the magma Coals, it solidifies by crystallizing into a mosale of ‘inert, to form an igneous rock. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS Eruptions may be violent and explosive i a viscous ‘magma has a high gas pressure, or may be qulet and fuse i the magma is very fic. There fsa continuous range of eruptve styles between the two exremes, ang fa single voleano may show some variation in the Violonce oft individual eruptions. Pyrociastie rocks (meaning fre fragmenta) are formed of material, collectively known as topea, thrown eto the Air trom an explosive volcano. Most tephra is cooled in fight, and lands to form various types of ash, ttf and agglomerate, all wth the properties of sedimentary rocks. Some tephra, erupted In turoulent, high-temperature, pyroclastic flows, lands hot and welds into ignimbrite, ot ‘welded tl, Forms of Igneous Rocks shiele volcano suri vent paste cone composite volcano EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS “These form where magma is extruded ento the Earth's ‘surface to ereate a voleano. Tava fs tho name for Bath molton rack on the turtace, and alco the solid rock formed when i cools Fle basaltic lavas flow easily fo form low-protile shit \oleanoes, oF near-horizontal sheets of flood basal More viscous lavas, mainly andestic, ould up conical ‘composite, stratovoleanoos, where lava i Intoodded ‘with ash and debris, that are thickest close to the vent INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS These are formed when magma solidifies below the surface ofthe Earth. They may later be oxposod at the Surface when the cove rocks are eroded awe, Batholiths ara larga Biob-ehaped intrusions, roughly fequidimensional and commonly 5-50 km in dlameter. Most ae of granite, Dykes are smallor shoot intrusions formed where magma ‘as flowe into fissure. Mostly 1-50 m wide; may ‘extend for many klometres; generally of dolerite. Sis are sheet itrusions parallel to the bedding of the country Fock into which the magma was inttued. Molten lava ejected from the summit ent of Srembot voleano, GRANITE TyPE ‘Acid ignoou coarse grained large scale intrusive (plutonic). MINERALOGY ‘OCCURRENCE EXAMPLES ‘STRUCTURES WEATHERING ‘STRENGTH FOUNDATIONS. HyDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES Coarse interosking cysts) mosaic wih no textural orientation, ‘Quartz 258, felaspar 50%, micas 15%, matics 10%. Large batholthe, expevod at surace by subsequent erosion ‘Gooled as iarge bodes 3-18 km beneath surface. Briain: Lands End. USA: Yosomito, ‘Commonly massive and very unifarm. Widely spaced sheet jointing, Curved due to large exfoliation (caused by cooling and stress rai). Slow decay of feldspar to clay, leaving quartz to form sandy sols. ‘Sphereidal weathering leaves rounded corestones in oll mati Figh strong with all physical proparios good. UCS:200MPa. “SBP: 10 MPa, Very strong rock, except where partial decayed to clay near the surtaga of along some deep Jor zones. Grounawater only in fractures Excabent dimension, docoratve and armour stone and aggregat Syenite and dite: havo loss quartz and are slightly darker. (Gabbro: basi, and is much darko. Lait: a dark coarse syenite wth distinctive internal rellectons. Many strong rocks ae referred to as granite within tho constuction trade, Microscope view, 5 mm across: clear quartz, cloudy feldspar, cleaved mica, 4MAIN MINERALS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS Trinerl —[eompostion Tessar [A [0 | common morphoegy andoauras ‘Quartz /Si0, clear [7 | 27 | mosaic: no cleavage: glassy lustre Feldspar (K.N.Cayais),0, | wnte | 6 | 26 | mosaicorlaths; types ~ othociae and plagioclase moze RALASLOOH, cat | 5 | 29 fe mane, en pe ene Botte K(Mg.Fe)AS,0,(0H), | slack | 2% | 29 { mambersot the mica group of minerals Majcs __Fo-Ng sicates back | 5-6 | >30 | longlsnont prem: hemblende, aug, ovine Matic minerals is a convenient torm for a group of black Silleates whose Individual properties are of little ‘Slgnifcance in the context of most engineering ‘Cleavage is the natural spiting of a mineral along parahet planes dlctatad by weaknesses Inthe atomic structure. Mineral ‘strength is a function of hardness and lack of cleavage, along with ef of decay or orentation Features are generalized, and exceptions do occu crystal faces are displayed on museum specimens of ‘most minerals, but aro rarely seen in normal rocks, Hs hardness, on a scale of 1-10, rom tale the sotest mminoral of hardness 1, to diamond the hardest of hardness 10. Steel and glass have hardnesses between Gand. = density measured in gramsiem or tonnes CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS ‘This simple classication covers tho great majorty o igneous rocks. It's based on two parameters whicn aro Doth signiicant and recognizable, The main types of Igneous racks can therfore be dented by just colour and grain size, ‘The form of occurrence determines the structure ofthe rock in the ground as0, lavas may coo) in hours or ‘Chemical composition is determined by what rocks hed ‘malted to frm the orignal magma; silea-rich magmas fare referred to as acidic (unvelated 0 pH) and ae ‘General lew in iron, so have few black kan minerals. land aro thereto ghtor in colour than baste rocks. Porphyiic rocks have scatored larger, older crystals (called phenocrysts) in a finer rouncmass.. ays while @ bathoiith may take a milion years to In fie grained rocks, grains cannck 26 soon with the rystalize, and the cooling vale determines the grain naked eye; the imi of G-1 mm is effectively the samo a ‘829 of the rock, the imi of 0.06 mm used in sols and secments. eccurrence form __cooling_grain__ size [ Fiyolte [Andesite [Basalt | oxisions lavas fast__fine __<0.1mm Poryny Dolerte | smallinusions dykes medium _medlum 0-1-2 mm Granite [Diora | Gatbro | lergeintrusions batholthe slow coarse <2 mm. 70% 50% | 810, content acid basic assifeaan “Granke and basalt are most abundant viscous fu ‘magma viscosty because magma viscosty determines the explosive ‘eftusive | volcano ype 158 of migration, Acid magma ls Viscous, £0 3% 12% Fe content Trost stays in batholihs to form granite, wile io% 50%. smatie minerals basic magma is 0 fluid that most of it ligt ark colour scapes tthe uae 0 form asa iava, | | BASALT TYPE Basie Igneous; fine-grained, extusve (volcan) MINERALOGY — Fine interlocking crystal mosaic with no textural orientation, May have open vesicles or mineraled amygdales (old gas bubbles). Feldspar 80%, matics 50%. | | OCCURRENCE Lava flows in bedded soquences. Cooled after flowing from voleano. EXAMPLES Brain: Skye and Mull USA’ Columbia Plategu and Hawall STRUCTURES Shoots or lenses, may interbedded with ash o- tf. Commonly with weathered or vesicular scora tops on each flow. ‘Yung laves have sooth pahoehoe or clnkary aa surfaces. Compact basalt may havo columnar jining (rom cooking contraction} | WEATHERING — Rusts and decays 12 day sols; maybe spheroidal westherng. STRENGTH Compact basalts are very strong. UCS* 260 MPa, SBP: 10 MPa (ees on young lava. FOUNDATIONS Variable strength, especialy in younger avas, due to ash beds, coriaceous oF clinker layers, lava eaves and ater voids. HYDROLOGY Young lavas are generally gocd aquiers. VALUE ‘Good aggregate and valuable readstone VARIETIES —_Andester iniormetlate lava, dark or ight gray, often weathered re. “Microscope view, § nim across: clea feldspar laths, dark matic, fine groundmass of same minerals, DDolerte: medium grained inrusive dyke rock looks similar to basal Finyolte: palo grey 2cld lava, commonly associated with frothy pumice and denee black obsidian gles, 503 Surface Processes ‘Sediment is largely material derived trom the weathering ‘of racks on the Earth's surface (the remainder is mosty ‘organic material). Allrocks weather on exposure to air and water, and soy break down toform in situ sols. sin most land envionments, the soll material is subsequonly ancported away from ts source, and may then 09 regarded as sediment: this includes the soll ‘eors particles and also material In soliton in water. ‘Natural rangpor processes are dminatod by water, which can sor and selectively epost ts sodimont load. Uitimately all secimentis copoated, mostly inthe Gea, and mostly as stratified layers oF bees of sorted material Burial this loose and unconsolidated sediment, by more layors of material subsequenty Geposited on top of ft ‘eventualy tums into a sedimentary rock, by the various processes of ihiieaton, ‘The land is escentialy the erosional environment, i Is the source of sediment, which forms the temporary sols before being transported away. ‘The sea ie essentially the depostional environment: sediment ie buried beneath subsequent layers, and eventually forms most of tne sedimentary roc ‘Subsequont earth movements may raise the bods of ‘sedimentary rock above gea lel; erosion anc removal ff the overlying rocks (to form the source material for ‘another generation of sediments and sedimentary rocks) then exposes the ola sedimentary rocks in outcrops in fa landseape far removed from contemporary seas and In an environment very siiterant from that of the sedimentation [ SEDIMENTARY MATERIALS Most sosimentary rocks are varictis of sandstone, clay o limestone | Mineral grains: mostly quartz also muscovie (he physicaly and chemically stable minerals) FRock fragments and volcanic debris (nol yet broken down to their constituent minerals) Breakdown products: clay minerals (formed by reaction of wator with ekdspar oF matic minerals) — CLAYS ‘Organie debris: plant material to form peat and coal (animal soft pars form ol) ‘Organic debris: dominated by caléte trom mario shol cobs Solutes: dominant calcite precipitated trom soa water largely due to biological activity bundant soluble compounds Solutes: including gypsum and salt, and hor I )sinostones Bean ) -umestones iors (Grading Curves - parce size dlatribtions for bpical sedimonts (ucow and ti are wel graded; dune sand and scree are well sorted) SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ‘The most abundant sediments clastic or detrital materi consisting of particles of clay, sand and rock debris. ablity to tansport ‘sediment depends on fs veloc — larger patices can only bo moved by faster ows. Sediment Is therefore soriod {(o one size) during water iranspor. Sediment Is algo moved in the sea, mainly In coastal waters where wave action reaches the shallow sea bed. (ther transport processes have ony limited scope: *+ Gravity alone works mainly onthe steeper slopes, producing landslides and colluviam, + Wind moves only fine dry particles. 4 oe transport is powertl, but rostctod by cimato. * Voleanoas may blast debris over lied distances ‘Some minerals are transported by solution in water Organic socimort is rarely carted far rom is source. tha builds a step alluvial fan ‘SEDIMENT DEPOSITION Water on land Sorted and stratified, mostly sand and clay. Aluvium in river valleys is mosfy temporary, later ‘eroded away, except in subsiding deltas. Lake sediment Includes sas precipated cu 1 dase evaporation ‘The sea Final destination ofmost clastic sediment, Sorted and stratified in beds. mostly in shallow shelt seas. ‘Tricity curents cary sedimentinte deeper basins, Shel debris In shalow seas, with no land detitus, forms the ‘main limestones ‘Slopes Losaized pooty sorted sereo and slide debris. Winet Very well sorted sand and si, mostly in or near dry source areas, so only significant in desert region. ‘ke Unsorted debris cumped inte melt zones of glaciers. {Localized today but extensive in past ce Ages. Volcanoes Fine, sorted atall ash, wind-biown over large areas, also coarse unsoried flow and surge deposits, mostly on volcano slopes. Collectively known as Dyroclastic sediments (= fre fragment)MAIN MINERALS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Units and terms as fr igneous minerals in section 02 fmineral_ [composition colour | H | D | common marphology and features ‘Qvarz [810, cear | 7 [27] granular, no cleavage, gssy uste | ‘Muscowite] KALAIS0,(0H), clear | 2¥%| 26| thin shacts and akes on peroct cleavage, mica | Kaolinite |A,,0,(0H), white) fe clay minerals) fstable type: includes china clay teen, (lao, ie) mremer emer irate, ‘Smectte |(Na,Ca)A,8,0,,(0H),n,0 | wnite) Lonty micros across) Lunsiatie (variale water: mentmenitont| alste |caco, white | 8 | 27) mosaic; shelldebis; rhombic cleavage on 3 panes | Dolomite |CaMgiCO,), white 3%) 28) moeaio and honbs Gypoum |cas0,24.0 wnto | 2 | 23] bladed selenite; massive alabaster: flxoussatinspar Hematte |Fe,0, red” 6 | S| widespread eourng agent Luimonte.|FeO.OH brown 5 | 36) widespreadcoiowing agent; rust, may be yalow Pyite_|Fes, yetow | 6 | 50] metalic bassy lust (oots gold): common as cubes rmaseive boakng de beck utuiricanion ‘Thoprocossesby which a weak lose sediments tuned into a ronger sedimentary rock, Induced by Purl pressure and sight Increased temperature Beneath a pressure and sigh increased temperature beneath & of itnitcelion are aise known a6. dlagenesis by Geologie, retortng tothe changes which take place fier depostion, The resuts of cation, aotaly the increase in seni, are cotorec fo a consolcaton by engineers ‘Three main processes of ihiteation: Cementation the fing ofthe merranuar pore spaces by capostion of ainaral arnan trupht ny utng lounwatsr Fock svengih i lye dependent on ne ‘pe of coment, which may be slic (srongest), on ‘nies, cate olay (weakest). Tecornant processin Sandetones Recrysallzation Small scale soliton and edopostion of mineral, s0 thal some gains become salir and om become large Rosul ray be sina fo comont {ion but may produce songor mosaic texture. Gan alo include change of sale and growth of row more sabe Imineras rhe dominant prosos i tnestones ‘Gompaciion Restructuring ang change o grin packing, With decrease in volume, duo fo burl possute, wih ‘onsequent reduction « porosty ab waters squeezed Sut increase in stvengh's gue to more gain o gran Contact. The cominary process in clays, CONSOLIDATION general refers to the increase in Stengin in clay, due To het rectucuring, improved packing, los of tater and reduced ports caused by Compaction under load: it also. includes some Conoriaton ard now miner growth ‘Normally consolidated cays Pave never been under « higher be tan her edsing overburden; trove elude most cay sl ‘Gver-contsidatod clays have been under ahigherioasin {ho past impotod by over rocks ence removed by frosion these Include nary all claye within rock Sequences Tey hav lover port and nigher strength due tether story of burl ana exposure 7 THE CLAY ROCK CYCLE Clay sols and clay rocks relatos to thole metamorphic and gneous dervatives, Te eight rocks (and sedimant Sol) Inthe core of this cycle lagram are related by processes (chown in the ouler rng) which actin the Elockwise direction. Bulk composition 1s roughly Constant, except forthe water content which decreases ‘rom mud to grante. Only weathering incroases tho ‘Water content, and weathering of any tack may shos- Cireuit tho processes by producing mud. Only the main Iinerals are shown; quart is present ia a tho rocks and soi, {Consolidation sso rofrs tothe effect of sol compaction under svuctual loading, and may be applied specicaly fe changes taking place whon clays are compacted),04 Sedimentary Rocks CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ‘® CLASTIG ROCKS 'B_NON-CLASTIC ROCKS 1. Rudaceous: coarse grained, 1, Garbonates, consisting mainly of eae ‘Congiomarate rounded ragments<2mm Lmestone and alled rocks Brectia~ angular fragments, 2. Nonarbonates 2. Arenaceous: medium gained, 0.05-2mm |" Flintand chert — nodular or banded sea ‘Sandstone and alled rocks CCoal and ignte — ithe peat and plant material | Ironstone — any ironvich sedimentary rock |. Arguaceous: fine grained -<0.06 mm ‘Sand, clay of ool texture Sitstone ~ quartz paricies a eed Electron microscope view of sandstone wilh quartz Sait and gypsum = monomineralc rocks depasted by evaporation of water ‘COMPOSITION | OF THE MAIN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: ‘grains and weak flaky clay mineral coment. An original |__cuAvwmenas Caer, arta calcite coment has been removed by weathering. LIMESTONE ye 2 MINERALOGY ABN bots, ‘OCCURRENCE EXAMPLES: STRUCTURES ) WearHcrIne ‘STRENGTH FOUNDATIONS. HYDROLOGY VALUE VARIETIES Sedimentary, organle or chemical carbonate. arable sized ealcte mosale, usualy with shell fragments Clete 95%, dolomite 3%, clay minerals 2% ‘Manne shell debs and chemical precptate, ined by recrystallztion Unites and exposed by erosion, In folded or unfolded beds. Bian: Pennina dales. USA: Mammath Cavo Prateau, “Massive 0: thn bedded: commonly ua thin shale patings. ‘May include lage lecular roots of massive strong imestone. ‘May contain nodules and lenses of slica Tintin chalk, chert in imestones. ‘Solubo in rainwater, leaving minimal or no sol ‘and allowing formation of open issures, sinkholes and caves. Forms distinctive karst landscapes wh underground orainage dy valleys and commonly many bare rock eutrops. artic colapee ino caves may occu, Sut as rare evens; limestone gorges are common, but most are not collapsed caves. ‘Older imestones are more completely recystalized and stronger. UCS: 20-100 MPa.” SBP: 0.5-4 MPa, Extreme variant; strong rock wth open fissures and cai. May shear along thn shale beds. Eficent aquiferwithcttuse and eondut ow Valuable dimension and aggregate stone. Burn with clay to make coment. alto: consists of sand-sized sphorcal calla concretion, Chalk: weak rable, pure, white imestone | Travertine tua: sof, porous, banded calcte precpitatod in lowing water. Dolomite: recrystalzed with magnesium content (in dolomite mineral Calelutte: compact, strong, fine grained limestone. ‘Microscope view, 5 mm across: call forming shell ragments in coarse and tine cement mati 8ea SANDSTONE fe) ee Sedmenan, lat renacoous Le MINERALOGY Medium grlned, wh sand grains most of qua, ‘et in comant of quarts, alee, clay or other mineral Quartz 80%, ciay minerals 10%, others 10%, tf OCCURRENCE Sand of marina, rver or desor origin, Ithfled by comentaion. Upiited and exposed by erosion in folded or unfolded beds. EXAMPLES Briain: Pannine moors and edges.” USA: Canyonlands. STRUCTURES Massive or hin bediad; commonly intaroedded with she. May nave cross bacding inherited trom deiaic or dune ongin. WEATHERING Crumbles to sand, forming sandy well drained sols STRENGTH Older sandstones tend tobe better ementec and stronger. (Clay cements are notably weak; quartz coments are generally song UCS: 10-80 MPa" SBP! I~ MPa. FOUNDATIONS Generaly strong material, unless poorly cemented or with wenk coment. HYDROLOGY Productive aqufer wih diiuee flow. VALUE ‘Most sandstones abradie too easily for use as aggregate some may yield good dimension stone. VARIETIES Flagstone thily bedded due to paring rc in mica flakes Grit mprecse coloqulal tom for strong safcstone. Groyuacke: 01, party metamorphosed, stone; inlorboddes wih slato. Flysch: young and weak; interbedded with shale or clay ‘TU: voleanie ah ol sand grain size: Hnled or unithiiee 5 mm across: mostly quartz grains, two coment | Eroded remnants of ence continuous ‘boas of sanasiono in Monument Vall, northern Anzona, USA ‘Almassively bedded sandstone forms the vatca! Sided butes, and ‘overlies a thiny Decided sandstone vith many shale layers. ‘Seximentary. clas, argilaccous, | MINERALOGY Fine grained structureless mass of clay minerals, ‘commonly witha proportion of smal sit grains of quartz | lite 60%, kaolinite 20%, smectite 10%, ctners 10%. OCCURRENCE Mud, mainly f marie ctgin,Ihfed by compaction and water expulsion, Untied and exposed by erotion, in folded or unfolded beds. EXAMPLES Briain: London Clay. USA: Dakota Badlands, STRUCTURES Commonly festursless and unbedded, but may be bedded ‘wth variable sit nd organic content. ‘May have nodules (hard rounded lumps) with stronger mineral coment WEATHERING Revert to mud, forming heavy clay sais. STRENGTH Olcer, more ited ana unweathered clays have Pigher strength. Younger clays have properies transitional to those of ow stength sols UGS" 1-20 Pa. “SBP: 0.1-1 MPa FOUNDATIONS. Weak matedal with low, variable strength rolated largely to water content; prone fo siow creep and plastic deformation: high potential compaction may cause high and dltferontialsatoment Under etuctual lo. HYDROLOGY Aguicuse VALUE Wiaterigh fl, bricks, cement. VARIETIES Mugstone: more ithifed, massive and stonger. Shale: moro lied, laminated and tsi. ‘Mart clay oF mudstone wih significant ealcte content Siistone! mainly uartz grins, essentially a ine grained sandstone. Microscope view. § mm across: cay grouncmass. sity layers. J 905 Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are created by changes induced at high temperature (up to about 600°C) andlor high pressures (around 500 MPa at 20 km cepth). Those Ganges (metamorphism) take place in the solid state ‘The type of metamorphic rock produced doponds on tne orginal rock matrial that was metamorphosed and the temperature and pressure conditions which were imposed METAMORPHIC CHANGES IN ROCK Recrystallzation forms a strong mineral mosaic, notably inmarbl, [New minerals grow athe expense oles stable minerals in the new conditions of high temperature and pressure, Most important changes are clay minerals —» micas —> feldspar and malice. Micas are the most significant minerals in motamorphic rocks and only change to feldspars a he highest grade of metamorphism. ‘green colour is iypica of low grade metamorphic rocks that contain significant chicte and epigote. Directional pressure within tho solid stat creates minora n within the regionally metamorphosed rocks, ‘minerals grow in ine line of least resistance perpendicular to the maximum prossure ~ to cause fotation, or banding, within these rocks. Planar weaknesses in the folated metamorphic rocks 410 crosted by the. parali mieas spating. along their mineral cleavage ~ causing rock cleavage (also xnown as slay cloavage)-and scristosy ~ bot of which are independent of any original bedaing, Non-follated motamorphic rocks have stronger isotropic structure. These inclide hornfels, formed by thermal metamorphism of clay without high pressure; also marble, ‘aed ghelss wits tle or no mica, METAMORPHISM OF DIFFERENT ROCKS Limestone -> marble: by recrysalization of calcite, forming ‘TYPES OF METAMORPHISM Regional metamorphism involves high tomperatu and pressure. Occurs in mountain chains due to Continental colision on plate boundaries. Extends over large areas, ‘Thermal or contact metamorphism invoives high temperature only. Occurs in metamorphic aureoies, each 0:001-2 km wide, around igneous intrusions ‘where rock has been baked, DDynamie matamerphism at high pressure only i rare. “Temperatures and Pressures of Metamorphism Grade of metamorphism isthe overal extent of change, notably inthe sequence (with regional metamorphism) from site to schist to gneiss. Sequence of changes can 'bo seen inthe rock cycle gram in section 03 rong mosaics, Sandstone —> quartet: by reerystalizaton of quartz, forming vary strong mosaics. Basall > greonstone’ by iited growth of new green minerals. Granite shows ito change: stable in motamorphic conations Giay (and rock mintures) > hornfels slate, schist or gneiss: depencing on type and grace of metamorphism. MAIN METAMORPHIC ROCKS Derived irom clay ar mixture of rocks [rame | grainsizo | mainminerais | struetwe | evength Cs (MPa) Homtels | fine mica, uarz, clay minerals | uniform | very strong 200 Sisto | ne mica, uarz, clay minerals | cleavage. | low shear, high floxural | 20-120 Senist | coarse | mica, quart: schistosiy | very low shear 2070 Gross | coarse | quartz, feldspar, matics, mica | folation | stong 109) [ Rock ALTERATION Alteration includes various processes which affect rocks, usualy involving wator at lower temperatures and preseures tnan metarnorshism Weathering involves rainfall water coming trom above: 8 near-surface feature (see section 13) Hysrotnermal alteration involves hot water rising from below, commonly from voleane source. Motasomatism invalvee chemical replacement by flements cariod in solution. Aeration is commonly locazod within afew metres of ‘major faults or ractures; it may occur throughout zones aklometre or mare across, ‘Now hydrated, weak minerals are the main product of alteration processes: normally the altered rock Ie ‘meretore signlicanty weaker than the original Alteration may be indiested by local colour changes, ‘notably green or yellow. CChlorization:_ very low grade metamorphic growth of weak, groon chiotte Kaolnization: iteration of feldspars to kaolinite (clay minora. Serctzation: alteration of feléspars to sericte flakes (simiar to fine grained muscovite). ‘kon alteration: rusting and decay ofan minerals to yellow a brown tinea.MAIN MINERALS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS mineral] compston cebu H_ [0 | common morphology and features ‘overe | Si0, cleariwhita | 7 | 27 | mosaic; no cleavage: glassy bste Felispar | (KNa.ca)A.Si,0, — | white 6 | 26 | mosaic or shor prisms Muscouie | KALAS,O,,(OH), lear 2% | 2. | thin shea ana Hakes;perect leavane Bioite | KiMgFe)AIS,0,(0H), | Diack | 2% | 29 || members ofthe mica group o minerals Chiorte | Mg,Ai5i,0,(0H), blue-green | 2 | 27 | small fakes; perfect cleavage Epidoie | Caale)Si0,,0 | grean & | 33 | smatiatne Caicte | CaCO, white 3. | 27 | mosaic: thombchedral cleavage on 2 panes Konto | A!Si8,(0K), wit 2 | 26 | tne powdery cay minerl Lmonte_| Feo.ort row 5_| 36 | ney staring (ther metamorphic minerals, such as homblend, gamet and andalusite, may be presort, bul have It influence on rock properties. Unis and terms as explained for igneous minerals Section 02. of SCHIST aye Aegina metamorpi, median grade ots. MINERALOGY Coarse granee moeas th banding an conspicuous paral eenaton| i Wis 29% clr 2s, quarts 25% ohare 2%. ‘OCCURRENCE Regional metamorpis of aye ane xed ke at high temperate ‘Yy ‘and pressure in structurally complex cores of mountain belis a 4 Gn converge ae ocurdaris ~ exampces _ Shain Scene Mahan. USA: Ine gorge of Grane Canyon, STRUCTURES rommnontsctoaycue{o parateion a! sbondent mis, 2, ammorly wa fofaton bending and complex foang and eumping. 7 WEATHERING Slow atraton lo cya | <> STRENGTH” Antcrple: comprescv sengh varies by factor oS ates 2 big 0 senstouty, ‘or low shea engin; weakest it higher corte or mica conten. Leb! 20 76 hiea "Sb so FOUNDATIONS Common wosk, eatiy sheared FYDAOLOGY saute VALUE mas VARIETIES Slater er grained ih exotent rock oavage Pra: ama betwoon Sate and ct Groise: ase mica, more qua, and nigha engi HORNFELS TPE ‘Thermal metamorphio, noroliateg MINERALOGY Fine grained mosaic, wih no mineral orientation or flation, Micas 90%, quartz 20%, ohors 40%. OCCURRENCE Thermal (contact) metamorphism of clay at high temperature, in motamorphie aurooles up to km wide around malorignecus intrusions, EXAMPLES Brain: Dartmoor margins. USA: Sirra Nevada margins ‘STRUCTURES Commonly closely jointed with sharp fractures and local irregular. May have inert sttuctures tom exginal rock. WEATHERING _Vory slow altoration to clays, STRENGTH Fine grained matedals aro generally very strong. UCS!250 MPa, SBP: « MPa, FOUNDATIONS Strong rock HYDROLOGY Aquicuce, VALUE Good aggregate stone of high strength and low abrasion, VARIETIES Marble: metamorphosod limestone, consists of recystalized calcite. Quanzte: metamorphosed sandstone, consiats of recrystalized quartz Greenstone: metamorphosed basalt, with some new green minerals. _lerescope view, 5 mm across fine groundmass of quart and mica: lage andalusite and mica flakes. "06 Geological Structures ‘Strongly folded and faulted rockin Greek road eut FRACTURES Faults are fractures which have had displacement ofthe socks along thom. ‘Throw i the vertical ermponent of faut dlsplacomants. Faults are descined by reteronce to thelr cownthyow side thi is rolave movement and may be due to the ther side having moved up, ot Festa é = 2] Normal at —= Toa faut FEATURES OF FAULTS Faults commonly create zones t broken ground — weaker and lese stable than the adjacont rock — Wah mpetions ‘or foundation Dearing capac, slope stabilty and tuna root integty. Sudden movements along fais (when tectonic stresses ‘accumulate to overcome frictional resistance) cau wthquakes ~ vibrations transmitted through the Surrounding grou (Section 10) (a fauts(insluding a those in Brain) cannot displace {round surface which nas evolvad subsequent to any faut ‘ovement, Faultline searps and valleys may appear in landscape due to diferential erosion across the fault 20ne ‘and adjacent contrasting rocks. Earth movements involve plastic folding and ritle fracture of rocks, as well a upland subsidence, Thee ate tecloni features, caused by large scale movements of crustal plates (section 08). Under the high contning ‘pressures at kilometres of depth, and over the long tne Scales of tectonic processes, most rocks may show laste deformation, and tractus occur when and where tha plastic imi aro exceeded. ‘Outerop is an exposure of rock ate surface (orthe area of arockiyig direct beneath aso cover) Dip is the angle in degreos below the horizontal [Dgection of dp is down the ip. Strikes rection ofhorizonal ine on acing surace, “These reir to bodding or any gectogical strsctures. Fock dip is used to avoid contusion with ground siope, ‘Joints aro rock fractures with no movement along ther ‘They are formed by tectoic stressing and are developed innoarly all rocks. Joint donstes an nda! on angi are infitoly varable. {Groups of sub paratal joins form jin sysams. ‘The dominant fractures within sedimentary fOcks are usualy the bedding planes. Many bedding planes are ‘vary thin bands or partings of shale or clay between wns ff stronger rocks. Others are clean breaks, or joints, developed tectoniciy along the slightest of contrasts within ‘deposition sequence. structural weaknesses, whose density, oxient ‘and orentation are major infiuonces on rock mass strength (Gection 25). Massive rocks have less fractures, joints structural weaknesses, Fault types are rocognized by relationship of downthron to ip of he fault plane + Normal faults form under tension; downthrow is on down side. * Reverse faults form under compression; downnrow sie is opaosite to dip. * Vertical fauits are not easily dsinguished as normal or reverse, ‘ Tivust ful or thrusts, are roverse faults with low angles of dp. * Tear eulls nave horizontal displacement (wih apparent throw in dipping racks), * Grabens are dovnfaclted blocks between two normal laut, Fault broccia: coarse angular broken rock debris in zone (0-1 ~100 m wide) along fal, commonly @ zone of ‘groundwater fw. Fault gouge: “finely ground rock paste in thin zone along taut Bane. Faull drag? cistubanco and folding of rock near faut. Slickensides: scratctes anc polishing on fault planes, fang on oedaing plane fae within ight fl. Volns: sheets of mineral inf deposed by hydrothermal ‘water in fractures or fissures in rock. They occur in joints fF fauits. Most veins aro of quarlz or cali ~ white ‘streaks in rock faces. Larger veins (moe! on faults) can Contain valuable minerals ~ may have been minad out‘weak Fading anticine strong folding wat panes of anitinas ares oF syrcines| > Thereasing compression ——e recumbent fold nappe. Major Fold Types FoLDs Fotis are upward anticnes “Vor downward synclines <2 ‘They may be gentle ===>, moderate, orstrong AY. Feids may be rounded 7 or angular SY ‘Overilds and recumbent flds have aps past vertical Isoctines have parallel dps on both sides. Nappes aie recumbent folds sheared along he central ine withthe development of a thrust faut, usualy with large displacement Elements Escarpments, or cuestas, are asymmetrical hills of dipping Beds of strong rock, exposed by siferential feroeion of weaker rocks above and below. Succession of rocks Older rocks generally tie ‘below younger rocks, and are ony exposed by erasion FReterence fo old and young rocks avoids confusion with Figh ans low cuterops reer to topographical position Inlior is an outcrop of old rocks surrounded by the ‘uterops of younger rocks: its presence on a/map Indeates ether an eroded anicine ovale. "A Pec \ a Cutler is an outcrop of young rocks sutrouncad by ol, due to ether an eroded syncing or ail ET Unconformity is the plane or break between two jequences of focks with diferent dips. It indicates a Period of earth movements and tectonic deformation Between the times of sediment deposition. It forms a major structural break ~ the older rocks must be more Iinied and folded, and perhaps more metamorphosed, than the younger rocks above the unconformity ‘Gonsprntortremtery NON-TECTONIC STRUCTURES Localized structures formed in shalow rocks and sols, by otosion procassas and shallow groune deformation, unrelated 1 regional tectonic structures. ‘Cambor folds develoo in level oriow-dp rocks where a clay (or soft shala) undartis a strong sandstone or limestone. The clay is plasticly squeezed out from beneath thehilldue to theferertial oad upon t. Valey bulge is the flor it (eroded away) and the strecturl disturbance lat beneath li. Most clay 's squeezed out from close to the valey side (or searp edge), so that ovarling stronger rocks Sag and camber towards the wala Gulls are open or sciiled fasures in the strong rocks of camberedvaley sides, openedby camber rotation and perhaps also by sliding. Post-gacial cambared ground, or foundered strata, is ‘cominon inthe sedimentary rocks of England: causes fissured rack masses and potential landsiges along many valley sides and scarp Tacos. Glacial drag: shaiiow local disturbance, with folds, ‘veto and faults In sole and weak rocks overiden by Pleistocene glaciers, Unloading joint: cress-rotot tractures close to and parallel to ground surlace dus to erosional removal of ‘overburden cover rocks Landslip Tissures: opon fissure and normal faults 250 000 poopie. Prediction: research is now groaly reduced, i tavout of researeh into structural eurvvabiiy in earthquakes. Sice effects of ground stain bofore some quakes may Include oreshocks, uplift, dation, gas ‘emissions, (groundwater changes and increase in selomic vololy, ‘but monitoring reveals inconsistent pattems. Historical data may indeate seismic gaps (with no recent ‘movement on an active faul, where a future earthquake Ig moro tkoty, Controt: raised water pressures reduco shoar strength, and cause faull movement before large strain enero Accumulation. Pumping water Info deep wells doos trigger premature small quakes, but legal complicalions ‘make serious earthquake control impossible ‘World aistribution of earthquakes. Each year there are about 20 of M7, 5 and about 3000 of 5. i ‘Approximate Correlation of Earthquake Magnitude, Intensity and Damage a tora _[tsprtute |exargie ‘nionay” | Oanage tepearve atta 3 TW Secol datsbarc,roanape [Uma 2 | cate me | Sut | St red jer ati Gan) so | 8 fierSanFiico M83 | wi | Uthamoas to tvocagcnae tom | ¢ |terrsanranango ves | 1x | Seweanageie many bugs | ensty Visage "0m way shone | 7 |isrocrment (rou mor | x | Wraamogeto met uicrge” | mare Vl eamago 50m Ova roo | 8 |tsensenFunace Moa | x | Totomncicn ‘ene Visage 200 eam nat X saver damage 2 nso 2CONSTRUCTION IN SEISMIC ZONES [Adobe and dry stone walls fall under horizontal Acceleration of 1g, tat good low rise timber bullaings ‘an withstand any exrbquake, Reinforced conevete structures need bracing to stop "ombohadral colapse; this can be provided by massive, fasictant shear wall, or clagonal steelwork. Fobars must be Integrates across Intersections of colunnelbeamelwalssibs, Pie cap failures are restrained byte beams andintegrated basement structures Buildings and bridges can bo Isolated on rubber spring blocks and steel springs can ac as energy absorbers 10 slebiize structures. Precautionary provisions add 5-10% to construction costs, Later modifications aro more oxpensive. ‘Avoid omamental appendages which can fal oft Use land zoning (o avoid areas of deep soft sols and known fault races ~ any displacement of Hoiocene sols Indicates modem actly ona faut. New bulaing in Calfomia is pronibitod within 15 m of active faults; wider zones apply to larger buildings and less wellmapped faut, DEEP SOILS AND EARTHQUAKES Soft sols. do not dampen ground vibrations. They amply ‘them. Bulings on sof sol sufler much worse earthquake damage than those on bedrock. Wave amplitude may double passing trom rock to sol Dominant natural period of tho shock waves also inoroaces, ftom about 0-3 seconds in solid rock, to 1— ‘seconde en als, The natural period tutherineroases with Sof depth, and with sistance from tne epicentre. Buikings have a natural period of about NV0 seconds (N = number of stoves). Maximum damage is cus to Fesonance, when porlods of building and soil match DDeop sot sls have long periods which match those of high rise buildings susceptible to more catastrophic damage — ae in the Mexico Cly earthquake in 1005. ‘Compared to adacont nodrock, soft sols cause damage 1aintenstes higher ‘Secondary earthquake phenomena ‘Subsidence due to quetacton of low density sands. Landslides and sie falures of al sizes and speeds. | Tounamis — oceanic seismic waves (section 17) | Seiches ~ oscillating waves on lakes. Volcanic Eruptions Basaltic volcanoes lie on divergent plate boundaries (@.g. (celand), or on plates away from boundary disturbances (e'g. Hawai), where magma is generateo {rom mantle plumes. They produce large lows of mobile fava in quiet, effusive eruptions, with only limited fountaining or explosions, ‘These volcanoes are tourist attractions, which may threaten fixed structures, but ofr minimal trea olf, Prediction of eruptions is largely based on volcanic Inflation (unlit) and eetemie monitoring, wth succosstul forecasts of repotve basak emissions. Scale and size of exposive eruptions cannot be reliably predicted, nor {an thelr precise timing and location within the volcanic Explosive volcanoes all lle on the convergent plate boundaries (ag Krakatoa, St Helens), were magma is (Generalee by subduction melting. Visoous magma, of Andesite or volt, makes gas pressures buld up. Eruptions produce high ash clougs, explosive lasts land very dangerous pyrociastc ws (ot hot gas anc sh) which turn ino Tahars (mud flows) lower down valeyslava flows are minor and short. Flank colianses can cause massive lateral blasts ‘These eruptions are dangerous, largely unpredictete and totally uneontrliabie! they must be avoided, mgs “| , Vg ay \ ih. Be World distibution of volcanoes ‘There ara > 500 active voleanoes in the world, ‘Typally> 60 eruptin any ono year. = Tyasalic volcanoes; 44 explosive volcanoes. a11 Rocks of Britain Britain covers an area small enough to have is geology Viewed as a single sequence o processes, encompassing the whole county, With a single histor, he geology of Briain is sensibly eivisible by rock age, and with few exceptions the alder rocks are stronger and more: olormedithan the younger For such a small area there Is amazing diversity within the geology, and all ages are Fepresonted within he rocks, ‘The tectonc framework of Brigin has evolved aver two successive convergent plate boundaries and then a divergent boundary, these have annealed fragments of Continental crust {0 create the comploxty of Europe, followed by the western breakaway of the Allanic ‘pening and he tensle thinning of the North Sea crus ‘This evolution has created major convasts across the county ‘The old rocks of the northwest: * huge thicknesses of rock crumpled on convergent plate boundary 400 milion years ol¢; have formed land subject to erosion ever since; + now strong metamorphic rocks, ininsely folded; + acoopt high aearing prossures yield valuable sone and aggregate resources, ‘The young rooks ofthe southeast: + thin sediment soquences formed on the edge ‘of subsiding North Sea basin less than 200 milion years oi: ‘sty covered by sea unti 25 millon years ago. ‘ow weak sedimentary rocks, gonty folded: ‘can take onl low foundation leading have no good aggregate resources. ‘The Carboniferous rocks of the middle: * thik sediment sequences formed on wedge of plate between two boundary disturbance zones; {nctude the Coal Measures of Brain's industrial heartland; + now strong sedimentary rocks, wel folded: * Very varied ground conditions, ‘ld valuable rock resources of all ypes. Geological evolution of sequence of changing ps processes and sedimentary environments. ‘boundary | — Geological ————= Evolution (a Peers ro 2 asa EB i terotan ED Leaner ‘The map divides Britain into geological environments, largely related to age Out prmariy distinguished by the ‘rock typos and structures, which are the main concer ot the ground engineer. The marked coatiolds include concealed parts beneath Permian and Tiassic cove Ireland represents @ western continuation of the geology of Scotland ano northern England: it Is Sominated by Carboniferous and older rocks, wit the ‘iim basal plateau covering tnem inthe nah | eases Geiadonen — Carbonferous—_-Hargyian Vaesonoe ‘Apne 500 “200, 330 280, 550 40 | OU again wlan oye ‘eer ar Se tea a sateaeMAJOR ROCK UNITS OF BRITAIN Tectonics and environment ‘QUATERNARY Unconsoldated sand and clay aluvium and til Coastine as now: lee Ages. TERTIARY Gentle Apne folding of ll rocks. Soft sediments of London and Hampstire basins, Desc eaciments in bays Poorly consolidated sands and clays, wth 200 m thick London Ciay. emporariy ficoged by Nonh Sea Also Basalt lavas, volcan centres and neusives al western Scotian. Voleanoas on Atlantic divergence. Upton alata toe. JURASSIC and CRETACEOUS Thin seciment accumulation ‘Wak sedimantary rocks forming most of southatn and eastern England, _ in shallow seas over England (Chalk~200.m thick, soft imestone wit finthorizons fring Downe, Chiflerns. | Sea forms shot, mginal (Clays and sandstones of Weald and Midlands, with thick Oxford Clay |_to subsiding Norn Soa basin Deneath Feniands, unstable Gault Clay, ang Porland Imestones in south. | Scotland ane Weles form islands, Sandstones and ronstones of Mglands and North Yorrshite Moor. wa no deposition Caitc imestones (ooites) irom Cotswolds to Lincoln rie. atlantic opening stats, las blue-srey clays with thin imastenes in Midland fowl Submeigence under sea PERMIAN and TRIASSIC Fed sandstones and mudstones of Midlands lowtands. Desert sediment accumulation: lod mudsionas with bods of sat and gypsum, Inctuding Mercia Mudstone. | salt playas in ow rele Yolow andredeandstones with conglomerates, cluding Sherwoed Sandstone. | alluvial fans around mountains, Magnesian Limestone ~ impure, sandy or dolomtic imestone east of Pennines. | Marine incursion ftom east. Granites of Devon and Comal with associated mineralzation, Magma trom orogenic cor. ee—e—=SE——_rs<= 50m Colluvium: slope debris, moved downslope largaly by graviy alone; extent of seciment transport therefore dit S"colluvium > sol; Includes debris trom creep and Shootwash,aiso head and scree. Sheetwash by suriace water Increases great wih loss of vegetation Rockhead: the bured arvrocsinterace: commonly a conspicuous boundary botweon weak sols and dt and Strong rock may be less well dined In deop proto of ‘weathered rock, formed as erosion surface before dit Seposton so its topography may be totaly unrelated to modem sutace. Engineering soll: weak material (UCS < 600 kPa) that can be excavated without ripping or blasting, therelre Including sol rit, weak rocks and weathoved rocks. Ces SSNS [seperti Sesctions WN S" Variable around conditions ROCK WEATHERING Physical and chemical breakdown of rocks a or near the surface, Subsequent removal causes suace lowering: Weathering + Transport = Erosion ‘Weathering processes depend on contact with ale and/or ‘ater, s0 are strongly inuenced by eimat. * Frost shattering is important in cooler latitudes and higher atudes. Salt crystalization is only significant in deserts with igh evaporation ‘Al chemical processes accelerate in hot wet Climates, and ar further Increased by organic acs {fom donse plant cover. ‘Tho most important chemical process's tho production of elay minerals trom other sucates. ‘Temperate weathering produces lite as the dominant clay mineral ‘+ Hot wet weathering ofioneous rocks produces the Unstabo smoctte. Latent: re sol high lon and alumicium, lw sila, formed in tropics. ‘Saprolite: totaly decomposed cock retaining ghosts of orgnal structure ‘Spheroidal weathering: forns rounded boulders or Corestones from angular joint blocks weathered more at edges and comers. 26 DEPTH OF WEATHERING Depends on the imescale, cock ype and climate Rocks only exposedior 10000 yeas (since las laciaton) are ss deeply woathered than those exposed fora miion years in unglaciated areas. ‘Shales, porous sandstones and weak limestones weather to greater depths than do granites and compact ‘metamorphic rocks. Deepest weathering occurs under climatic extremes, of either periglacial frost action or Beneath equatorial ran forest Top of zone I is etectvaly rockhead, buts not sharply defined; iis usually about 1-5 m deep in Britain, but Zone I fresh rock may only be found at depths > 20 min {Quarries which demand the best quay of rock. In wopical areas, sols of zono IV may reach depth of 5-20 m. Docomposed granite of weathering grade il ‘commonly reaches > 30 m deep fn Hong Kong ‘This road cutng in Hawa shows an almost complete woathering sequence in basalt lavas Grad ill material not seen in the sequence, because a change of rock type ie more signifieant than the weathering state =a layor of weak, Tubby, seoriaceous. lava has weathered much more ff completely than the sold tava above 4] Grade | fresh rock only occurs at greater depths, below this cut face. For engineering purposes, Sound rock # found near ‘thotop of zoel, about ém below the surlace at this Physical Weathering Unloading ins: stoss rele ractures due to ‘overburden removal fracturing due 10 dally temporature changes. fracturing as lure water or Dorewator reezes and expands, ‘movement due to loss or gan of water in clays, “Thermal expansion: Frost shatir: Weting and drying Root action: tree root expansion infssures, and rootet growth in pores. Crystailzation: growth a sat cystals where (Groundwater evaporates. Chemical Weathering Solution; mainly of calte and gypsum, in Sandstone eomont, vee and imestone, Leaching: selective removal of salutes or pectic elements. ‘Oxidation: _notaby rusting and breakdown of ron. Hydroosis: mast stlcates react wrth water to form Slay minerals.ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCK ‘Grade | Description | Laholoay Excavation Foundations | wT Se ‘Some organic content,no | Mayneedto save | Unstable gna structure and re-use, V___| Gompisisly | Decomposed sol, ‘Serapo ‘ssoss by weathered some remnant situcture ‘soll testing W | Highiy arty changed to sol, ‘Scrape Variable and weathered _| Soll> Roce NB ebrestones: unreliable Ti | Moderately | Party changed to sol Rip {Good for most weathered Flock’ So _| ‘smal structures, 7 ‘Slightly Tnoreased tacos, Blast ‘Good for anyting weathered ‘and mineral saning | exceptiarge dams 7 Fresh rock loan rock Bast [Sound ‘Wore complex schemes, Tor descr pton oh WEATHERING GRADE AND ROCK PROPERTIES. ‘Some representative values for selected matorals to dome Tiar-unfor and mixed rock masses, are given ln BS S800) onttate physical changes in weathered rock Gade otweateirg Tp [ww rant: unconfined compressive arengh Mea] 250] 150] 6-100 a8 ‘fase sandstone: unrined compres stengh tee) “| is) TS) * 8) 1 Gaorderous eansne: ocx gully cengraton %| | yo) =| 2/0 Ghat sanard ponte noawe} 235 | 20) 22] i7/as hak sate bearg presure wee| i000 | 780 | 00] 200) 8 Saese mice, ta eur pressure toa “too | 230 | iso] “so Tras micron: Say par ten | s0888 10°88 | 90-80 [rpc dep inn mews | sols | 12 WEATHERING PROFILES Iw ROGK WEATHERING OF LIMESTONE einted Igneous Bedded Sedimentary Limestone is unique because itis a physically strong rock which can be foally removed by solution during ‘weathering Faainwater and so! water weather the limestone surface, and also dissolve away the rock where they ‘seep down traclures and bedding planes thereby Creating wide fissures and caves. ‘his process forms very uneven ground with strong rock and large voids, Pinnacied rockhead has éeep fissures, mostly filed with sol, between weathered limestone pinnacles, all Doreath soil or dit caver tcroat dificult foundation Conditions prone to sinkhola subsidence (section 29). Limestone pavements with large fat rock surfaces are the result of recent glacial scouring which removed the \woathered and aissectes surface rock Karst is a limostone landscape characterized by underground drainage, caves, sinkholes, cry valleys, thin sols and bare rock outcrops. DRIFT DEPOSITS AND CLIMATE Tho nature, extent, structure and properties of dit deposits are closely related tothe pracosses by which they were deposited These deposition processes are determined largely by imate Fluvial processes — the action of rivers and flowing water ~ are dominant in all clmatie regimes except for the permanently frazen zone beneath glaciers and the aris'Zones incesens, Tee Ages: Ouring the Quaternary, the Piaisiocene Period was marked by phases of worldwide cooling ~ {he loe Ages ~ when ice sheets covered large pars of the northem continents, and climates wore sevoraly madltiod across the resi of the world. The last ice Sheets rtreateg only about 10 000 years ago. Many dif deposits Were formed in environments very _floront from those of today. Thoy are therefore best Undarsiood by aistinguishing them on the basis of process and climate, er14 Floodplains and Alluvium WATER EROSION [Water isthe main agent of erosion; ts power increases ‘yay with velocity Rivers «rade by downcuting, and sides degrade to form V.profils vale, On low gradionts downcuting reduces. £0 lateral etosion sominates, notably on the ‘utsie of river bonds. Sediment is lransported bedload and in suspension; particle size increases with volocity, Deposition is due to velooty iass, on gradient loss and inside bends, s0 sediments sorted by size, be feoso0 ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS ‘Alluvium: river deposited sediment; sored and bedded, but any grain size from clay to boulders; laterally and vortically variable, with wide range of engineering propertos. Floadplaln: zone of alluvial deposition along valley floor, subject fo period floding. The alluvium builds up over time, much of i formed as avarbank food ceposits which iy ne grained and horizontally bedded. Meander scrolls: cross-oedded, crescentc lenses of ‘sediment, mosly sand or gravel, eon rsidosof migrating fiver bens or meanders. Channel file: eandoned river channels filed with ‘edimont, commonly clay ct poat Alluvial fans: coarser. poorly sertad sesiment (inc. {anglomerats) on stegper slopes and at maura iso gules anc tebutary seams. River terraces: remnants of ary older higher floodplain, abandoned when river cut to tower level, formed of luvium, though may be rock-cored; eroded away as ‘modern floodplain enlarges. Tulaand travertine: week, porous calete depos forming thin layer oF cementing gravel; may overlie uncemented alluvium and cane confused wath rocktead, Les Chourlas am, Algeria, was bull 1685 on tua crust, and fled by ping on fist Impoundrmant Peat” black organic so, formed in small lenses o large ‘fea ol upland bog O° lowland fen; extomly weak ard ‘compressible (zection 27) {Lake deposits: simat 6 tne alluvium (eection 15) Gonna dae } Lee fit 8 2 Pe] ‘Maximum annual food tows on a fiver over 24 years; rum period = (aumber of records ~ 1yrank) FLOODPLAINS Flooding is natural and inevitable on floodplains. Fload size (expressed as fow, stage, height or area) is ‘describod by is siatstealretum periog 9.2.50 yoarfiood which has 2% chance of occuring in ary year From existing dav, plot of low against return time (based fn rank) gives straight tne foion except forthe highost ‘iood) which allows precictons of rarer evans. So flood ‘zan6s can be Kentied and avoided, and channel sizes ‘an be deelgned. Floodplain hycteieay may be changed uniatention Urbanization, deforestation and levee construction all raise height 6! flood peaks. ‘Development of river meanders CONSTRUCTION ON ALLUVIUN Alluvium thickness may vary 1~>100 m: éificult to predict but ganerally compatible with ical hil reli, Some alluvium is laterally uniform, Other has channo! fils, seralis and fans, making site investigation and borshole correlation sicut Non-cohesive sand alluvium has SBP = 100-600 kPa, 200 m;leeperreezing i pievented by geo-hermal “eat permairost< 50 m thick, t may be discontinuous; “hay include lenses of pute ico wih Sol and rock Active layer: zone of summer melting and winter ‘efreezing, generally 0:3-8 m deep; frozen ground Seneath proverts drainage, leaving Rt saturated and ‘ssable in summer, causing widespread slope flue and Subsidence. STRUCTURES AND SEDIMENTS. {Landslides and sotlucion common in active layor ‘Cambor folding, valley bulging nerease (ecton 05) Jee heave and collanse forms irregular cryoturoates ound, sediment-iledice wedges, patted ground with Hone polygons: all create disturbed and vertical 2oundaries in sol active layer. Deeper dri filed holows London Clay relate to freezing around artesian sroundwater tows Frost shatter is extonsive, commonly to 10 m deep in ‘alk of southern Englan. ‘Seree, o talus, is coarse, angular slope debris, with angle 2 repoce equal 37", masking ci foot profil. Many fossil Bsisocene serees are active in madem climate an $0 in vegetation cover ‘Zowland periglacial sediments include ouwash gravels, Biel ana blown san, and extensive less, Clay with flint is solitvcted mature of residual sols and “etlary castics, widespread but thin on English chalk tops. ‘SOLIFLUCTION ‘Thiois the downslope movement of eaturatd debris — a type ot wet sol creep moving about 1 metre per year. it an occur on ary saturated slope, but fs most common in the summerthawed active layes of perigleia slopes which cannot drain through the deeper permatost Heed is unsorted, solfucted debris; t may appear similar ‘to glacial, bulls formed entirely of local upslopemateria Head can flow by plasie delarmation, bus typically wel sheared, with basal, intermediate and ciredar slip Surfaces, The shears reduce tho srengih to low rasiual values, Solifuction flows, up to 1000 m long, may move on slopes as low as 2; commonly 2-4 m thick, but may accumulate in ayers to deptns ol>15m onconcave scoes and as valley ifs Head forms most easly on slopes of shale, mudstone, cay land chalk; coombe rock Is chalk head. Most slopes [rtain, sieeper than S° on theso rocks and outside th> Devensian ice liits, can be expacted to have a veneer ot shoared, unstable head Carsington Dam, an earth embankmentin Derbyshire, failed it 1964 before the reservow was lied. A sip ‘surface dovelopod through both the weak clay core (ot unusual shape) and a layer of head left on the shale bedrock beneath the placed fil The head was wrongly interpreted asin situ weathered shale, and the design ‘assumed an undisturbed angle of fiction @ = 20", but Shear surfaces reduced lis strength to\a resid {= 12". This mistake, and the rebuhd, cost £20M, y Derilacial hoad i widespread onthe shale outcrops of DBeroyshire and could have beon expected, PERMAFROST ENGINEERING Subsidence, low and heave occur on pooty drained sits and clays when ground ie is melted, sands and {gravels ae generally thaw-stabo. Conservation of tne permatrost is generally best. Any 2 tons), concrete Tolapods, of massive wal face with eelular concrete, fellected waves of sold face may induce scour Sea walls may cost £5M/km. Economical altrnative on Jong eroding coast (eg Holderness) Is 10 create nara pants ~ short sections of stable, fly delendod shore ith intervening coset elt unprotected. Down-drit of Sach hard pont, erosion creates & shaliow bay. which ‘taps boach sodiment. Evoniualy, a cronulated coast should become stable, but compensation Is needed for Shorter avealaraod land loss between hard por, BEACH CONTROL Groynos are timber, concrote or stool paris across ‘each which prevent or reduce longehore dit by lwapping sediment. Groyne spacing should be double ‘hor length to effectively stabiize beach. Oiishore Breakwate:, parallel to shore. absoros wave ‘anergy and causes beach accumulation in #3 lee — ‘inlar toon a natural tomboto Beach may be stabilized of expanded by pumping Sequater ftom a burled porous pipeline. Wave upwash ‘adés sand oforeshare, but a drained beach absorbs and {duces wave backwash ~s0 that sand not ewept back outro sea. Active spits, bars and barrier islands migrate inland ‘mainly By wave overwash. Any development, with erosion detences on the exposed outer face, causes thinning due to continued sediment loss from the Inner face. The Spurn Head spt, England, and the Carolina barror islands, USA, are now precariously hin: they Should be alowed io break up and reform at stato ste further inland, as artificial defences will become Increasingly expensive. CHANNELS AND HARBOURS Harbours, cut into the coastine or built out between breakwaters, are stable on @ coast which an erosional source area of overall sedimont lossas. Harbour mouths may develop obstructing sand bars longshore drt is strong. Jetties detiect seciment drt; they may develop spits off their ends and cause ‘downdnit beach starvation Natural clearance of harbour ané lagoon channels fellas on tidal scour, whieh must exceed daposiion by ‘idal volumes and flow velocities Nee, So larger lagoons and narrow chanrls aro better kop clear. BEACH STARVATION ‘Sediment input and output, by longshore dit, must be in balance to maintain a stable beach. Many artificial ‘measures ~ trapping cit on a groyned beach, reducing erosion with a sea wall, deflecting sediment at a harbour mouth ~ reduce onward drt, and therefore ‘cause beach starvation at downdrit ste. ‘This may cause beach loss or renowed orosion (as at Folkestone Warren, section 36) at now sites downdri of ‘engineered sections, Beach nourlehment by articial input of sediment is an expensive alternative to downdrit extensions ofthe intial control measures. Hallsands village stood on a rock platform with a protective beach infront of Bon the Devon coast In 1807, ctsnore shingle dredging steepened the seabed sediment prolie. Natural response was lowering and Femoval of beach within fe years; so houses were ‘exposed fo waves, and dostovedin a storm in 1917. ‘SEA LEVEL CHANGES Pleistocene sea lovels fell by about 150 m whon water ‘was trapped In continental ice sheets, and some land ‘areas were depressed as much as 50m by Ice weight Drowned valleys (as) were flooded by sea level rise fal the lee Age end, after having been cut oy rivers ‘raining tothe lover sea levels; some now form natural harbours, as Miford Haven and Plymouth; others have ‘sediment fils, leaving deep coastal bur Raised beachos have abandoned cits, dry sea caves and fossil beach sediments; many were cut In ice- Gapressed coastlines at end of Ice Age after sea level had risen but before land had isostaticly rebounded; Scotland's raised beaches are due to ks Pleistocene ice burden; California's are due to plate boundary upit. Unconsoidated raised beach sedimonts may be clays, sands and/or gravels, typically with lateral variation. TSUNAMIS ] | Those aro targe waves generates by seabed artquake movements: fey form in sanes of fo 8 Staves nthe open ocean thay ar tong ane ow, bak they sow downtnshaion wen and can Bl Uo to S19 mhigh approaching ‘a strain they reach maximum poigs n teong ees. Not eunams oc ino Bate Ocean, ad ake up {0:24 our f revel om the earthquake locaton 1 Aistant shores The practal defence for such rae ‘vents is waring and coastal evacanion he Pace iS covered by an sient mirnaioes waning ys jue 10 glacier meting which may increase ‘sith artic global warming. Local tectonic movements. ‘may greatly inerease or reduce the local effect. Rising sea levels, or ground subsidence, accelerate Coastal erosion, ci retreat, coastal flooding, beach losses and barter island migration. Greatest effect is ‘on low eastern coastlines of both Britain and USA. 3818 Groundwater Rainfall (precipitation) is the ultimate source of all TeanaetesPana nds ne ous crarc HBA Notgie! value fr roe eau erent Paani [ oso Yi Evapotranspiration: combination of evaporation from Gani jay Spat war nd raptor by pane wom eng [Sap oat ieee Sncapheer a whens acy Sh oar wrctSonwtetataa cn searhiare on won |e oom sayten ae Se taccen | 8 increases with low rock permeat Gravel 300 ete eavroun |r rote tetrad utara res se Infiltration: seepage into the ground to become (STK 2 ater eon tame eis ana 2 re 500) Groundwater is ali water flowing through or stored | ___—_K’> tmiday = exploitable aquifer roct tom'nfvSton and lstby fw fo sulace springs AQUIFER CONDITIONS fand seapage ou tough the sea bed Water table (= groundwater surface) is the level in otor budgets te balance of few fr eny pat or the (Osks Seow which all voids are watered t ganar whole of acombined groundvatr and suface water lis fhe utc lopogapy tt W ls rla n System a natural bucgot = ensly dsturoed by man's “wees he round surlace al aks and most river. Aeties,nolably whee land dranage or uenization Vadose wator cans under gravity witin an aortst Fede infitration and groundwator recharge. aquifer above tho wator tabi. Phreatie water flows laleraly under hydrostatic pressure PERMEABILITY OF ROCKS beneath the water able i the resource for alligh-ya ‘walle there i less at greater doptne and pressures. ane most rocks are dry at depths > 3 kn Canillary water rlsas above the water table by surface tension, by vary itl in gravels, by up to 10 min clays, Hydraulic gradient is the siope of the water table. created by tho prossure gradiont nocessary to overcome Tictonal resistance and dive the phreatictlow though he ‘2quiler rock Water table's steeper where permeabilty ic ‘ow row s igh ypiealgracents1:100 mn good aquter. Groundwater flow fein erection of water fable slope, ‘dented in unpumped wells. Rivers normaly have water fale sloping towards them ‘wth groundwater flow info tem. Ephemeral rivers le ‘above valor table, and leak into the aque. Perched aquifer as above tho rogional nator table. Pameabty i the abity ofa roc to transmit water Brough ts lreonectn vie mec ean Steam permeabiy,sutble fr Aoenetter aracton‘eg, sesene pity somntnd voles os. Conca gee “utara 2k wth very ow perme, unsuitable or ‘etait ut sorta Brena te suse, Seon Porectily (= hysrate concucvy = coecent of Formeseay 5 "tom tought are oe mata Shreve wh uni yrate ead es expences vhs cosy 00 evestacan recone ‘motectlay (Ameren 2, Maneet uns = aloratay? Unconfined aquifer has vadose zone in upper pert. Stalin it Aorcs ae Contre sauer hes nosey wr ne Ceca an sauare foot DOMOE ica) saya, w ano a srs ancloe ita pod fsa pressure ‘unction of viscosity, ony significant in considering olland SF8 the water above the aquifer, perhaps to rise to Sastone reign feud lve astan ater o'er seal sae, Groundwater velocities are normally much lower than %8Y Sequences and In complex landislios. tor vous bacnso far ue pace weet [germane meen ono oT Misano in el be cee diton pect | Soundyater Tow, = © = Kowi, where K = Serr nner trsug iectorseavess? wea bat and i = hydraulic gradient. This is Darcy's law, easily Heline’tuinogcra cas | encuentro Speci yi volo of water whichean a ree | [OUR Sue ot jo trough 8 out aco he mah from a rock; it must be less than the porosity, by a | move Complex for convergent flow to a well or sping tacos related tothe pormeabiy,and'nceats fo | Whee e wate fable slepens io compensa forte ‘groundwater resource value of an aquifer. 9 area of the aquifer. s eperwataieam econo cae preset Aquiter Conditions: 6‘TYPES OF PERMEABILITY Intergranular; dius flow, benwoon grains, in sande and gravels, ootly cemented sandstones and young porous limostones, Fracture: through joins, in nearly all rocks: erate flow in fault zones, but dense int systoms provide dius flow in sandstones. chalk ane young basalts; ‘most fractures are tight at depths 100m Secondary: grouncwater flow Increases permeabity by soluien, notably in Imestones: non-siftusa candak flow is arate through enlarged fissures and caves, (GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT Springs ae natural groundwater overtions fram acer many 20 capped of ponded for supphy lage pn Yolds O18 moe, Salen aprnge’ ee used in ul {reas limestone caves may food lvgor sprigs. ‘anata are ancient, horzona ais hane-cugto & sloping water ale and eey draining tothe suace Wells are harg-cug or driled fo Below the water table hhand-dug wels may bave hoczortal sof fo stersect productive tracure zones, was ned pumplng unises {hoy are actosian; wel yale depance on depth below valor labo, lameter and aquifer permeability, a good Wa yields 0:1 ms, of about 3 Krastam depth below Water table; improve vie by blasting to rae facura permoabiynoar we o° acid injection i hestone Cone of depression in water table is formed whore pumped flow converging on a well creates steepaning hydraulic gradient tre depth of the cone is the wll ‘tawdown, related to permeabilty and flow. Reservoir Impoundment rages the Wal water able; Groundwater ence trough a ge vata abl slop fs fovorsedin an aquter that reaches a nearby valley. Pump testing of a wol determines its potential yl, | {and also the regional permeabity ofthe aque, K= QiniBiAynae— a) puccotma #2 emer ees ce KARST GROUNDWATER Cavernous limestones do not conform to normal Geuncwater los boston caves cry water erate Sind unpresictabie patos. | Limestones have complex water abas unvlated 10 “topogr | eit groawater iil to abstract or conte 8 ‘Wels end boreholes can [ust mise malar conduls Give saan tarot undited polson to aprings. seams PORE WATER PRESSURE “Tho groundwater head provides the pore ater pressure (p19) in saturated roeks and sole ‘Increased p.mp. may cause slope failure (section 29) Decreased p.wp. may permit or cause subsidence in ‘lays (section 26) In fracturod rock, joint water prossure is equivalent to up andi eibeato slope stably (Socton 22), ‘GROUNDWATER CONTROL Dry excavation below the water table is possible within ‘coalesced cones of depression from pumped well points ‘ound a sito perimeter. Groundwater barriers perm! dry excavation without ‘owering the surrounding water wble; bariers may 60 steel sheet piles, concrete diaphragm walls, groutes 2ones oF ground Wreozing, in order of rising cost: {routing o freezing can also control ising grounowater thick auiters. Slopes may be drained by ditches, adits or walls Capilary rie in embankments Is prevented by a basal gravel layer ker test measures local pormoabilty of cock and Aguilar properties between tw inflatable packer seals ina borstale, .ingauDyenut Hismeasuredto water table ‘orto midpoint of est zone this Is above water table. Fling head tee betta for low permeabiltos. GROUNDWATER RESOURCES. ‘Aquifor stablity only onsured if abstraction < recharge. ‘Abstraction > recharge is grounéwater miring ~ aquier is depleted; walr table falls, springs and wells may cry Up, pumping costs increase, artesian wolls may cease {o aw, resource wil ultimately De ost ‘Aquifer recharge 's possible through intako wells oF leaky reservar. Artesian water emerges unpumped from @ flowing fartesian wal Large resources may tein synclines. Groundwater qually is ensured 2 aquilerfitation and the underground residence time in contact with absorptive clays and ceansing bacteria in sols, Potton Is. most lkaly In shallow alluvial gravels and cavernous limestones; major pollutants are tank leak, land hysrocartons from road drains in recharge 20 ‘later harcnees is carbonate (imestone) and sulphate. Villa Farm disposal site, near Coventry, separated lgulds In lagoons in old band quarry 50 m across. Fld loss of 7000 my was litration to sand aquier. Pollution had Iie racial spread, Dut formed plume 600m ong in dretion of hyoraule gradient ‘Saltwater intrusion near a coaslino ie caused by ‘verpumping which cisixbs the saltwater interface Beneath the fresnwater ens fed by land nitration. AS saltwater has a deasity of 1-025, the eshwater tons floats on tke an leberg and he kwvered cero inthe interace is 40 times righer than the mating cons of | depression is deep. a719 Ground Investigation ‘Ground investigation assesses ground conditions prior to ‘staring a consrucion project, Site investigation includes legal and enviconmental aspects, in addon othe ground investigation. ‘Objectives of a ground investigation vary with th size and nature of the proposed engineering works, Dut ‘Usually include one or more ot * Suitably ofthe sit forthe proposed projec; Sito conditions and ground progertes: ‘Potential ground aificutes andiorinstabiit ‘+ Ground data to permit design of the structures. Panning of the investigation then has to be directed towards ascoraining data on three ferent aspects ofthe ‘ground conditions: "Drift and soli conditions, which, especially in the ‘ase of cohesive cay sol, involves laboratory tests {and application of sol mechanics techniques; + Rockhiead, whose depth is commonly significant to both excavations and foundations, + Bedrock, whose strength proporios and structural variations and kelinoog of eotaling burled caves ate al relovat COSTS OF GROUND INVESTIGATION Tho extent and cost of ground Investigations vary ‘normously dopencing onthe nature ofthe project and the local complexily andiordiffcultles of the ground ‘conatlons Expressed as percentages of project costs, the tabulated guidoine figures ilustrate ihe contrast between project types but cannot show the contrasts due to ‘toring ground conditions. ‘Typical Ground Investigation Costs [Projet T s¢ ott conts_['% Foureitone cons Bullings | 005-02 [tse | Roads o248 "5 3 Dane +3) ‘The principle of any ground investigation nso be thatit, 's continued unt! ine grouna conditons are known and Understood well enough forthe cv engineering work 10 proceed satly. [Tis principle can and shouldbe applied almost regardless of cost ~ oven a doubing o! the site investigation budget vil ganeraly add < 1% to the project cost = bul ator an inadequate ground investigation, unforeseen ground Conatons can, and frequently do, raise project caste by 10% or more, ‘Some recent statisti trom Bain clearly domonetate the importance of adequate ground investigation” + One third of construction projecis are delayed by ground problems. + Untoreseen ground concltions are the main cause cf ping claims. + Half of overtendar costs on oad projects are due to Inagequate ground investigation or poor inorprt tin ofthe aata ‘Savings on the ground investigaion budget ganerally prove o be flee economies. ‘You pay for a ground investigation ‘whether you have one or not ‘SEQUENCE OF STAGES Initial stage * Dosk study of avaiable data {Ske visit and visual assessment + Praliminary report and fleldwork plan Main stage Filanork Geological mapping f necessary Geophysical suvey appropriate “ial its, tronctes and boronotes + Laboratory testing, mainly of salle Final report Review stage *) Monitoring during excavation and construction ‘These stages are in order of ascending coat so they should form the time sequence tobe costelecve. It's essential to stat withthe desk study. As a bare ‘mirimam, his isthe examination ana interpretation of published geological maps, and its a basis for planning All further investigation ‘Any tendency to Star an invatigation with boreholes Is both inetfeent and uneconomic. Ineficient Because is often very dificult to interpret borehole fogs without the Context of some knowledge of the local geology as broadly interpreted from a desk study. Uneconemic because the boreholes may only yield data already avaliable and cannot address ary’ ground problems that should have baen identi by 2 desk study, DIFFICULT GROUND CONDITIONS {An efficient ground investigation recognizes, during the ints Gesk stu, the possibilies or probable of any Specific eificut ground conditions occuring within the project site. [then directs the fieléwork exploration to either iminala the considered possibliies or determine the extent ofthe ground diioutes. ‘The most common dfcut ground conations are: Sot and variable cit materials; Weathorod, weak or fractured becrock; Natural or atic cavities within bedrock; ‘tive or potential siope felure and landsiding: Compressive inci wth or wrthout sot spots Flowing groundwater or methane ga Unexpected old bung foundations, UNFORESEEN GROUND CONDITIONS Construction of a mal-storey car park in Plymouth provided a good example of a project delay due to Lnforeseen ground conditions, ‘The site extonded over 200 x 70 m, with a complote layer of crit and herelore no bacrock exposure, 15 boreholes found rocxnead at 5-10 m deep. Bing work then found a deep rocknead gully with steep sides; tis extended across nearly 10% of tho ‘te; al he boreholes had missed Project was delayed, while 100 probes were used to futmer expire rockhead, ‘Bored ples were needed over sloping rockhead. ‘The guly had bean formed by solution of a narrow unmapped limestone bard: it had been impossible to tocosee. Inthis case, the noes for more exploration probes was only apparent with the benefit of nasi.WALKOVER SURVEY [An early sito visit combines with the desk study to Fecognize any possibiities of difficult ground oneltions, 50 that a planned fel exploration is cost efectve, Checklist of aspects requiring only observation: Correlate ground features with geological map: vegetation may relate to rock type. Local exposures: check siteam banks, road cuts ‘and quarries for geological doals and sau proties. Land use: signe may remain of past use for mining, ‘ld tips, backtll, quarries, buildings, basements Physical toatures. of ground may be interproted: fescarpments, moraines, terraces, floodplains, peat flats easily recognized, Breaks of slope: all must have a reasort edge of ‘erosion profie, geological boundary, or artificial Lumpy ground: created by holows or hummocks of a combination of both. May be caused by any ofa varity conditions: sinkholes, crown holes, mine subsidence, mmineshatis and waste heaps, quarry waste, movain Tandslip, solifuction. All except moraine provide potential appropriate engineering hazards and require frvestigation. Exloting structures: check for detess in bulsings and stabhty of old cut slopes. Landstip: disturbed ground, displaced or damaged structures, doformed trees. Groundwater: sinkholes, springs, scopages, soltional features, sveam loves, ood potent. PHOTOGEOLOGY Goological interpretation of air photographs can be @ valuable part of ne desk study of some ste. Interpret from vertical ale photographs, scale normally “about 1:10 000 on contact prints Photographs taken witn 60% overlap along flightpatn, 40 viow through slereescope to see 3:0 image with Vertical exaggeration of rebel Use in ground investgton to ideniy ‘eal contrasts, anomalies and roll! features visible on photos and \which relate to ground conditions. Black and white photos: widely avalable and usually ‘most cast efectve Colour photos: expensive, and colour may disquise some featuras. Infra-red photos: sensitive to temperature so usefulto trace emerging grouncwator rom seepages and smal springs. Multispectral images: not widely avaiable at large scale, and need specialist interpretation. All photos veal ite of the geology In urban areas and beneath thick toe cover, Interpretation of geology Photographs show vegetation and soil; gonorally these ae relat to dit and becrock therefore contrasts ‘on photos can be interpreted as contrasts in round eonailons Interpretation is largely based on three factors ‘Tone: generally related to water content of soll and plants; dare = wet clay: ight = dry sand, Texture: Includes drainago channel density and pattems, rock banding and ineations, and patchy or ‘rotted groune, “rend: single linear features or correated anomalies, ‘may race geological boundaries or stuctures. Geomorphologieal features can be direct identieg, notably landsips, moraines, sinkholes, old channels, terraces, oreaks of slope etc. Distinguish man-made features by association, eg. ploughing patterns relate fo field Boundaries. and use may relate to rock or sol type. Ground types on photographs Alluvium: ight sand and dark clay tones, level ground, channals, meanders Glacial ti: ragular refit, rummocks and crumins. patchy tonas. Landstps: arcuate head scars, concave slopes, debris hhummocks, abate toes. Bedrock: angular jointod textures in strongor rocks: most baro fock has lighter tone, notably white limestone, Prk petmeabilly: relate to drainage channel density: many > clay; fow = sandstone; non tone, ‘Structures: may show by linear trends, tonal zones, Faults: straight features, may cisappear under ait (Od shafts, activ or filed sinkholes: spot anomalies wit ‘ark or ight tonal eortrast. ‘Ar photograph from the Yorkshire Datos ‘orth stop left; scale bar is approx. 300 metres. Rolie cannat be seen without stereopar, valley at lower "ight has high ground to both NW and NE. ‘AP bare limestone pavement with clear jointing, bare screes and grassed lower slopes. ‘scars along contours in horzonialimestone. tongue of placa ti burs limestone sear ‘spring trom limestone feeds stream lowing over limpermeabio rock valley oor in so slates with dit and soi cover ‘bands of greywacke form small outcrop scars. tae plantation, farm and gravel road. Zen mooe Ey20 Desk Study Every site investigation should begin witha desk study ‘This san office-based exercise (therefore inexpensive) in gathering publisned and avaiable Information An inival site vist 1s made during the desk study: {ound conditions are more readily wisvaized once the Site nas beon seen, and potential ground problems can Dotter be appreciated (secton 19). Sources of data vary with type, size and location of site but generaly fal info five groups, ae below. ‘They also vary between counties: Briain has a greater varity of historeal and recorded data than mary and provides a comprehensive example of the desk Study ‘terial which can be Sought GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND RECORDS British Geological Survey (BGS) has published and unpublished data whien e readily avalable. Published geological maps are normally the list desk study larget fora small investigation on uncomplicated {round they may provide al the data required. Printed material avaiable from the BGS inctuces: + "Map and book seres tabulated opposite, * Reports on applied geology related to planning and development, with multiple derived. maps" and ‘engineering data summaries; avaiable for 80 urban eas, as valuable guides to dificult ground Digital data is now the main BS output, over the web lorticensed regular uso, orto single requests Dightap has digiized map for no whole of Britain at Ssoales of 110 000 or 1:50 000 data always Updated (60 bot than paper copies), avalabe on demand as digital fe or printout with appropriate descriptive text. Layers of data Include geology, drt thickness, landsip, made (ound, and outine goohazard potential Geoscience Data Index at wor gs.aculdgeodata has fulline geotogieal and surtace maps to locale silos of Borehole cords, maps and reports coverage and sts of all avalable data, vith an ordering tacit. Enquiries @bgs.ac.uk wil produce on request- ‘+ Maps, reporis, borehole fogs, mining records, site investigation reports and laboratory test dala hel by the National Geviogical Records Centre. ‘+ Reports on spociid areas, sites oF geohazards based on inerprelaions by a geologist, these are ‘consultancy reports produced at commercial rats. National surveys. on mining insiabiy (1992) and on natural cavites (1984) wore produced for DoE and are Svalable n hare copy; use guldes to potential hazards in unfamilar areas. Data trom the landsige survey (1988) is now incorporated in BGS database. [BGS library and borehole core store, near Notingham, are accessible at nominal charges for commercial use LOCAL SOURCES Much detail on ground conditions trom ioc farmers, historians, societies, univers futhonties, Ditiout fo trace without local knowled ftten for diminishing returns, but can yield useful Pointers Data Sources in USA US Geological Survey (USGS) publishes a huge Ist ‘of geological maps, fopors, topographic maps, air photographs and digital data; accessible through ‘wwu.usp8.00¥ oF atthe offices of State Geological Surveys (which algo have thelr own publications), 40 MINING RECORDS Coal mining has lett large areas of undermined, Potentially unstable ground in Baitain and in mary other Eountres, Coal Authority is obliged by law to keep and provide Sata on all aspects of Goal mining in Briain, Mansa fee, at 01623 427162, oF check wwew.coal.gov.uk Mining reports lor engineering enquiries cost £34, and noty known past, present and future underground and Speneast ming, recorded shatis ane aus, and clams for subskdonce damage since 1984. Current mining: recorded on seam plans at 1:10 000; ‘hase show recent mining and directions of working, and fare avaliable fr inspection on request, Subsidence predictions are nol provided, but advice ‘be gained from a consultant or the mine operat. t mining is incompletely recorded; records are ‘only complete since 1847, and seam maps before then are generalized and incomplete. As old records are Unreliable, assume all workable seams (notably < 100 m ‘deep, above wate table, > 0.6 m hick) have been worked, unless proved otherwise (normaly by boreholes) Abandonment plans, required by law when a mine {@oses, havo oft boot lot; many with Coal Autry at Manstils, avaiable for inspection; can give useful dell, ‘ut may bo ditcutto relate to present cations, Shaft register recoras al known shats In coalilds, on 1:2800 maps with los poung depth, size, capping and treatment f kngwn, Stes are noted In mining report and ‘xtacts of ull data are avallable at £11 per shat Opencast mining sites, and the backed areas, are recorded on 1:10 000 maps. Mining other than coal has no controling authori, 80 records on old stone and metal mines ae extremely tral in coverage and readily, and ean be aficut 10 trace. Prima sources aro county authorities (out BGS in SScolland); some with many mines (Ine Derbyshire and Cornwal) have systematic records and search facies; ‘others hav ite or no dala submerged in archives, Records trom a nationwide search atte the Lotthouse ‘mine cisaster 1972 (due to forgotten workings) fs now held by the Coal Authory or the counties, “The lost shafts of Wigan. in 1958, $00 old mine shatis were known within boundaries of Lancashie town of ‘Wigan In 1980, ater years o! redevelopment and sto ‘lesrance, 1700 chatteware recordedin ne same area How many more shafts remain unmapped? TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS (Old maps show features no longer visible on the ground and thorelore omited trom lalor maps. Best are test edition ordnance surveys (6° = 1 mile) of about 1870; ‘mostly in local bares for reference. Simple comparisons with new maps may show: * Old quarties, mines, bulkings, past land use; + Gia streams, ponds, valleys fost cu to lai + Exosion changes in rivers, coastlines and landsips. AIR PHOTOGRAPHS Black-and-white photographs, around 1:10 000, widely availabe, about £16 per prin, covering 2 km square. Usetu for sto etal ara photogeougicalInterarettion in carta conditions (section 19). Source: Nelional Air Photograph Library at Swindon, wir onglish-hritage.org.idknowledgelnmrBRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - MAIN PUBLICATIONS a SATA EOS OE aps "250m | saosin Engr and Wl: | Sop eld an itr cons, on outro sraitespopercanes, | oncop bande nd ecu tne Compan crepe nde —_| Sanderson a exe open Swain woarerGonera’__| any ar ad or ntan ce ve map TSG —] sans ony, fares pega | Weraicn wont S0GT0 maps Sinatewetanctonesowtnre_| wirtefttyean THOGR——P aS al on ard — SG we Gk gg To wR NRT SET agarBowpmese Sone ncargsins i ero cot pepe sneda cries ut_| hub, ade goes Se, wea Tae Togem) | zogucnecowr tant Bien, | sonora hock cto aaa coe Cohen” | Eat 0050 pe Steuer 13000 pape cot nv rah cc ‘lon eaa ena pron an en ores oe, Sas] tape oa TSO ap —| Vt srr Renewstton on dr Expmaine_| eaten ngermencta | vay rts reer) poses map Tesi’) Sel ec we harms —Y Cangara er ooops td CORIO GOOF Rosai [yeoman anew moe 10000 | ranean ecg pong com kyo sigephay, ff ine, oto. 0 ma. | Gaps oni soo rr sys ‘ott ates oncamer reales ats tment sunmaten Semen Slept concscon maps | gear soe sy ro mase ns | ero ts0esosnn rive _| Sata st it utar sen Bary pes [ies Vine bse Pan asst} [ime Teepaaty Ete ose of ° of oO e ° Ee om [bse tow an sean ran sins) [ie Tea ow ° on % Ye ox 2 ox 540" B ie Sara 72s Gey 130088 % ae @, Yo aay 2 Low ti vs 8 3 ve 20 Enieng ooegy 125s60_| [1555 anried Seton ‘Desk studs information on level sie with citcut ground conditions within a Mialand coat Exracis rom availabe ol and modem maps, each redraw to cover tho same area, from originals at stated scales. a21 Ground Investigation Boreholes BOREHOLE DRILLING METHODS. Holes may be cfiled witha great variety of commercially avallable rigs; methods fall mainly Ito three. groups, Gitated by the need for oil or rock penetration and requied sample or core recovery. LIGHT PERCUSSION DRILLING Mobile A-rame, easily erected, with power winch, Steol shells driven into ground by weight repeatedly topped 1-2 m and ited by cable over Arame (nence ‘cable and (co) Only for shallow exploration of soils and sot clay rocks. In clays, smooth shel driven by welght dropped onto itand salt achores inside. In-sands, whole weighted shell may be surged and ‘dropped, and sol Is held sido by hinged clack valve. ‘Can ad light rary dive for auger dil in claye (hones ‘shell and auger’ rig) but less suitable for most sie liwestigaions as sample is disturbed May use chisel head for limited rock penetration Wigely used, as all sites need sol investigation, usually with 700 sam sampler inside 150 mm casing, reaching ‘epths of 15-80 m | fio ‘Atemative sholsoright Aternatve di bts for rock percussion aris ‘penetration TRIAL PITS and TRENCHES CCheapast method of shalow sol exploration ‘Dug with any site excavator with backhoe. Usually 25 m deep: may need temporary support oF Safety cage to allow ful Inspection of exposed wall, Espocally usofl in variable man-mace fils, Valuable In olaturoed or slipped material, including solucted head, as shear surfaces may be cocognlzed in clean ext walls and notin borahale cores. Can cut block sams, or ave in U100 same tubes svith Backes, of 2st lad a plate on pt lor “Trenches can expose rockhoad in search for fractures or outcrops ‘Avold trenches precisely on foundation ses; baci ‘uth compacted sol or lean concrete Pits and boreholes may need sealing to prevent ‘roundwater movement trough breached aquiclude. 2 Ligh pereussion ig sampling soils toa depth of 10 for constuction project in Derbyshire ROTARY CORING Truckemounted rig with full rotary drive which ean be ‘applied with doweward force. ‘Air, water or bentonite mud flush, pumped down inside tani string, and washes chippings back up outside “ip of cylingrical del bit is tugsten carbide or with lamond inserts (hence ‘diamond dlling). Normally Souble tube Barre! holds ful core In inner non-rtaling barrel about 1-3 m long. Can penetrate any soll or rock to >100 m deep, Commonly use N size, providing 54 mm diameter coro from cased holo a! €9 mm diameter, Larger iametar Is better in weaker rocks, Continuous fight hollon.stem auger can be used in clays; nat commen in exploration ROCK PROBING Rotary percussion rg with hammer action capable of rock penetration. “ricone rol or crag bis wth air or water sh to remove hippings (hence ‘open ole ailing). “Truck mounted to provide rotation and downward force: large rigs can reach >100 m deep. No.core recovery {hence ‘destructive deiling) but much cheaper than diamond érling Penetration rate indicates strength of rock, soll or voids; flushed chippings can be examined: Mish loss also indicates cavities, Wash boring uses water flushing in driven shell to probe sols (common in USA but rare in Brian), Hand hed pneumatic dil can reach 8 m in unform rock, Used mainly to locate cavities in rock and rockhead beneath silBOREHOLE RECORDS: ‘Trent Drilling ‘Summary Log umber 422 All boreholes must be logged as = Campi as posable tbe ost ana ss stesive cones est to use conventional symbats sees a | {or ease ofreacing fot ong 20 Pain See Dae 29-208 tagmustrecord ies te data on 9 this example, on some style of | © | [nl 2 |S eta] 22 lion Pe lowsooten orventional prepares oseking [= = J ‘sheet, though there is no single 1“ an Ai-purpone rma o becd 7 Desorption, thickness, depth, and co 2 gna eat the scale ictona og previo’ @ ue bavi understanding be ao prema inven teste qusntiy ground mm cf Romzesr properties. el |, | gNG Standard Ponotration Tost is | ove PEERY teens fuses boro. sents (1 ol IN Sls: N value increases wth Taam Stang (soton 20, Or ose Cone ° nner renee Poneto fst (octen 26) i a Pont Loud Stengin i tat iston Ff] >wo% 32 Sy ore cove efock (encion 2). fos FE ome Rock Guatty. Deeignation a ~ ‘noasure of acute cera n rock (Geolon 25), and ove recovery is s : ‘Rossure of wost breten zones eats Tom vatuesinrease with quay fs erage hd gn of ock mass se ‘Water able andiniow points should ” su nt be recorded and permeabiy may gta ere be determined Sy packer tests ecto 19) Fee Tere = Sere pls are noted. Beet Lee. Rotary rig coring drift and rock to @ depth of 30 m for a road bridge in North Wales HOW MANY BOREHOLES, HOW DEEP? Spacing: buildings 10-0 m apart foadiines 36-800 apart; lancsies atleast Sn line lor profile Depth: 1.5 x foundaton with, Below founcing depth, plus at last one degper contro nolo 10. below foundation unless rockhead found: ‘8m below rocknoad to prove sound rock: prabes to 3-10 m to locate rock caves. ‘These are only rough guideline. ‘Spacing ard daptn may be varied considerabiy in ight of \ocal conctions and appropriate to size of structure. ‘Cavernous rock may nead prabes at each column base. ‘Old mine working may need proving to depths of 30 rm, and location of old shafts may need probes on 1 m grid BOREHOLE COSTS Diling costs are best estimated as accumulation of ‘+ Cost to supply rg onto site + Cost of set-up on each new hole + Cost por metre o hole diled ‘Table shows approximate relative coss (2001 figures in) an ste + parol + por LUphipereueson soi 30 m deep aro gonoraly, bt rot always, stable. Backlil in dpencast mines is usually prone to high compaction; highly variable and best load tested in st Redevelopment of second-hand ground nearly always finds “unforeseen ground condtions’ areas of mining and fil provide worst case HAZARD ZONING OVER OLD COAL MINES Coal outcrop poston, cp directions and dip amounts fare enough to ently zones on gooogleal map were ‘shallow mining could oceur. BURIED SHAFT SEARCH Must check every suspected ste belore construction. Shalt tegister of Coal Authoriy or local council) (general gives locaton only within about 10 m. Gheck foray disturbance of ground or erainage Geek old maps and air photos; ask local residents Foi cover <2 my, tenes or strip wan backhoe. cover is thicker, geophysics may be sell; magnetic survey is generally Dest and cheapest (section 22) Last resort Is exsensive probing to rockhead: start at ;est-quess' locaton, then spiral out on a gid: probe spacing must be 0.5 m lacs than the euspectod shaft ‘ameter, 80 1.0-1.5 m tor small old shafts, and 2-4 m forlarger, more recent shat, “Many searches have needed more than 50 probes, a24 Rock Strength Strength of intact rock depends on component mineral Strengths and the way they are bound togetner ~ by Interccking or cementation pot ras Fock mass strength applies to a mass of fractured tock within the ground and largely relatos tothe fracture ‘weaknesses, Haréeess is not directly related to strength; normally only | relevantto ease of ailing. | Stross Strain Re ienhips for Typical Rock eggeitnen Rock failure is normally in shear: uncontined |, UCSIE Compression in laboratory test produces oblique failure |" ‘shou. ween t See | Compressive stisngth of most rocks > applied | "Squad engineering stresses; exceptions are weak cay, and any envy westhors or cece raced ock sca (GES Concrete «40 Nine 0 MPa aaah Incense aeagih wih neeased ening sess ‘eased TR Uncontined Compressive Strength (qy, UCS) ‘Strength under uniaxial load in uncontined stato. UCS of ary rock is standard for defining rock etrength Broadly relates to porosity, an thoreore to ary density Most inecus rocks nave porosity <1%, UCS > 200 MPa. Sedimentary rocks with densily <2:3Uin® generally have Ucs = 7oMPa. x LUGS lncroases with age in most sedimentary rocks due os to increases ication and reduced pores Scengt and ee rlainshins en Mob diagram Modulus of Elasticity (€) Test tent. 8) Steuer aioe hr aly rary east ope ey saseute Sarge Ya SREB EER ce Sits ate em Sn ee cs, Stren reg as sae Saigon be one: Besa B's See sl BS nc Sw SraEe cole arareoaree "SERN Sane ert, Sinan Cb ECAC rus a eMac gm, eee tame tee, ie strenghProparts of Rocks 0 on ae oo @ [oe se "EP" | Se (Save ar + Tas 8 = fer se — : =e SEte| Gf |e B13 [3 Umwstenw = Carverferaue | 26) 3 0 o | 0 Sa | 8 |e 7a ls = H 3 2) 2/278 These are mean or typical values, which can only be Sedimentary rocks become stonger with age and tectonic taken as approximate guidelines, ‘re95, these values are typical for Britain andeastem USA; All values ‘eter to intact rock which has not been mest foots of similar ages are stronger in areas of plate weakened by weathering. Unquoted valves indicate boundary doformation such as Alpine Europe and westorn extreme variation related to otientaton etc, or lack of | Ametca adequate data, “ales of @ are forntae rock, ignoring fractures. 8‘SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCKS — May be rogarded as having two components: + cohesion (and tonsil strength) due to interlocking * Internal freton, increasing under confining load Confined Triaxial Strength FRock stronath greaty increases where confined in the ground, to values generally beyond significance 10 engineering loading ‘Travia testing relates shear strength to normal stress, Rarely measured in rocks (but important for sol). ‘Angle of internal Friction 9 Folatos contined shear strength to apliod normal load, by the Coulomb equation: = + ontane, meaning + shear strength = cohesion + normal stress x tang Shear Strength (Si, Ss) Resictance to direct shear when unconfined. Senora relalionship applies: UCS = 25. tan (45 + 2) Se varies UCSI6 n strong roc, to UCSI2 in soft clay Peak strength on intial shearing declines to residuat strengtt along the sheared surface. there is no accepted measure of rock oritleness (post-pek decline of stengtn. ‘Shear strengtn equates with cohesion (c) of sols, EFFECTS OF WATER The presence of water and any increased pov water posture sgntcartyredues rock sength Water itrupts tw bonding between minerals, and Blows the Bresicup of clay cements in some tay rok. eater pressure acs in opposton to confi this dices efecive normal tess in axial Situation, and therefore reduces confined sheat Seng imporantincays and Sots, Saturation sightly reduces ¢ and greatly reduces apparent cohesion Water greatly reduces atongth of woak, porous Sadmetfary foot, but has minimal eet stony rece nw pes ‘Strength Recognition and Description ‘STRENGTH TESTING Leboratory tests of rock strength suffer because of rock variation (notably in waaker sodimentary ocks), 80 all values rocogrizo orror of 20% Also, tests of intact rock igrre the fractures which ‘dominate the level of rock mass strength, In practice itis therefore often adequate to dently the rock and read strength value from tables. Unconfined Compressive Test CCube or eylinde of rock with flat, cul, parallel faces, Toaded uniaxially between flat steel platens; sample lameter > 54 mm, ‘Mest comman and easiest test of rock strength ‘Triaxial Test Gylinder of rock loaded axially (cy) with equal confining ‘sresees on racial axes due to Tus bath pressure (e3). Plot on Mohr diagram fo determine 9 and Ring Shear Test svorse shear on 2 surfaces across rock cylinder. (One of @ number of shear tests, which can also be applied with confining pressure to determine. (Hea esarsien [UGS Mal] Fie provers ‘ary stongrack —) _>100_ | fim hammering break ‘Song ck sovtco | bratty nermerin and boone etorg rece 125-60 | Sort th hares NeStatay weaktuk | 5-125 | cam oy rand {5:60 | creole urcarpek ons we | 05-15 | baakey nana Yoryst ot 83206 | fey ingemat ‘Sate (018-09 | canna oun gar Fem 1008-035 | mode ying Sotsot (988-008 | moda asaya gars Verysa so Soot | Sees baton pare Brazilian Test Gylinder of rock loaded across Its diameter botwoen ‘wo Mat steel platens Easior than tect tence tost. Point Load Test Cylinder of rock loaded across its diameter between {wo 60° sige! points with tip radius of 5 mm. ‘Standard portable apparatus ial for rapid, direct ld testing of borehole core Can also apply mutipie tests on regular rock lumps with dimensions close to 1:1:2 Use 54 mm core oF apply correction factor (as larger core gives lowor values) and ignore low results dus to fracture falures. Point Load Strength (\) is then close to UCSI20. ‘Schmidt Hammer Hand held, spring loaded hammer measures rebound from rock surlace; rebound values correlate with UCS and doaine significant in fractures rock. ‘Schmiathardnaes 2030 40 50. 60 UCS (MPa) 42 25 50 100200 Vary rapid fel test may identity weaker or weathored enoralyrsticiod vols and wok eo. ‘ook oF ose tari Bk nr oxpowes rock ace. Tes] Powitoad | Breslin | fing Snoar | Tava Goan P | Z. Lie a wohee ide compression tensile | tenslo | shear | 62Rtngd aw Motes cites wih caraar Kom | " | ‘shear minsriomajorpsncbelstessvalues along | a teed ‘oma eves a or Enimapn ergot tests25 Rock Mass Strength ‘Strongtn ofa rock mass largely depends on the density, ‘ature and extent of he fractures vari Flock mass strength also relates to rock strength, weathering and water condtions. FRACTURE DENSITIES. Rock actures include microissutes (spacing mostly ‘Ammtem), joints (Tem—1m) and faults (21m). Also bedding, cleavage, schistosty. Fractures allow Inelastic deformation and reduce rock masse strength to. 1/5 (0 4/10 0! tha ntact rock ettength “his traction may be known as the lock Mass Facir. Assessing fracture dans is subjective, except by ICD. Rock Quality Designation (R@D) is a tracture uantifcation on borehole core > 50 mm diameter; Tengin of core pieces are measured as they come from ‘the di bare and: QD = Tico lengths >10 om )x 100fborholergth Values of ROD > 70 generally inccate sound rock, FRACTURE ORIENTATION Influence of orientation is only assessed subjectively in terme of favourabity with respect to potontal failure by ‘Siding orrolation al particular ste of part ofa site Lmportance of orientation is shown by UCS variation in blocks of slat with woll-defined cloavage. lucs Aan Cinsane Geomechanics System of Rock Mass Rating Parareiee Fracucesina Read Cun | Assessrent of ans 3 rang FRACTURE TYPES Fracture roughness influences ts shear strength ‘Shear of very rough fractures requires dation of rock ‘mass as ireguarites overtie each other Roughness ie dificult to assess and quantity Fracture inflls include clay gouge, clay rom weathering, breselas, and siekensided gouge. ‘Typical icton angles (9): clan rock 20-50" caytit 10-20 breccia 25-40 Cohesion across fractures varies 0-500 kPa, ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION Assessment of rock mass strength recognizes cumulative etfect a diferent geological features. Classification i therelore an accumulation of weighted values given to selected parameters. ‘Two most widely Used systems are Geomechanics AMR. system which adds. rating values (oelow), and ‘Norwegian Q system whicn mulols rating values. Both systems are dominated by fracture properties. Applications to specific engineering problems where rock mass class gives approximate guideline values of ‘round parameters, as inthe lower table, Geomechanics System of Rock Mass Rating (RMR) ses parameters and point scoring in table below. Norwegian @ System successlully multiplies rating values fo determine the rock mass qually (Q) as: {Q= (RODIN) x (la) x w!SAF) actors with rating ranges irom good to bad ar FOD= Rock qualty designation 100-10 xin = Join set number 1-20 “r= Joint roughness factor at Ya = Joint ateration and clay filings $20 Sw _ = Join water iniow or prossure 108 SRF = Stress reduction lacor dua to excavation 1-20 G values range from <0.01 to > 100. ‘System is tabulated in the appendix ipage 82) (oct cok UOS, MPa a a Ear 35-50 + Rating 8 2 z ‘ 1 ROD% oe 76-08 O78 5 a wo | eto so = Ftion ange pC) >45 245 25-95 15.25 = Gohesion BPs) aco 00-400 200-300 300-200 <100 SP (Pa) 10 +8 12 08 <2 } Safocu sepe 27 5 ss 5 <0 ‘Turnal support one spet bots patembots | ols +stotoeta | sic rbe Stand uptime tor span| 20yrfort6m | tyrfor 10m Nawiorsm | “v2nteezm- | somntertm 50Foundations on Rock ‘SAFE BEARING PRESSURES ‘Guideline values for maximum loads that may safely be imposed on unasturoes ground. May be estimated In many ways, all based on past experience and incorporating ample safely factors to for variable ground conditions. Values are useful proliminary design guides, as itis ‘normally uneconomic to complote meaning isla tests on fractured rock masses. May be based on rock type: [Sate Bearing Pressure ~ typical values ook yes | ong igeats rock gles ‘Song mosis ang consis Sonate ane nee 3Men | 2Pe [Stong mutsones, sonsandsones) 2NPa | MPa 00a [sas sound cna, sok mdsone | 7504P= ‘Or based on rock strength and fracturing: [Safe Bearing Pressure - guidance values ro [« | a | ues 2 [a [a [ls | sep (way L (MPa) wo foe la | 2 Roo "35 7080 Fracture spacing 60200 600mm Improved estates o SBP can take account ofthe rock ‘madulus ratio (E/UCS); legs deformable rocks with high modulus aos, such as limestone or granite, can be ‘assessed higher SBP than softer rocks, such as shal, for the same values of UCS and ROD. SBP values are also agusted by conventional factors wth respect to foundation shape; ceductions for arg, shalow revel loaded foundations, are generaly a ie rset Significance du toe high bearing capactes of rock (as ‘opposed to sol). Settlements on rock are generally small, ané ao rarly constraining influences once bearing capacity criteria, hhave been satisfied. (They are normally the ling factor for foundations cn cay sols) UPB SBP ‘Ulimnato Boaring Pressure = fad a falure ‘Sale Bearing Prossuro = UBP = Safety Facto, Usually 3; sinilar to Presumed Bearing Value ‘quoted for soi. \cceptable Bearing Pressure = SBP further reduced to satisty specific structural requirements such as setlement; reduction factor may be significant on soils, usually lose 10 1 To! roeks, ABP FOUNDATIONS FOR TORONTO CN TOWER Worlds tallest froo-standing stucture is 550 m high, weighing 110 000 Founded on shale, UCS = 10-25 MPa, € = 37 GPa, ROD = 50-80, with some thin weak bands which were ‘mapped and avoided. ‘Slab foundation 7 mbelow rocktead, beneath 10m dit. ‘Moan load on shale is 580 kPa, wih paak stress in high wind of 2.89 MPa: compared to design SBP for doop Caissons of 72 MPain the same rock Satoment was 6 mm, aftr 6 mm heave 6 excavations. FAILURE OF ROCK Sound rock is capable of bearing most normal ‘engineering loads; the same cannot be said for sols. Normal variations in rock properties are covered by (genorous factors of satay in engingering design Major zones of significant weakness, including Undergroune voids, can cause failures: should be ‘voided by adequate sile investigation. ‘There are four possible modes of faluros: ‘Shear faluro and upward displacement of the rock, due to imposed loading > rock strength Compaction of porous racks (causing extromo ‘settlement, also due to loading > rock strength Fock fare into underground cavity, whore rock root {alsin shear oF Nexural tension, LLandatging anc lateral displacement, where slope roles are too steep. st ee ee INFLUENCE OF BURIED VOIDS. Plug or beam falures of rock under structural oading ‘over underground cavites depen Ga the rock stvength {and fracturing, the cavity size and depth, and the appied Joads and stresses. Natural and mined cavities can vary greatly i size, shape and stability, and each one requires. Individual ‘ascessment iis relevant to engineoring works, Fisk ol ground falure increases Hany ane of he folowing ‘guideline eter is met *» Cover thickness < cavity wih Cover thickness underneath end bearing piles < 5 tims ple diameter, Loading to SBP above < 3 m of sang rock; Cover of weak rock or sai (wit progressive falure and eaviy migration) 10 tmes caviy height lg ta GROUND IMPROVEMENT Treatment of iesh rook i rarely necessary or economic for structural foundations ‘Weathered and weak rock near surface‘ bate romoved or elod through, Injection of cement grout ofl rock pores and increase strength is lied by low permeabily of intact rock. Grouting can double mass strength of fissured rocks. Underground cavities can be filed with grout jected through 100 mm boreholes; may need 3-4 m grid of holes it cavitos are partaly blocked; use fig mixture Of 1:10 ratio of coment PFA or fines: need stit grout ‘tn ang or gravel t form perimeter barr to avoid nigh losses away rom sie Alleratives {0 eament grout are foamed concrete oF luncemented rack paste il need ls only tu prevent Progressive root falls26 Soil Strength Properties ofa scil depend on the grain size, mineralogy and wator content, all of which are interelted, Cay minerals can hold high water content forine grained soll ereal coneapt Is consistency related to water ‘content. SOIL CONSISTENCY ‘with varying water content, a soit inay be solid plastic ‘or ligula, Mest natural clays are plasle ‘Water content (w) = weight of water as % of dry weight Consistency lnts (Aterberg limits) are detined as: laste limit (PL) = minimum moisture content where 2 soll can be ralad intoa cylinder 3 mm in diameter. Disturbed soil at PL has shear strength around 100 kPa, LLiquld timit (CL) = minimum moisture content at which Sol flows under is own weight, Disturbed sol at LL has shear strength around 1 kPa. Plasticity index (Pl) = LL~PL. This refers to the sol sell ands the change in wator content required to nevease ‘Strength T00 mes; ts the range of water content when the sallis plastic or ste. High Pl sols are los stano, wth largo swoling potential Lguidity index (I) = (wPLVPL. The ie a measure of ‘soll consistancy and strength a a given water content. Clay Mineral_[Actviy |__| Kaolinite os | 90 | 15 Mike os | 7 | 10 Smactto s2_| ao | 5 Pi values are fo sol with 75% clay fraction ‘SOIL CLASSIFICATION Soils ae classified on grin size and consistency iit. eine distinguishes visual smiar cys and sole More subdivisions exist in afl soll cassification ¢ coe “1 CLAY MINERALS. Plasticity and proverties of clay sols depend on amount and ype of clay mines, Soils wit < 25% clay minocals are gonerally stronger, wih iow Pland 9 < 20%. Aelivity of Clay = PI/ tines (< 0.002 mm dlametor) Sols with high clay tracion and high aetviy can retain high water content, giving them iow strength, and also have low permeabiiy Activity Is mainly due to clay mineral type: smectite (montmoritonie) clays are the most unstable ‘SHEAR STRENGTH Al soil alin shear Shear strength isa combination of cohesion and internal fiction; expressed by Coulomb failure envelope. Cohesion (c) derives from interparticle bonds: sf _ A| eo] tin Gays, ero pure sands. Fee Ersined wee | Oy ‘rietion (9) is due to structural « e roughness; higher n sand than in clay | 7 7 Shoar strong = cohesion « normal stress x tan ¢ “ Nocmal stress cea! to shear strength but pore t ‘water pressure (owp) caries part of overburden Toad on realy? Salt hareby reduorg normal Sreas, a an | _& ifoctve srs () = normal sess (o) Pw. ‘ Shear strongth is correctly defined in terms of eifectve veseumn Ey ‘sts, 20 that seven 99S) Shear ttenath (= 0'+o'tan g SollClassfication | raise ‘ypal valves ype. ‘cass, mm, [lei ‘Gavel 6 2-60 32 at Sand S| oe 22 ong sit si | 0002-0008} so | 5 | 32 || coneson Giayey ot | MA | Ooc2008° | 70 | 3a | 25 |) eezoPa Ss Gay ou “soz | 35 | 20 | 28 oe Prastic cay | CH coon | 7 | a | 19 || casneo = Organise | 0 - 10 | | oecatan wen Properies of Cohesive Clay Soils ateial | State wr SPEN | GPE MPa | oka] manny ‘Alu days == 308 za} os-08 | 20-40 | “Sta fm | oam05 | a3 ost | 40-75 | os-t0 Twang | sth | ormo2 | sai ez | 75150 | O-03 Teriary clays] visit | oavmor | 15-0 24 | 180-300 | 005-01 hard | “oa 350 = S00" | “0.005 ‘Cohesion (es equivalent o shor ter shear strength 82‘STRENGTH DECLINE IN CLAYS. Drainage progress of a loaded clay is critical as any Increase of pore water pressure may lead to failure, ‘Significant in new excavations and embankments. Peak strength ceclinos to cesigual strength due to restructuring, notably algrment of mineral plates, during dislocation along a plane. Change is due to almost total loss of cohesion and also reduction in tition angle. Signiicant inal cays, notably those wi highar PL +" Britloness = 3 décine fom peak strength, Erker, Pesala soma. ner ne Sensitive clays lose great proportion of thor sirength fn restructuring of entre mass; they have high LI ana Small grain size, so cannot drain rapidly and (oad Is taken by pwp: shear sirength approaches zoro. + Sensitty = rato of undisturbedstubed strengths fang relates to undrained Britleness. CONSOLIDATION This is decrease of volume, under stress. Primary consolidation is large and fast; due to expulsion cof water unt excess pwp is zero. Secondary consoldation is small and slow: due to restructuring and lateral movement; came a5 drained creep, Normally consolidated clays are those compacted by thelr progent overburden of sediments. Over-consolidated clays are those more compacted in the past by everburdan sols since remaved by orsion (or by glacier oo) they can boar lacing up to their provious ‘overburden stress with only minimal compression and setteoment Compression coatticient = my = reduction of thickness with incroase of stress: corelates closely with LL CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT) Ina sito investigation borehole, a 60° cone (= 36 mm in lameter) 1s driven into soll at 15-25 mmisecond, followed by a concertic outer sheath End resistance and sheath resistance are measured: Friction ratio = (side tctonvend tction)| 100; ratios on standard electrical systoms ciffer on less commonly used mechanical systams. Values relate to sol types and packing state, and give Indication of Acceptable Bearing Pressure ACCEPTABLE BEARING PRESSURE Values relate largely to sol water coment and consolation history, Deen on SBP and acceptable settlement * Settlement = m, x tekness x imposed stress. Fale of sotiement sevands on permeabilty, slow in cay sols whieh cannot sain raphy. Settlements on clay may be large: then relerted to as suneldonce, slong with other pracessae which alloc lays (section 28), Non-cohesive Soils Sand soils, and gravels have no cohesion, except that derived from any clay matrix and water suctie. ‘Sand stands in steep slopes when wet due to negative pore pressure (erica in bung sand castles), but wil ‘ot stand whon dry or saturated, Strength, slope stabilty and bearing capacity all rive from internal ition; 9 for granular sols (sands land gravels) range 30-45"; increases due to grading, packing density and grain angular Settiements small anc rapc; not usually considered ‘except on very loose sands and artificial fils, Properties are best aesested in sty by SPT;N values fare a function of sacking deneity and grading, Baring capacity of sandy soils may be improved by dynamic consolation {with a 20 ton weight repeatedly ‘foppad tom a crane) or by vibrocompaction STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) Ina site invostigation borehole, a &% mm spit tubo sampler is driven for 150 mm. Using 64 kg hammer dropped 760 mm, number of bows (N) fs counted to drive the tube the next 300 mm A simple, etfectve test; N values closely relate to sand properties; shouls be used wah care in cay soll {At shallow depth N may be multiplied by empirical ‘Correction factor F, to afow or ow stro; 50/(250 +70), where O = depth in.) Relative Density is a measur of grain packing on a scale from loosest to densest possible sales of ‘compaction SPT refers fo corrected N values. CPT Values are end resistances, in MPa, for fine ‘ancl values ate lower'n sis anéighterin gravels Properties of Sands Foon anges are tor svereyo safes aif tor Facing | RO [SAT GAT] 9 [Sam emu gts at turd gs 08 | or ova nose] 02 | <5 | 2 a0 | aa | Se OR, aro tr foundations &m wide Toose |o@04| sto | 24 90-82 | 30-80 | en seriment 26 mm: mul by 1 le sp dense |04-08| 11-90 | 4-12 32°08 | 60-300] indatons fm wie values ae haved or sane Gone” |0az08| Sizso | 12-20. Se-xo |soossoq oundetons, 1 m wie va Coenco_|°508°| “30° | ‘sao San’ |*Bs00 a27 Ground Subsidence ‘Subsidence is only possiie where the ground material can be dispiacod info some sort of underground voids, which can only occur in certain rock types. Macrovoids, large cavies: solution caves in imestones (section 29)" mucn rarer natural cavities in ether rocks, including salt and basalt: mined cave in any rocks ot ‘economic value (sections 20, 31), Microvoiss In vary or0Us, delormabie rocks: most Important In cay (aection 28); In peat, some sie and ‘ame sands; in made ground and backiil (section 30), Subsidence cannot occur on solid, unmined rock — ‘sandstone, graite, mudstono,slato ~ except by shear Tatore and rotational cisplacemont to te suftace under ‘excessive load, of by landsliding where slope profes permit (section 22). Hazard of potential subsidence can therefore be ‘ecognized by rock ype on geological naps. All rocks 40. compact under load. Weak mudstone or sandstone can compact enough to cause setloment oh ‘sttututes, Out normally wal inside acceptable limits. COLLAPSIBLE SOIL HYDROCOMPACTION Some fine solls collapse due to restructuring when Salurated forthe first time; his hyarocompaction may aise subsidence by 15% of the soll IMickness. The colapse i dus fo foal loss of cohesion, after disruption fragile Cay bonds 3 solution ofa soluble coment Loess collapses most easily wine it contains about 20% clay, with more or less clay, ss Unstable, ‘Alluvial sits deposited by flood events in semiars basins, some tropical sols ang eome arte fils maj all exhibit collapse on saturation. Collapse potential is highest in solls with dry density <1-5:Um?, quid iit < 30, and Moisture content < 15% in dry climate zones. Potential can be recognized by onsolidation test with saturation part of the way "rsaugh the loading cycle copie pa! rset? ‘Some collapsing sais only hycrocompect with loading Subsidence hazard is highest In irlgatod arid area 8.9, Contra Vay of Calforia, Soil collanse may be induced prior to construction by pre-welting through flooding: tnin soils respond to ‘dynamic consolidation of vibroioation 54 SALT SUBSIDENCE Fock salt may occur as extensive bods in sedimentary sequences, I Gissalves in ckeulating groundwater rapidly !mncugh to cause siow natural subsidence. Most solution taxes place at the rockhead benoath permeable dh, thus creates a residual breccia of the Collapsed mudstone which was inleroedded with the ‘sal; cavities colapso bolore they Socome largo, Linear subsidences are localized over ‘ine streams’ ~ Zones of concentrated groundwater flow along rocked, commonly guides along salt band outcrops; ypical ‘subsidences are 5 mt deep, 100 m wide, 5 km long, prea atoses oe , Whia brining is uncontolles pumping from the brine stroame: it greatly accelerates formstin of the linear ‘subsidence, which may form in tens of years. Deep solution mining (controled brining) ard modern oop minos in dry salt are both stable: no subsidence Puming brine from old sallow mines (bastard brining) ‘causes serous collanees; now llega in tah Most surface movements are small and slow; engineering precautions are similar to those for ‘engwall mining (section 31), Cheshire has the worst salt subsidence in Britain; houses and structures in Northwich all have timber or S120) rames or concrete rata thal can bo jacked up. ‘Now that wil brining has almost ended, subsidonce due to natural solution is very slow ~ but does comin, GYPSUM SOLUTION Gypsum may be dissolved and removed naturally Solution is slower than of sal faster than of Imastone = rock can dissolve within the ities ofa bull structure Fockhoad pinnacles may bs cissoived by ground ‘sc 1nay nol be Saf for foundations inthe long er Caves are smaller and less common than ia the strong limestones, but may create a stonficant hazard where ‘Weak roo! rock collapses easly fo create sinkholes. Piogging or titing cavities in gypeum requires care, as verted groundwater may rapidly create new caves, NATURAL CAVES ‘Common in imostone and gypsum: rare in other rocks. Basalt may contain leva tubes on shied veleanoes, ‘Open fissures hidden beneath soll cover may develop by siope movement - round heads of landslides and as uits an camber folds. Soil pipes, sva caves and rock arches are al of tmited ‘xen latter are conspicuous as surlace features.‘SUBSIDENCE ON PEAT Peat may contain ten times its own weight of water; it ‘can shrink by 10-75% under load, ‘When leaded to exceed its very low shear strength, peat also creeps and spreads: sa very high satloments are ermal; coefcient of compresstty, my> 1.5 MN, Drainage of pest causes surface subsidence of up 10 60% of tho groundwater head decline; less on Tater redeainage, Wastage, ay oxidation of biomass above watertsie, continues at low rate dependant on climate; causes surface lowering, and major loss of agreultural land; ‘reduced by maintaining high water table. ‘Strength of uncrained peat is negligible, drained peat may be UCS = 20-30 kPa, and € = 100-140 kPa. Peat consolidated by structural load gains strength; may roach SBP ~ §0-70 KPa, Primary consolidation takes place in days; secondary stage may last years, Laboratory testing and consalidation prediction are hindered by variability ‘of peat and difficulties of sampling: full seale ted tests may be worthwhile for major projects. CONSTRUCTION ON PEAT Removal is economical it peat is less than about 3 = hick. Displacement of thicker peat is possible by end tipped sand, purely by gravity, or aided by jetting to 6m ‘Soop, oF peat-basting 10 9 m deep Plies through peat are often economic, and required by sate law in some of USA: house foundations may 02 lett above ground i dined wastage continues. Presloading is successful with surcharge of 1-3 m of ‘and or fl for 1=12 months: rebound is about 5% Sand dealns aro of limited use as past permeabily Is high; wick drains have been used to accelerate Consolidation in English Fenlands.. Embankments on peat may cause more setiomont than {heir neigh. So lightweight is used: polystyrene Blocks fare best savcuat, Brushwood and post bales have Deon Use in Canads and Ireland, and are stable when ‘Sopressed bolow water able, Rafts can be used for light, centrally loaded buildings, with undorrim to reduce peat spreading: houses on rats In northern England setied 800 mm on 2.5 m of peat with imposed toad of only 15 KPa. Basements o giver netoading rarely econo lor houses Pumped drainage and graund subsidence recorded over 150 years ‘agains the Hoime Post inte peat ofthe Engish Foniands EARTHQUAKE LIQUEFACTION Sand may liguely due to 3 Yemporary loss of elective stress during period of earthquake vibration, its +" Uniformly graded, with grain size < 0.7 mm Poorly packed with iow relative density + Bolow the water table at shallow dept. Hazard zones may be defined by SPT, notably where Nevalues < 20 at 10 m dept. Lguetaction causos total loss of strength during the period of vibration, as in the 1964 earthquake at Niigata, Japan, when buildings subsided rapidly Into salurated alluvial sands. Stabilize sand and reduce hazard by dynamic oneolidation, drainage and water table decline, oF ‘SUIcRarg® 10 raise internal toss. Loading and satlament of an embankment ‘fora road over peal in Canada (GROUND IMPROVEMENT Surcharge: consolidation accelerates under a fow metros of placed fil and almost stops when surcharge Isromoved, usualy after ane year, pre-consttcton. Drainage: accelerates water” expulsion, so accelerates consolidation; may allow settiement Beneath embankment to be completed during constuction tme. Sand or fibre drains spaced al 1-3m ‘most ofecive at depths < 18 m. Grouting: cannot penet mixed into clays of LU 46 inc Liming: edcing 5% ime creates stronger ec | plastcty and shrinkage: stabilzes montmoriloate by Feplacing sodium wih calcium Vibrocompaciion: cansity sancy,non-cohesive sols nt a crane supported vibrating poker. Visroreplacement eed cused store vesce poker | io sable stone columns in cohesive sol il ‘Dynamic consotaation top 181 welghs 5-5 ros, 20'm ffom crane, ga 5-10 m gtd, to density sandy sol. May fissure a clay to ald dramnage consolidation. Ground treezing: expensive temporary stabilization of excavation, Geotextiles: along with coarser geogrids increase shear strength, but can only be installed in placed falls, not undisturbed ground. 5528 Subsidence on Clays Clays havo high porosity with deformable grains of clay minoral, so high potential compaction. Comaaction = volume decrease = consoldation, Due to ‘water expulsion (primary consolidation) followed by Festructuring (secondary consolidation), Consolidation of clay, subsidence of surlace and settlement of structures increase with imposed toad or ‘rained water loss. Subsidence is greatest on thick clay, wih high smectite ‘conten, low si content, and of young age with minal history of over-consoldation, Bearing capacity o! clays ranges 50-750 KPa, largely related to water conta; generally limited by setements ‘which exceed acceptabiy long before threat of failure Older clay, shales and mudstones are stronger and lesz compressible; tong mudstone may have SBP = 2000 KPa; hard shales dateriorate by saking, SETTLEMENT 16 by imposed structural load Water is squeezed out by sppied strass. Subsigenoe o ground ang setlerentof structure depend fon initial water content of clay and stross applied: laboratory assessment oy consolidation ies Romedy 1s 10 avold loaaing the clay of to wait for sotlement to stop (or reduce to acoopiable rat). Modest sottement beneath buildings may fracture brite drains; subsequent leakage may remove miner sol in piping faire this also eauses subsidence bul involves a ditlerant process, Toso any oo ‘SHRINKAGE Consolidation of clay is accelerated by water loss All clays exhibit some degree of shrinkage water Is drained out, causing volume decrease of rained soil also loss of pore water pressure suppor “ree roois cause shrinkage in top 2 m of lay sol, but feached 6 m in London Ciay in recent dry summers. Britains ineurance claims (or eamaga fo hoses on shrinkable cays are approaching £500Myear. Purpes drainage of ste may cause shrinkage nearby. Remedy is control and stabilization of pore water pressure in cay. — ar we DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT ‘Settlement ofa structure most serious vnen cltferent ‘Commonly due to uneven loading, lateral change of sit Content in sol, rockhead slope or uncontrolled drainage. “iting ofa tall structure creates ciferental loading, and then accelerates diferent seltement Transcona grain elevator, Canada, tilted 27° in day In 1912; clays under rat base compacted unevenly over sloping rockhead, then sheared and dspace latorally LEANING TOWER OF PISA Cathedral bl tower, 68 m high, 4 m out of vertical weighs 18.000 imposed 800 kPa on cay wih ABP ~50 KPa, Main satioment Is cue to compaction and detormation ‘of cot clay at depth of 41-22 m. Diferential movement ‘probably started due to cay varaton within oveiying sit fayer: subsequenly jas due to eenentic loading, ization in 1289-2001 was by controled mnauced ff north side. Temporary counter weight, of uted lower back 1 mm. Creep closure of 447 uncased boreholes, each 225 mm in diameter, with ‘reposted dling to remove a total of 36\m® of soy ited the lows! back another 425 mm: so tis now stable, (Cable bracing was just for security during ding, ‘Temporary tencons conned masonry Yo reduce risk of pursing fale unl logs was reduced by tk reduction, Cn facenmmes pend rs are 56SEVERE SETTLEMENT: MEXICO CITY ity is built on drained lake bed in basin faged by ‘mountains of voleanie rock, ‘Young, porous, highly compressible clays are largely ‘montmorilonite; water content around 300%. ‘Albuldings on shallow foundations setle severely, Palace of Fine Arts was bul on a massive concrete raf lmposed load of 110 kPa causod 3 m sottioment, Heavy rafts create thelr own subsicence bowls and damage adjacent buildings. ‘Stable foundations are pled to sand. {Latino Americana Tower has buoyant foundations with basements to reduce imposed load, and piles lo upper sand. Dosigned 0 that setlement by compaction of lower clay oquals ground subsidence due to pumped head dectine in upper clay (see below). REGIONAL SUBSIDENCE Groundwater abstraction which exceeds natural recharge eauses deci of wale able. gee of pore water pressure within clays causes ‘widespread subsidence signifcant where overpumping Is from sand aquifers iniorbedded with clay aqutards. Pumping from sand causes smal, Instantaneous, ‘alasic, recoverable compaction of the sand, Flopressuring of aquifers has caused elastic rebound of Sand ~ bul < 10% of orginal subsidence, Compaction of clay is greater, inelastic, non- recoverable; occurs as grouncwater pressures equalize Detweon sand and clay, with time delay due to low ermeabity of clay. Ratio of subsidence to head loss varies with clay type: + 1:6 on young Mexico City montmorileite, + 4:260 on old consolidated London Clay ite, ‘Subsidence stops it water tables recover. Venice has subsided on clay; it now floods on 100 high tides par year. Subsidence has stogped since pumping of groundwater was controled, but rising sea levels ‘demand new barriers and raised perimeter rontage ‘Mexico City has 9 m of subsidence on montmorilonite Cys interbedded wih over-pumped sands; founded in the sands, well casings now protrude inthe sie Bangkok is now fastest subsiding cy, al >10 cmyear Santa Clara: Valley, Calfomia, shows correlation of water table decline with 4 m of ground subsidence, ‘Now stopped a pumping has been reduced EXPANSIVE SOILS. Clay soils which exhibit major free swelling on hydration land similar contraction on desiccation, Mentmoriilonite Is the cause — unstable clay mineral which ecociatoe with water causing erystal expansion with force of 600 KPa, but easily loses water by Sainage or dessicaion. Sodium variety is most unstable, wit gui nt upto 500, and activity > 5; calcium varity is more stab ‘table lay mineral group rh = main mersber of smectite groUD Montmorilonite clays form primarily by weathering of volcanie rocks in warm cimates; 60 few expansive Sos Britain: annual costs of upitt damage on expansive soils In USA exceed combined costs of earthquakes {nd looding, Highest swelling is in any soll which are: rich in ‘montmoriionit, fie grained, dense and consolidated. dy, remouldeg,ignty loaded, with high plasty index Field recognition of expansive soils. sticky when wat; polished glaze on eut dry surlaces, dry lump Sropped in water expands so fast that it breaks Up ‘exposively. Flemedies for expansive soll: iming to form stable calelum variety; contol of groundwater, as sols are state if they remain wet, or are kept dry under buildings by contra of crainage ‘SOIL PIPING {A throughflow of water washes out the finest sol Particle, so increasing the porosity. and then washes Dut progressively larger particles to create a pipe. Cavity may roach a metre diameter before colapse. Gan devon natural tough terraces in sly sols. Piping is common in any type of soll which is carted by soopage wator into a broken drain, 2 genes 5 Santaclae29 Subsidence on Li Limestone js the only common rock soluble in water. It dissolves in rainwater enriched by carbon dioxide derived rom organic sols so the procasses and resus fare on a larger scale in areas of warm, wet climate, Karst features aro erosional forms produced by solution ‘on bare rock surfaces, beneath the sol at rockhead, and sethin the rook Solution is highly selective, so that most joints aro ‘etched out to create fissures, ules and caves; they may bo ful of ai, water or sol, between rermnant blades of tong, unweathered rock. This creates the highly varable ‘yound conditions which fypity imestone areas. Finnacled rockhead describes a highly fissured limestone surface beneath a sol cover. Tal, narrow, Lungable or loose pinnacles may be supported ony by the Soll, and fissures may extond far below into caves. Foocknad relat in tropical areas may be > 20m. mestone SINKHOLES. ‘These are any form of closed surface depression with drainage sinking underground. Different ypes have fren impbcations for enginoering atv Solution sinkholes develop slowly lke bins valleys: ‘low rte of formation reates no subsidence heal Collapse sinkholes are not common, and evanis of rock faire are rare. Colapse processes contibutes to forming many sinkholes; over geological time, they car create zones of broken unstable ground In mestone. Buried sinkholes. provide potential ferential setioment ‘over compacting fil May be conical, eylincleal or irregular Isolated or clustered: 1=0 m daep, 1-200 m wide Etfoctvolyrepresont an extreme form of rockhead relist ‘th shor buried valleys (ott ‘aluien sales subedenceenioies tuieg foi : Ly I : eset passages ‘GROUND INVESTIGATION ON LIMESTONE Many boreholes are needed to map pinnacied reekhead and buried sinihoiee, and many rock probes Foquired to prove sold rosk without caves (5 Femouchamps examele in section 23). Local and ste history i the best guide to cave and sinknole hazard, Shale Boundaries and faut lines may have concentrations of snktoles and caves. Deep probes should prove bedrock to depth > ikely ‘cave width; may need splayed borage to prove that pinnacles are sound. Boreholes on a site in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, with an Interpreted geological proierellecting solution along {issues in the massive imestone 58 Subsidence sinkholes account for 99% of ground collapses on limestone, They form in soil cover, ‘above cavernous rock, due to downwashing of soll (cavelling) into bedrock fissures. Sinkholes may be (00 m across. Locations are unpredictable; most In sols 2-15 m tick In sandy solls surface stowly subsies. In elay soils cavity forme frst at rockhead, thon ‘gFous In size unl cohesive soll bridge fas, to cause Sudden dropout collapse of eurlace. Induced subsidence sinkholes are more common than natural failures; caused winen and where crainage through rockhead Increases, so washing away more sol most events are triggered by rinfal Water table decline effectively Induces sinknol mostly when i declines past rockhead: large areas flected by overpumping for supply. ag in Florida, and smaller areas by quarry, mine or ste dewatering Uncontrolled drainage diversions on construction projects cause many new sinkholes; also structural foading, excavation, devegetation, irrigation and leakng pipelines. Unlined drainage ditches and ‘soakaway drains must be avoided on limestone, ‘especialy In alluvated vallay Noor,FOUNDATIONS ON LIMESTONE Driven piles may lose integrity where they bear cn rock over a cave, ave bent due to meeting a pinnacled Tocknead, or are founded on loose biocks of unstable pinnacles within the soll CConerete ground beams may be aligned or extended to Dear on rock pinnacies which have Been proven sound: ‘aggregate pac, stifened with geogrid, may act In same ‘way ana avoid loading the intervening sol, an inject sti compaction grout or polyuretnane foam to siiln sol over lmestone, and it a structure, out afd {rout laected into limestone can incut large losses into ‘dlacent caves belore sealing karslic fissures. Essential lo contol drainage over or into soils above limestone, fo ston naw subsidence sinoles forming, ‘Strip or raft foundations can be designed to span any small failures which develop subsequent. May be bes! to avoid small imestone outcrops. Sinkhole repair must prevent soll entering the Bedrock fissure while allowing erainage without diversion of water to another Unprotected fissure. Coarse rock fil with fiters and reivorced soll over is effective. Uncontrolled filing always leads to | subsequent renewed f Taw oa i a oe a Liss ‘CAVES IN LIMESTONE Fissures ara opened by solution, untl they take all Avaliable drainage unGerground, and evoive into an intinte diversty of cave passages and chambers. In ‘many timestones, ost caves are < 10 m across, but Some tropical areas have cave chambers > 100 m Wide. Bedding planes and fractures influence the ‘shape of most eave passages. Cave locations witin @ imestone are unpredictable. ‘Tey commonly have no surface indication; though igolatea cavities cannot exist, entrances may le hidden beneath sol or be only small tortuous fissures. Cave roof collapse is only ikely where the sold Cover thieness is less than the cave width but small Individual cavities can permit punching fallure and threaten the intogry of Indvigual ples or column bases. Statistialy, most caves are deep enough to have ne dvect influence on suface engingering. FOUNDATIONS ON CHALK Chalk is woak, friable, pure imestone; when fresh, USC'= 5-27 mea; but porosity is 30-50%, so UCS reduces to 50-70% when saturated may have solution features, caves and sinkholes, out generally on a smalor scale than in strong limestone. Weathering of chalk by frost action Is severe, 10 produce woak rubbly debris. This commonly coaches ‘Septh of 10 m in Britain du to periglacial weathering uring the loa Ages Putty chalk and fine grained rubble chalk are thixotropc wen saturated, and turn into slury when disturbed. Shoule not be excavated of handled in wet ‘Winter moni, but can be used as fb when cy. Plle driving in chalk creates slut attp; this stabilzos when left undisturbed, so plles may cary higher ‘working lod lat for a time alter driving, Settlements in chalk are ellen lowar than expected, as rock strength Increases under steady load Driven concrei piles nave ultimato end resistance of NiA'MPa, where N= SPT count, Ask of solution ccavtas below ple tip means that load Is best attained by shalt resetance with ullmate values of 30 KPa on Failures beneath roads in Bury St Edmunds, dua o chalk liquefaction between soakaway dains and old mines, Liquefaction fallure of puty chalk occurs where It Is Saluratod along rout of concentrated drainage and can {allinto a cavity beneath, usually amine, gullor cave Ground collapses at Norwich and Bury St Edmunds (in East Anglia) and at Reacing are mostly related to old mines below soakaways or drain fares; some are callapses of clay-iled pipes within the chalk Good surfaco drainage and ban on soakaways are necessary in chak areas, especialy where voids may ext | “where there is a history of mining, along cambared | csplacement pies and 150 kPa on castin-placo piles. scarps with gul,oran valley floors underlain by caves. Weathering | Description roep ‘ST ‘SBP grade aaooKra | ON KPa Vv ‘iuetureless uty [significant |< 18 | 80-128 Chalk properties ralato to | _V_| tibia rabble significant | 15-20 125-250 grade of weathering, Tabuattd [i ‘lock rubbio ‘sal 20-25 | 250-500 Values ara typical for Middle [7 ‘medium hard iegigibie | 25-35 — | 500-1000 | Chalk. Porous Upper Chalk 18 | hhard and bile” | negigitie | >35 | > 1000 ‘commonly weaker so30 Subsidence over Old Mines Ground stabiity ultimately depends on the atyle of mining usized. which is generally dictated by the snape, Size, depth and value of the ore or extractable rock. STOPING Conventional deep mining, of mineral vein any shape of orebody, creates large open underground ‘olds known as slopes. Subsidence threat is localized, ut may toaly sterlize nartow stips of ground directly ‘over the mings: a wider potential hazard is talure of hanging walls en above incined slopes, PILLAR AND STALL Deop mining of thin low-dip beds by paral extraction; utilizes for most coal working bolote 1840. Between 10% and 40% of ora is itn piace te form pilars to suppor root ~ in random plan er tematic rooms, stalls or bords in old hand-workerd ‘workings, rin regular gid in modern mines. Oost mines, often over-extracted, create a long-term subsidence threat, but better controlied modern mines have no surlace effect, LONGWALL Total extraction of coal In moder mines, ‘ith automatic, immediate, surlace subsidence ~ section 3 SOLUTION Wild brining pumps natural brines trom ‘alt beds at shallow dapin, and greatly accelerates: linear subsidences above natural Brine flows (section 27). Controlled brining pumps frash water into, and brine out of, salt at depth, and should be totally stable, OPEN PIT oF QUARRY Total extraction of bulk rock (quart) or erinoral ore (open pt) togethr wih any waste Tock needed to ensure pt wal stably. Backilis rarly possible or economic in large workings, excopt fr some ‘waste rock fin worked out areas. Smal old quaries are far more numerous, often with unstable and compressive fil of domestic refuse. OPENCAST Continuous operation of surtace excavation, ‘ote removal and backfiling wih displaced overburden, Draglnos may east the overburden over tha sito of ore removal, o earthsorapers are used to take It around the Site. Approximate ground love! Is restored with ‘Uncompacted fit whichis graded e dese protean re- ‘covered with topsoil, uking of broken fil roughly eom- ensates for ore removal. Common used for modem coal ‘working; mltple seam extraction may leave benched ‘ockhead profs banoath fi pogoeeoeceeg saeaascocaag Boesesccaasaeg Pilar ara stall mining of oypsum bed 2m tick. ‘Above: plan of ol iregular and modem regular workings. Below stable mudstone root in the modern workings. Lee ord and pillar working ofa coal sean 1m tick. tepeot over ockneas in nal oxron Tested gradea sutace Opencast Mining scompacte baci <— rewtystoctptes 2) eps. 2} overuse tram fst cu oI lst eut ‘graded baci ‘ng ground ote Creare dueing sipped coal oanch ‘verburaen sepa epencas! ine cas mova aseaalee Falco outroROOF FAILURE AND CROWN HOLES Roo! span failure and progressive breakdown of beds causes upware stoping (migration of cavities), ‘This may reach the surface to eroato a crown hole by sudden collapse, or stoping may be stopped by beam Acton of a stong bed, by formation of a stable arch in thinner beds, or by bulked breakdown dobris meeting And supporting the Fock. Crown holes are rare from mines at depths greater than about 90 m oF 10 tes exracted seam thickness. zene MINE PILLAR FAILURE Mine pillars fail where they are left too slim, are subsequently overloaded or are subject to weathering ‘and erosion, Multiple failures, domino-stye, may affect Targe areas and were common in tho past due to over- ‘extraction and pilar-robbing Collapse of old mines may be delayed 100 years or ‘ore. Modern threat of ground failure Is minimal where mine is > 50 m deop, where any imposed structural lead fs sight in proportion to existing rock overburden ‘oad and where pilar erosion Ie gonerally oss than tis ‘near to the surtace, FAILURE OF OLD SHAFTS ‘Thousands of old mine shafts are a widespread haar ‘Small old mines had far more shafis than large mocern mines; records of lg shaite are very incomplete, and Site investigation must pursue any documented or physical indication. Shafts are mostly “5 m diameter, 10-300 m deep: dry stone of may Be compacted fil bottom of shaft or above unstable stopping, of may be ‘empty; may be covered wit timber, vegetation, steal or Concrete, or may be Well sealed and capped Shaft cap should be reinforced concrete slab of slameter 26 times that of shaf, founded on sound Fock, Coal measure shafts usually require filing, oF {rout injection of oa il for development within 20m, remedial costs may exceed £10 000. iar a fos tot ‘TREATMENT OF OLD MINES Excavation and backill is normally only feasible and ‘economic to = 5 m depth Piling Is normally limited to 30 m depth, and only through drt or shale, as boring through sandstone is Unaeonomic; cannot be used where sip i steep, where there is any risk of siding, or where deep mining ‘subsidence i active or anejates, Grouting may need 100 mm bored holes on 3-6 m grid to ensure complet tiling. Must include marginal zone of Width that is 6-7 times depth to encompass zone of Influence, Porimeter is sealed fie, grout stilened with ea gravel forms cones arcund holes bored on 1-5 m ents, hat coalasee to create a wall within the mine, Can fil wih low-sirength foamed concrete or lean rock ‘paste to prevent roof caiapse between sound pilars. Founding cn rafts or reinforced stip footings may be {004 for low-siso buildings over mines of marginal depth, 'sk does nol warrant expense of iin. ‘SAFE COVER FOR OLD MINES. Guideline figure 1s 30 m for old coal mines, so this is also the minimum depth lor borehole investigation ‘At > SO m depth, pilar‘alure Is rare decause imposed Yoad is small compared to overburden toad, and root stoping rately reacnos the surlace to form eroun hoe. Even witnin coal measures, focal condone may vary, ‘ith strong sandstone roo! or old weak pilars eroded by water; some mines 10.m down are stable for houses: thers have needed iing at 50 m depth, Safe depths ave silferen for rocks ‘ther than coal measures; bulings are sale 3-5 m above oki mines in Nottingham sandstone; par talus in limestone minos 145 m down near Walsall caused surface subsidence ler stoping collapse of mainly shale cova. Feemedial costs may exceed €50 000 per hectare, out should be < 5% of project costs; shat filing or major ‘grouting exercises incur maximum costs, Fins peerage Bll pits are shafls usually < 10m deop 10 old coal ‘workings reaching only & few mets from the shatt land not interconnected. Generally occur In dense ‘10ups, and must be filed or excavated if development ‘ver ham cannat be avoide. { et31 Mining Subsidence ‘Total extraction mining removes al the mineral from a bed, allowing the unsupported root to fll and cause Inevitable and predictable surface subsidence. I is used worldwide in a large proportion of modern Lundergroure! coal mines. Longwall mining ls the method used in Briain, Extraction s by a machine coal cuter moving back and forth along a single migrating coal face up to 400 m long. Aitera slice of coal about 1/m thick has been cut from the whole length of the face, the hydraulic root Supports aro advanced, the too! behind is allowed to fal, and the process is repeated. Panel of coal is ermoved: about 300 m wide and maybe ‘over 2000 m long, with no support beyond the working face and access roadways, ‘Atomative method isa version of pillar and stall mining followed by. pillar removal on the retreat. Surface subsidence effects same as for longwal ‘SURFACE SUBSIDENCE ‘The ground surface is determed above a working coal {aco by a subsidence wave which migrates atthe same Fate as the face advance ~ usually 10-20 m per week ‘This subsidence wave has a number of effects: Subsidence must oe less than seam thickness, so usually about tm; may accumulate to > 15 m by ‘uttiple S8am working overtime: causes litle structural ‘damage but has impact on drainage and piped services, Ground strain develops first as extension (on the convex part of the wave), then a return to neu followed! oy compression (on the concave pant of the wave). This causes most of the structural damage due fo mining subsidence. Total strain Ie the sum of exionsion and compression values and is typleally $210 mmim oF 0:003~-0.0% Angular movement occurs as tit on the subsidence ‘wave; usually minor and only signiticant to tall Chimneys and senile machines. Micro-eanthquakes may occur due to movements in ‘tong, massively jointed rocks under stress, At any one site, subsidence movements are generally ‘compinted within no more than one year PATTERNS OF SUBSIDENCE Mining subsidence folows a well defined pater, DDopth and lateral extents of the subsidence bowls and strain prties, can be predicied on the basis of many past measurements, and tho empirical data conforms Closely wih theoretical calculations Critical parameters which determine subsidence movements are the depth of working (h). tho pan ‘with (W), and the extracted thickness of coal (0), Above an extracted panst, the ground moves to. Subsidence and strain are most sovero ovar shallow, wide panels in thick seams; tey are algo complicated by geological factors (faults, strong recks, steep ops) ‘and multiple workings.PREDICTION CALCULATIONS. Approximate predictions can be read from graph on the Fight which shows maximum values of subsidence Strain and tit related to h, w anc t. These are typical values only; better predictions are mace with graphs for ‘specific coafields based on their own records and rock characteris, This graph oniy gives maximum values: partial strain and subsidence, which occur outside side edges of panels can be read oll more detailed graphs. Example of calculations using this graph: Se factors (tom mine plans) thickness =t= 12m; ‘panel with = w = 160 m; depth = h= 400 m. Patios: wih = 160/400 = 0-4 Uh = 12/400 = 0.003, + Reading of graph for value of wh Subsidence factor (Gtec from graph) Subsidence =2=03xt=03 "1 Exonsion » E = 028 (om graph) xh (0:28 x 0.003 = 0-00088, Compression = C = 062 (ram graph) Uh 162 x 0.003 = 0.00188, Strain =E + C = 0.00084 + 0.00186 = 0.0027 =2.7 mmm. Tit = 14 (rom graph) x Uh 164x003 = 0.0082 CONSTRUCTION IN SUBSIDENCE AREAS: CConctote rafts are eimplost and cheapest foundations for buldings; smooth based, formes on polythene over 150 mm granular sand to’ absor® horizontal stain: roinforced beth top and base, mavimum 20 m long of with sttfening beams on ton, ‘Structural unts should be as small as possible, or may be articulated to tolerate stain. ‘Aomatives are deformable structures, some wit) sising panels and spring bracing. Pigs nood care as titng can diminish integrity. Pipelines need flexible joints, ana gravity Tow drains ‘need slope greater than predicted tt Bridge decks may be on ‘ties-point roller or spherical bearings, with hinged plars, and bitumen or comb ‘expansion joints, sacking poms for bridges, machines or buldings are ‘cheaper bultin than added later. PRECAUTIONS FOR OLD STRUCTURES Most structural damage is under tensile stain; tebars can be added to buildings. Ground compression can be halved by digging trenches around a uléing to isolate @ rat of sol beneath i, Bridges may need temporary support or deck removal Pipelines can be exposed and placed on siding chocks, ‘SUBSIDENCE COMPENSATION Longwall mining has compensation for inevitable subsidence damage incorporated in its budget, but Compansation law varies between counties, In Briain, Coal Authority pays costs of damage repairs, except to recent. stuctures where precautionary measures were appropriate but were not installed Coal Authoiy does not pay cost of precautionary works, even f these are required by local planning law. Subsidence may be reduced, but not eliminated, by Sstowing wasto boforo roof colapse, by leaving support pillars, oF by harmonious working (Where one panel's ‘Compression eancels out a second pana extnsion), Urban areas, where compensation costs may exceed 20% of coa’s value, are not now undermined im Brtain, ‘When rising in a region ceases, drainage pumps are swilched off then groundwater rebound raises joint water pressures and re-acivates over-stressod faults; may cause new phase of localizes ground movement 36) in 208, Tm : amas at ‘STRUCTURAL DAMAGE RELATED TO STRAIN Damage eats to both ground tain and structural ez. Potent Satorton = stain x structural strength Cass of damage] Typical features of damage and dstocan Very sgh | Barely ntceabe so mm | ha crac nator T Slight internal ractures, 20-60 mm | doors ard windows ny sick Foprecabie | Shght external ractres, @0~128 mm | sere ppes may fate Foo slope ane walls lan, _ doors trames dstored "_| ‘Severe floor sopes anc wal bulges, {oor andro! beams lose bearing, ‘needs pata or complete rebullang [Sige GEOLOGICAL FACTORS. Some ground concitons croat very variable eubeldence land make detailed ste precictions very ciicut these eologeal factors account for 25%. of movements and {damage being outside predictions, ether above or below Fractures (ioints and guls) in strong, competent rock at futerop localize movement, creating zones of very high Strains between stable areas whore Dlocks of rock act as, natural rafts. Sandstones, and the Magnesian Limestone St nomthorn Englang, develop open fissures under tension, ‘wih eubsizanoesinknles in sol cover. Fauts localize mavement with zones of high strain and (ground stops duo to displacement Steep dipe displace the subsidence bow! in downdip rection and signifeanty disor strain profes, en exe anona st “aa ote oa EES32 Slope Failure and Landslides Neary all slopes ultimately degrade by the natural processes of weathering and downslope by transpor. ‘On most slopes thi ie & continuous, very slow process, Landslides occur whore a slope remains static for a tong pariod and then falls iva single dramatic event. ‘The result in both cases is the same; landslides are one fend of @ spectrum of natural processes. Landslides may occur in any rock typo. “They commonly oocur where some geological structure, ‘weakness of contrast interrupts the pattern of slow ‘egradation. Potential landslide sites are recognizable by th oologial structure. Each landslie Is normally triggered by an individual vent oF pro Landslides are only understood by assessment of both the inal structure and the trigger procoss, UNSTABLE SLOPES Each rock material has its own equilibrium slope angle. Clays are gonorally Unstable al >10°, roughly (2. Most rocks of moderate or greater strength can be stable in vertical walls 100 m high i they are massive ‘with only vertical and horizontal fractures. Granite forms 2 vertical wall 700 m high on Half Dome California, and the vortcal cfs 150 m high at Beachy Hoad, Sussex, ‘are formed in much weaker chalk. Minor rockfal is “alvaye 2 hazard on thase high faces, nar weaknesses ~ bedding planes, joints, ete. — inclined towards the slope create potential slip surfaces in any rock; slopes degrade back to any major fractures with dip ¢ (may be « 20° for clay illng; cohesion and Water pressure are also significant) Densely fractures o thin bedded racks weather back to slopes of 20~40". Potential failure can be assessed on any of the above citoria in contoxt of local data, Rock sidos 2 ‘mostly related to bedding planes, joins, faults, cleavage (oF schistosty planes which daylight (have unfavourable ftientation and are exposed al their lower end) ina ‘surface slope. ‘TYPES OF FAILURE Large roek failures are mostly planar or wedge sides on ‘one or more plane surtaces. ‘Small rock failures are commonly falls or topples. Clay failures. aro mainly single or multiple rotational sis, idealy on circular stp surfaces, Mud slides, mus flows and debris lows develop trom weak clays or in failed rock material alter initial placement. Complex fallures aro common and invelve multiple processes; block slide has planar, and circular haa, Head scar of rtaional sie breaks avoadin Yorkshire ‘SPEED OF FAILURE ‘Slow: more common in sot cays and ductile materials, ‘olably reactivated old landslides. Thistle Slide, Utan, $989, moved < ih for two Weeks. Fapla: typical of brite rock failures as rock i greatly weakened by inal shearing o fracturing. Velocities ot 100 kmh are common, as at Madison Canyon. Cyclic: falure creates a stable siope as the debris Decomes toe weight, but erosion of the debris then Permits repeat fallures, as atthe frequent landsides along the boulder clay cilfs of the Humberside coast Alternatively, due to annual cnanges of grounawator is MADISON CANYON LANDSLIDE, MONTANA, USA ‘Goology and siope angle vares along canyon wall West part 45° slope in song dolomite ~ stable, East par: 30° slopo in weak schist ~ stable Mid part: dolomite butrase below schist slope ~ unstable. Incroased stress in earthquake broke dolore buttress unsupported schist slope then faled: 20M en lands. Fallure ofthis par ofthe slope was inovilabl, whenever dolomite butvess was adequately eroded or weakened vibration from earthquake was [ust the tigger process. ‘Bip pai pair ‘eaghingaon Soon‘GROS VENTRE SLIDE, WYOMING, 1925 ‘Thick strong eandstone above bed of weak clay, all dipping 18" towards river valey. | Bier erodes toe of slope removing candsione ‘suppor, untl' 38M m* moved in todalng plane side. | Similar io prehistorc slides on same side of valley: ‘opposite steeper slope is stable Debris biocked valley, creating now lake; first overtopping by river eroded debris and caused ‘sownstrears food LANDSLIDE TRIGGER PROCESSES: Each landslide event can be ascribed to a process: which tiggered the failure ofa potentially unstable rock Cause of talure is therefore a combination of unstable sttucturo and a trigger event. Water: rise in groundwater pressure is by far the most irmportant single tigger factor bahind landslides ~ see section 33, “Toe removal: removing oe ofa slope reduces resistance tomovement. Natural toe removal: erosion by river undercutting (Gros Venie, above): erosion by wave action causing humerous coasal sides Folkestone Warten, section 36) {glacial erosion leaving oversteopened hillsides (Mam Tor, Section 35). Artificial toe removal: by quarrying or mining (Frank), ‘excavation forbullcig site (Hong Kong), or road widening (Catak) (alin section 39) Head Loading: adsing material above neutral lino of a slide increases ts driving force. Portugese Bend sido, Los ‘Angoes, 1956, activated by fll placed for a new road which ‘added 3% to side mass in zone above sip surface dipping 22" in weak clays, Folkestone slide, 1916, activated by rock fls from head soar (secon 36). Natural head loading causes slope instability on many ‘active volcanoes, ‘Strength reduction: weathering utimately weakens al slope materials; stow creep causes restructuring of lays stressed within slopes (section 34); slow processes eventually reach ctica points. Vibration: cyclic and temporarily increased stresses nay caute sol restrucuring of rock fracturing, Aitificial vibration, as. trom heavy road trattic {costtutory at many small road failures) or fom pile driving (which caused a clay side destroying Swedish village of Sure in 1960), Earthquake vibration has caused numerous slides. 1970 earhquake in Peru stared slide on Mt Huascaran ich davaloped into dobris flow moving fast enough to fiso. 150 m ver ridge and bury 20.000 people in the town of nga. Many slides have complex oxgins, where and when a number of contibutory factors coincide. STABILITY OF A SLIDE MASS Basle forces on a slide block ao: Weight of block, with two components, D and N. ‘ving force = W sino. ‘normal sress on sip piane = W cos ov. pitt force due to pore water pressur and F = rosistancos in reaction to. = cohesion across sp pane. F = tretonal resistance on sip plane = N tan § = rosisianeo to shear = c+ (W cos &~u) tan @ Safety factor = A/D = resistanco/aring force, and 6 are properties o the rok m ‘Neutral line: a curved slip surface beneath a slide ‘mass has a neutral line boundary (NL) between a stoop Section where D> R anda later section where A> D. Tension jolnts or open fissures at head at slide may contain water exerting a horizontal jint water pressure {@) which adds tothe driving force, Dotormation within the sige mass must occur as it ‘moves over a sip surface which is othar than plane or Cylindrical resistance to his deformation by cohesion and {retion along multiple internal sip surfaces adds 10 the resisting fore. Forces acting on a complex landslide ‘nth some engineered features. Notation a8 above ‘Stability analysis of a landslide may be by assessment of forces in two dimensions in dividual siees of the ‘mass; these vary across the sitie and may include Sriical constraints, Fulllandsisestellty analysis is more complex due to: + breaking slide ino smal units reaction forees between thes unite ‘ariabie water pressures ‘estimated valves of¢ and § Feactonsin three dimensions Force diagrams drawn to scale quantialively represent components In a two-dimensional slope stably analysis. 2,33 Water in Landslides Groundwater is the most important single factor in triggering landslide avants. Rising water tables and rising water pressures, are Contributory to most slope failures; the majority of landslides occur ding rainstorms. Effective stress is reduced by any Increase in water pressure and there le a consequent reduction in Feslstance to shear (sections 26 and 22). Joint water pressure in rocks and pore water pressure in sols are equally important Drainage is theretore crtieal to slope stabil (action 36). Water input to a slide mass also has the long-term effect of internal weathering, Loading by water in a side mass may increase the diving force. Water does not act as 2 lubricant. The only mater Aanproaching he properties ofa hblcant In aside i lay Softened by increased water contont ‘SCARBOROUGH LANDSLIDE, 1993 ‘Single roatonal sie formed in 30 m high ogy slope, than erogressive falure of hoad car destroyed net [Long Feiod of drought nad lf shrinkage cracks inthe dried clay, folowed by heavy rainfall which raised ‘SOURCES OF INPUT WATER, Rainstorms: High rainfalls from individual storms cause numerous shallow ses where high water pressures can ragialy reach lip surfaces, Hundreds of sides in Jordan, in early 1992, due to rare: heavy snowfall and rapid moll in a normally semi- desert terrain; col, cocks anc fils all equaly afected Destructive 1988 side at tek, Turkey, bled during fst period of high rainfall since road widening had ‘slooponed the slope four years previousy. ‘Shallow earth slides are annual events during rainstorms on sleep slopes ofthe sharty town favelias i Flo de Janeiro Rainfall seasons: Deep-seatod slides are more. affected by annual fluctuations of water abl. Winter groundwater maxima create landsiide season fom November to March in Brita Monsoons cause most of the landslides in SE Asia. ‘Spring snowmelt is the main faxtor In alpine regions. after slopes have been stable ding winter Ireeze Numerous sets of data show cortelation between rainfall and sie movement; mostly on small scale with rapid response, or on large scale with response ‘layed 1-10 wees; Portugusse Send and Vaiont examples. ‘Artificial inputs: impounding water In a reservoir raises regional water tables, as at Vaiont. Davegetation ofa slope allows increased infiltration. Iigation of farmland or garcons has caused many terrace 26g faures in dry regions such as Calor, Secondary effects: Opening of tension fissures in head zone, as slide stars to move, captures runoff and Inoreases intitration, ‘PORTUGUESE BEND SLIDE, LOS ANGELES Coastal slide of 100haof weathered shale, on 6° slope, Slow creeping movement totaling 40 m since 1956has Gostroyed 127 houses and damaged he coast oad Complex relatively shaliow slide responds to both Inavial rainstorms and seasonal weather patterns. FRANK SLIDE, CANADA, 1903, Glacialy over-steepened slope in Rackias cut in ‘ipping limostone of marginal stabil. Rock fissures opened due to creep movement inated by crushing of inadequate mine pillars let in vertical coal seam aotoss toe of sope. Fallure occurred alter first day of spring thaw. ocktall of 37M m® buried mining town of Frank. Caues was a comoination of the dipping limestone, the mined toe and the snowmelt input Tony Comanon EARTH SLIDES IN HONG KONG Froquent shalow slides on steep slopes in urban areas. Sliges form soll layers and decomposed granite and voleanie bestock (weathering grade IV and V). Soils drain quickly on stoop slopes, bul are saturated by poriodie heavy rainals, ‘Weathering yelts sand and clay sols from bedrock slope ovement creates layered sols. Sand solls over clay ol recognized alow hazara zones. Clay soils over sand solls can create inclines artesian aguiters, with high water pressures on underside Ot clay cap where slip planes can develop; designated hazard ones on steep slopes. Clay layers are more important as impermeable seals than a8 easily sheared planes, are freely drained;\VAIONT RESERVOIR SLIDE, 1963, ‘The Vaiont slo involved a magnificent dam, an awlul reservoir site, and the world's worst disaster caused by hl engineering with 2043 people dass. Vaiont Dam: In Alps north of Venice: cupola (double arch) dam 266 m high, of concrete 4-23 m thick. ‘Slide on 9 Octobor 1963: 270M ry of rock, forming a slab £200 m thick, moved 400 m at 20-30 mvs. Landed in feservoit and created huge waves ‘Wave 100 m high ovortopped dam (which survived); Longatone and other vilages destroyed. Limestones, strong and impure, form side mass; thin ‘bedded with many clay horizons in lower part interbed hon horizons are 5-100 mm thick, plastic clay, Pl = 30-60, V0: below side are pure karst Pmesiones,” Stablty analysis suggest factors of safety (SF) = 20-45" N (downslope) at slide head, 10-15" E ‘ea valley floor ainfal =low SF= 1-21 Slide mass was massive wedge on bedding plane igh 312 slip surfaces and along fauits on eastern edge. Moved ee fas single slab. was a proglacial landslide mass, va rove tow 100. feactivated because new movement was possible into postglacial Vaiont river gorge through oid side toe. Groundwater pressures were raised by impounding Reservoir dosignod to filo 722 m: falled at 701 m in wat reservoir, also’ rose due to rainfall; high pressures poriod; would nave failed at 722 min cry weather beneath slide basal clays, In mestone fod by karst Cause: unsizbie cpping limestone forming ol side sinkholes high o south. Heavy rain ust before faire. Triggers: high rainfall and reservoir impounament Movement of hilside monitored since dam finished Rapid fallure: due iobritie rupture of some key imestone 1960: slp of 0-35 miniday correlated with discontinuous bods and rock units afer yeare of reop had reduced mass. reservoir filing: also correlated with rainfall In previous strength; borehole monitoring data suggests lack of 0 aya. Smal par of sige flo’ in 1960 movement and stress seaumulason i foe o sie while Slip surtace largely ‘olowed postglacial slp n clay — Suroce wos creping. Bots alse broke across somo nestone bets. "The error was fo assume slide woul ereep unt Aestsance to shear mainh on easton side of wedge, stablized on fatter toe. Potential Instabity Was 9 = 36" along fractures, recognizable; reservoir was inappropriate. " OS Talim PO SHAN ROAD SLIDE, 1072 Sequence of events sonar The lrgest side on Hong Kong and ed 67 people, 1. Constucton sil cut slope unsuppotd fr 7 Naturt Slope at 9 wit sof 18 mck Yous epore sl sotenad bare pes 75 Etta bongs of 20 mpl To sound ook. 2, Sal as ourdvater seepages and had cracks | Eau! seeps slope gh aa it ace inPo Sha Rood obsved for year etre sve. | 2 Rail ot 700 mm i's dys oro ste, Nghe bn ects cused sal accent sles, 4 Tha day before mam sda sip poaicnd 5m head tearinPo San Road ar debs Hows on Bang sie Fernours before main si, most tae tes tnd dab tows eossee Cohaut Road 2 mdeap. tmmedatly before main side, small sip om stove Po Shan Rous anded on oad Naini moved 2 000m of debi, nd moved Storm! mate Kotewall Coury 19 storeys igh, pushes of feundaons ted and soaps Hing next Sits owtpe aad oie 634 Soil Failures and Flowslides CLAY SLOPES Clays are the weakest, most unstable, slope materia Undleturbed clays. an sland in stop temporary slopes held by cohesion, poro water suction and peak frictional strength Disturbances or restructuring through creep over {ime causes realignment ofthe clay particles to parallel This redueos iniomal friction and eliminates cohesion; atthe game time drainage oqullbrites and eliminates Suction, Natural slopes, with long-torm stability, depend on intemal tricton only. Saturated clay soll have nearly half thoir weight carried by pore water pressure; so slope is stable at angle closo to 2, with residual value Of 6; (section 26). London Clay has 3 = 207; slopes are stable fang do not exist at> 12, Old slides aro at rosidual strength; reactivated mainly by head loading or toe removal Faliure surface in nomogencous soll a silpcicce Critical sip circle, of lowest safety factor, is foune by tedious calculation ofall possibe circles, summing data fn slices and using terative mothods; now always by ‘computer. Back analysis obtains sol strength parameters by sta billy analysis of falleg slopes when satoty factor» 1 t< 10", PROGRESSIVE FAILURES Clays are bite and lose strength as they fal Britleness = % loss of shea’ Strength, from oak to residva. Clay soil in slopes t00 steep oF too high is locally ‘overstressed: deforms and loses strength, passes load to ‘acjacont col, shear zones grow and coalesce; overall ‘Strength decinas fo ullmate laure of slope. ‘Scale of progressive movement and partial fallure depends on bitieness. ‘At'intermediate stages, some of the sol is loaded at peak strength, some Is losing Hs strength In post peak ‘otormation. Mean strenoth during allure is close to for peak strength ‘with cohesion else tO. Progressive failure may take years. Many railway cutings in London Clay have failed after 50-100 yoars, before reaching residual strength. off clay has {alld betwoen verical beds of sand, developing nto 3 ‘muciiow with typical arcuete pressure ridges. 68 FLOWSLIDES Soil, clay oF rock debris may fail as towsiiae where matorial behaves as a liquid; water conten’ is above quid limit. Usualy due to decrease in strength, not to Inoraase in water. Liquefaction: total loss of strength due to undrained restructuring. Disturbance, by shearing or vibration, Gestroye soll ekeloton; wih lose of grain contract and Seerease of porosity, sol ioad Is ansfered to pore water Water pressure > normal stress, 20 efletive strove and soil acts as 2 liquid. Drainage reduces pore water pressure, alows grain contact and thxotropic recovery of Strength a te ci ns Fluidization: develops in moving materials, notably rocklals and pyrociaste lows. Graine contilly Bounce fff each other with no permanent grain contact or ‘Strength, Pore fic may be water or ai May also involve hovercraft effect on cushion of trapped air Stops when movernent reduses to crtial point. Flowsiides are extremely mobile: move over low ‘gradients, Most develop rom smaller inital sides, notably ‘Slope faluresn sensive clays, sides in oncohesive tip dotris, coektalis in mountain regions. Also due to ‘earthquake vibration, Fulizes rockalsinckde Frank and Yungay (section $2) and Saidmarreh; also many large slides which block deep Valleys in Himalayas. Most violent are known as ‘sturstroms. SAIDMARREH ROCKSLIDE, IRAN historic sid, parhaps largest in wort Limestone sab, 20 000 M ms, sipped an dp of 20" Fuidized; mable enough to travel 18 km across valley flor, at> 300 kmh, and up over ridge 450 m high Slide debes fst thought to be giacial ti ‘SOLIFLUCTION Downsiope movement of saturated debs. Poriglacial conditions (section 16) in Pleistocene caused numerous slope failures in Stain. ‘Soliuction of active layer widespread on slopes > 4", notabiyin clays, mustangs and chalk, Postglacial met cf permatrost permitted drainago and marginal staoikztion, leaving shear surlacos Inthe oad tit residual sengih of Many sides reactvatad since recent deforestation. Sevenoaks bypass, Kent, had to be relocated across folilucted slope; Pleistocene flows on slopes of 2-7" Consisieg of had few mates thick overlying clay; upsiope ating sidou wore impractical to stabize ‘Any slope > 5° in clay, which was in Pleistocene periglacial zono, is Ikoly ia have head debris prone to reactivationQUICK CLAY SLIDES Sensitivity, or exer strength when sheared, Sonsitivity = ratio. of compressive strengths, Undsturbed tarot ‘Sensitive clays have senstivity > 4 ‘uiek clays have sensitivity > 16 Highest sensitivity in clays or ally clays, due to realignment of clay patos (mainy lite) and sit rains, Fino grain and low permeabiliy hinder drainage and allow liquefaction to Gevelop fully. Leda Clay of Easton Canada Is the classic exampla (of quick cay, along with similar clays from Norway and Souther Sweden. Marine clays formed around margins of Peistocane ico heats; then uplited by glacial unloading; naw form low Valley-loo teraces with steep edges where cut nto by postglacial rivers. Cray parties were originally flocculated into clumps due to bonding in saline porewater. Leaching by modern rainfall removes salt and interpadicle bonding, leaving metastable structure. Liquefaction is caused by small slope movements in terrace edges when porewater has <1 pom sat. Flowsiides dovolop and rapidly expand headward Stabilization may be possible by brine injection. NICOLET FLOWSIDE, CANADA, 1955 ‘Typical flue of trace in senstive Leda Clay. Fapid neadwars growth cared away bullings, and leflarge arcuate scar 10m deep Flowelidedobrs spread 250 m into vor. Luncrained britleness, is loss of ‘TURNAGAIN HEIGHTS SLIDE, ALASKA Clay terrace 25 m high with 8 m grave cap, lay has 40-53% <2 y diameter, senstivy 10-40. | Major earthquake in 1984 had local intensity VI, with | strong motion for> 4 minutes; unusually lrg duration, | Aftor 90 soconds of vibration, clay iqueieg. Major vanslaion sie; moverent in ower 8 of clay Side area extended to 50 ha; 75 houses wiecked, some moved 150 m. ‘Ground stable again ater earthquake vibration erie. Cay sensi known trom laboratory tess In 1958 ‘Thehazard had been recognized, buthad been ignored as it would only materialize In an earthquake; but tis ABERFAN TIP FAILURE, WALES, 1966 Best known of many similar colliery tp failures because {struck the vilage school and klled 112 chiren Feallod matoral was ariicial But causes lay party within ‘geology of natural ground, Mutipie event with rotational slp followed by flowslide and mudi Location of tip 7 (which failed) was very unsuitable Tip overlay natural spring trom sandstone. ‘Sprngline along base of Grthdir Sandstone wall known 85 site of many previous tip falures in Welsh Valleys. Tip extended over sheared debris of earlier slide from igher tp. Rotational slip prompted by head loading of slope — common event on tips Bult fram top. Carge scale of slp due to saturation of debris by spring beneath; three previous failures were over springs, no failures of ory tis, ‘Slow movement; 6 m neadscar Fours Betore formation of the fowaide, Mining subsidence ground strain produced local fexlonsion zone, increased rock fracture permeabilly land spring flow, falsing water pressure within tp. Flowslide formed in saturated debris restructured in Fotational slip, with reduction of porosity and strength Gectine to residual Liguetaction as debris could not drain; low permeabilty due to high cantent of fines from mine washing plant Flow af 110 000 m debris, moved 610 m on 13" slope Rapid consolidation when the flow stopped Mudtow formed in some of debris with water released from sandstono whon glacial i tipped by main slide Cause: essentially the satucation of the Undrained tip dbs, whicn was placed over a spring ~ due to a tots) Tack of ground investigation prior te tipping, ther factors increased the scale of the cisaster. oped in a tow Moonta35 Landslide Hazards POTENTIAL SLOPE FAILURES Most failures of rock slopes are related 10 planar ‘weaknesses with unfavourable orientations. Wego falures most lily where fine of intersection of {wo fracture planes dips < and daylghts in stope. Best Imterpreted graphically by streoprojecton, Hazard zones, A falure potonta! can be recognize but incomplete data on Buriod rock structure means that stabiliy analysis can only be estimated, and risk ‘assessment is subjectve dependent on strengths and Structures assumed, ‘Time of failure cannot normally be predicted except tha wil probably be during or just ator a rainstorm, ‘Size and speed of future event is rarely predictable ‘Small unsafe slopes may be economicaly stabilzed {Large unstable slopes are best avoided if possible, LANDSLIDE HAZARD MAPPING Gan be effective for route planning and land use zoning, ssment factors include: ‘+ Rock type, structure and strength; Soil type and plasty + Siope angle and shape: + Drainage state and level of water table; + History of previous landslides; + Land use. including vegetation type ang change. Local data isthe basis for any hazard evaluation, notably the slope anglos known ofa in each rock and sol type, ‘and any particular rock structures. Koy factor is recognition of ol, inactive sides, OLD LANDSLIDES Low stabilty because shear surface has reduced to residual strength wth litle or no cohesion. Reactivated ‘with no peak strength to overcame. Stable slopes therefore close to 9/2 in saturated soll and debris; sighty steepar in rocks and where ‘wator table cannet nes fo surface Recognize old sides by surace features: + regular hummecky ground on sipped material + Lobate plan of ceoris and solfluction flows: 1 Uncerted slice debris which may resemble glacial ti + Concave upper siope and/or convex lower slope: Head scare, rounded in oil, angular In rock + Back dips in sloped blocks due 10 rotation. Shear zones: in rock, may have parallel shoar fragments; in sols, mosty remoutded, soft to medium sf, wet, sity clay, 1-50 maa thick Slip surlaces, in rock and sol, may be clean breaks wth oF without poised surtaces andlor slickensices. Tdentitication of slip surfaces may be difficult In Dorehales due to core loss or contusion with simp fractures. Investigation of shallow sides is best with trenches for tial pits; trench wall cut smooth wih knife normaly Shows sip planes in clays ater they have opened duo ta shrinkage on drying: Important in recognition of solttucted head. ACTIVE SLOPE MOVEMENT ‘Surtace signs include: fresh scarps or terraces; now ponds, undrained hollows or pressure ridges; fresh Sharp fook fractures; distorted tee growth, Locate depth to sip surface by ofset of borehole which ig unlined of cased with foxible plastic, or by acoustic ‘omission protiing. SLOPE HEIGHT Cohesion allows slopes to stand at angles > ¢ (angle of internal fiction of the rock oF sol). Frictional resistance, effective stress and driving force are all functions of mass, increasing with slope height: Cohesion ie 8 tuncton of atea, independent of height, 50 It has less proportional effect in high slopes. Cow slopes can therelore stand at sleapor angles than high slopes in same material Intact rock (horzontally bedded) wil stand in vertical cliffs of height limited only by UCS; coastal alts in ‘weak chalk stand 150 m high. Height and slope of natural and cut faces is Iited by fractures ~ mainly their ofientation, also density, ~roumanae "awh Bing pas] arya esa nse Influence of slope height on stab slope argle High slopes in dry materials al have stable angles which approach the lesser of ¢ cr the dip of any structural ‘weakness, Al stable slope angies are reduced by saturation (roughiy halving the tangent of the angle): saturated values apply to longer stabi. Shallow surface slides and isolated rocktalls are Independent cf slope height Karakoram Highway crosses over 500 kmot ‘mountains between Pakisian and China, with steep slopes in geologically active {errain; some part of the road is closed on averageone day in wo by rocklalls, debris, flows and mudslides landing on 1026: most Dlockagos are cleares ‘thin few Gays, ana fepeat failures. a Inevitable stabilization ‘of high slopes above 1 Ihe Toad is mpracica| foadbed. ie woll ‘engineered sot rarely {ais excopt on a very small sca,MAM TOR LANDSLIDE Glacialy oversteepened slope on shale and sandstone In Engish Pennines. Slido 800 m wide, 1000 m long, > 3000 years old Uppor part is muiple rational lancslige of bedrock ‘ices, with road stepped over minor head scarps. ‘Loner partis debris ow, creaing wavy road prot, Foad across the se has been closed sines 1977 Stability analysis considers slices extending down to slide, each 11m wide, each broken into sections of uniform properties. Factor of safety = FS = shear resistancedmving force Eel +E (Weos aul) tan gi EWsina/(t+ arb) ‘apparent cohesion: taken as 0 on reactivated sip suriaces length of sp surface in vertial sided section mass of slice; unit weight = 20 kNims Inolation of sip surace ore water prossuro height of water lable above slip surtace angio of trctonal shear cositance; taken as residual value of 14", from tests and back analysis of nearby sides sie dopttiside with; for edge drag due to lateral earth pressure. Caleulated values of FS for whole side are close to 1.0; these are correct as sie Is in eiical state, ust moving: so assumed values of c and are good * Upper side: anaysis of typical sice section: whore d= 20,u = 10, a= 13"; thon FS = 088 if water table is lowered, u = 5; then FS = 1.05, *+ Lower side: analysis of typical stoe section: whore d= 13,u= 12, a= 75% then FS = 1-19 itwater table isos to surface, = 15; then FS = 0:89 + Whole sido: FS reduces by 6:05 for evary tm se of water table. Movements of around 0.7 m occur one winter in every tour, when threshols groundwater lavels are excoedes — by a winter month with rainfall 60% over average {allowing a yea of above-average raintal, Drainage with deep sub-horzonial boreholes or adis (s0e section 36) would stabilze tho side afectvaly, Earth shit rom head to toe woulé have minimal effet {88 debris could flow round ary toe weight (or anchor) Fs a cast z (pt nptn cea a7 seesaw “ee a STONE FALL ‘Almost all rock faces, natural and cu, produce random fale of small rooks due to natural weathering. Periodic face cleaning by roped-access technicians can reduced hazard; safety caches stil needed whore roads and buldings ae threatened; tese are generally Cheaper than face stabilization works. Fock trap ditches at foot of slope: bank 1-8 m high, best topped by lence or dense bushes, infront of dich ‘31m wide with earth floor for Impact absorption, good for ‘most faces < 20 m high: 6 m wido itch for Nghor Faces, fang higher bank for slopes around 60° Smaller ditches or lences alone below iow cut faces, Gabion walls on low gradients are very effecive and ‘economical tape Flock eatch nets on steep slopes: wie or rope neting hangs in eatenary sag between hinged suppor, with cable anchors to rockoolls using cable brakes (joops ‘designed to sip through clamps); designed to deform to ‘Sb2or0 Impact energy Rocktall shelters protect roads beneath very loose slopes: massive conerto with ot covered by blanket of ‘rushed rock (r sloping ke avalanche shelters). LANDSLIDE MONITORING ‘Various means o instrumentation; wie range of cst + Surface surveying botwoon fad roterence points. * Crack dation measured between studs glued to rock. + Standpipe or electric piezometers, manual or automatic reading of water abl Boreholes with insaled ncinomotors Horizontal or vertical borehole axtonsometers. 1 Photoolastieorelactvc oad eos on istalad anchors, + Goophones record acoustic emissions (ground bration due fo movement) ‘Simple, rugged instruments are most rolable, Reading and interpretation must be over a long time. Monitoring shows any acceleration of movement; Interpretation is dificult 9s crcal values are unknown Less there fs documented history of previous events (2s in some large quarries). Vaiont side (section 38) was ‘mentoreo, and lailes unexpectedly Extonsometers, geophones and electric trip wires can bo linked to automatic warning systems, as In some ‘allway cuttings in Sweden, n36 Slope Stabilization ‘Sop0s may be stabized by one or more of: + Modifying the slope prof, where possible: + Supporting or anchoring the existing profile; + Improving or draining the slope material PROFILE MODIFICATION ‘Added material below neutral lin, also removal tram above, increase stability. Neutral ine is whore sip surface 's horizontal below undrained slide; dsplaced to winere dlp of sip surface = pin drained state Berm ledges, about 5 m wide on stops 10 m high, redistribute load and stabilize circular slips in weak rock. Smallfalures on steep faces of steps land on berms harmlessh. Hanging locks, slabs and wedges, which vest on ‘ayighting, unfavourably arientates Wactures, ean be Temoved: may leave asymmetrical road cuttings in beds with cp > 9. ‘Toe weight is effective, especially whore lower end of ‘la surface tums up. May be mass concrete, rock fil, farth bank reinforced with geogrids, or thick cr wall. ‘Sizo must fesirain fonnaten at new undortiging sip surface reaching beneath new to Unieading head of side generally has loss effet Original cause of failure should be romoved where possible: river bank erosion control or sea wall to Prevent toe removal. DRAINAGE OF SLIDES Pore water pressure is critical to slide stabilly, $0 drainage 1s usually very effective, and is the only ‘economical method to stabize largo slides In natura! slopes. Surface drains: concrete diversion ditches intercept surface flows; drains on slides reduce infitration Shaliow drains: stone drains in trenches 1-2 m deep lined with geotextia; have limited effect by reducing sol water: deeper counterfor drains also provige shear most effective; mined adits witht walls and sealed floor, or boreholes with perforated ‘casings, Inclined to orain out trom side toe, Rellef wells: drain up or down through aquiciude: ‘need pumping unless drain into lower aquifer. Some Tandon Clay slopes have been drained into lower sand, through 100 mm boreholes filed with sand in polypropylene tubing, on 2-5 m contes.. Interception tunnels: cutbehind sido to reduce ground. water inflow; used in 1800 to stablize fling slopes above ‘iy of Bat. Impermeable olays respond poorly to normal ‘rainage. Eloctro-osmosis of heating with ducted not ait can improve cay stably, but are expensive. race aan nbacap ed ae leas qning nooesae LLANDULAS LANDSLIDE "New road along North Wales coast and new marine defence works were tad 0 acta toe weight, improving Sabily of old side and restraining formation of now Underiding sip surtace © was ‘sonia FOLKESTONE WARREN LANDSLIDE, KENT Muttple rotational coastal landslips in chalk over lay, | ‘crossed by mainin raiway High wintar water tables and relaxation of over. consolidated clay cause renewed movements; largest sins are tiggered by falls from chalk cits ‘onto sige head + Too erosion increased dye to beach starvation ‘after harbour wall, extonded in 1905, aps longshoce it, wor egraiwaripe Sm earn ov tas + Stabization measures placed since 1975 talure, anc added fo sincs: mass concrete toe weights also act 2s Sea wal (0 reduce toe erosion; crainage ais Cut inftem sea Wal lowor water tae,MASS SUPPORT Retaining walls: common pracice and successful on ‘small slopes aad ext aces, but natn larger slopes. Large unstable slopes are not easily retained: it is ditigun and usually uneconomic to bulld and found ‘massive retaining walls at the too of major natural landslides or lage unstable stopes. Conerete walls: need sound footing: prevent from rotation by buttresses, rock ancnore trom near top And/or base, or deep foundations; weep holes Yo parm Grainage; masonry facing improves appearance. Dental masonry: hack out weak zone of rock and. refil with comented: masonry or concrete with stone facing; may dowel into rock. Gabion walls: cneap to instal, can retain sol slopes and acts too weight Sprayed concrete (shotcrete): may be used with Tockoolts (as in tunnel suppor, section 38); spray over bolted reinforcing mesh, or use fbrocrete containing ‘50mm lengths of stool wire within the sprayed mk to dive tonslo strength tion wat rere etree wees wm, ES pec LES GROUND IMPROVEMENT Vegetation cover reduces rainwater initation, and rool mat provides tensile sengly in sols ~ but is destructive on rk laces, as ode force apan jane Geotextiles, geogrids oF wire mesh, anchored to bots, fixes surlace an catches small stonetal pants grow through and provide long-term strength; biodegradable Jute mesh provides short-term suppor. Weathering protection by sprayed concrete or fiprerste, or by chunam (spread mortar); any eover must have eran holes Pattern bolting creates thick stabe layer by tightening the natural rock joints (section 38), and also reduces water initration, Grouting fractured rockis expensive and rarely applied: may use to stabilize scree Liming clays reduces plasticity; improve unstable sodium montmorilonite by change to caleium varie ey aeneath fornew roadcutn Derbyshire. Exposed bored piles provided temporary suppor. GROUND ANCHORS Tensile suppor may be provided to oppose directy the landsbe devin orc. Rockbolte: stool vars, 26 rm diameter, 3-10 m long, in dled holes, fixe al inner end by resin or expansion shall, 100 kN ioad, tersioned to 60 kN, Main purpose to Increase normal stress across joints; cannot bo placed In eavly shatered rock; isolated spot bots io Feta indidual Blooes of rock. Grouted dowels: tee! ars in ailed oles through joints provide dect shea rsistanco. Bored piles: act as large dowels, but ited success. Concrete piles 6 m long, 1-2 diameter, placed across slp surface of Portuguese Bend landslide, Los Angeles, hae no measured effec, some rotatec, some sheared, Side flowed round other. Rock anehore. Tulle steel cables, 10-40 mong, in ridged protective casing fr instalation in eled 109 mm holes, up to 2000 KN load, tensioned to 60%; fied length about 5 m resin bonded into rock. Provide {enala suppor and lighten rock fractures. Most effective ‘where inetalled at angle off above slp plane. ‘Ancnored walls, exible o ig, distribute oad trom anchor ‘caps onto weak landslip materia HOAR EDGE CUTTING ‘Shallow slide inated during construction of Pennine motorway, stabilized by lowered profile and rock buttress. Subsequent movement required anchored wall ~ crushed rock in gootoxtlefacod with shoterato, ‘th 41 cable anchors, each 1000 KN, spaced 1-9 m Bonided for 6 m into stable sandstone, es ‘SHEAR KEYS. May be used te stabilize 1088 of sis in weak sol “Trenches filled wit granular material (wit high e) each ‘through sip surface nto stable ground,37 Understanding Ground Conditions ‘The aulcome of a successful ground investigation is @ broad understanding of the. geological condtons of a ste, and the implications that these may have on any planned engineering activity. "This requires an overview Which may rly on geological ‘experiance ~ nol a problem an large projects employing Specialist engineering goologiets, but mayoe citcal on ‘Small projects wth alinited geotechnical team, Ground conditions are only Tully undersions when erent parameters are miograted into a concept + Nature and strength ofthe rocks and sols, and the alflout ground that ary ofthese may provide + Fracture conditions of the rocks, wiih respect to the rock mass strongt that they determine, + Geological history, ana stress condiions in the ‘ground, ertcal1o underground engineering. + Groundwater conditions, and slope stabilty with ‘aspect to pore and joint water pressures. + Quatemary evolution, notaby "rock deterioration by ‘weathering, and do-strossing by erosion. ‘+ Man-made impacts on the ground, including any Ccantamination of browntels ses, TOTAL GEOLOGICAL MODEL ‘This concept has been introduced to present the broad picture of ground conditions. it develops an overview, tht IS the normal outcome of a geologists thinking, gut iS rarely foremost in an engineer's perception. 2D otawings of ground models Incorporate indivi components of he ground conditions. “The total model matrix has ‘hee types ot modes: + tectonic - that outine the background data: ‘gedtogieal ~ te provide the broad ground picture; + geomorphological ~ with the resr-suriace deta Good model drawings demend some anise ably, but feven rough sketches expose deficiencies inthe data on ‘round conaltone of a st, and they focus altention on Botentel engineering problems. For a small sit, & model may be only thumbnail sketch, bul muliple detaleg models are. becoming Increasingly Important on large projects. such a8 highways, ipalines and new town developments Outcomes of an enginearing gso'ogy investigation: + One or more conceptual ground models ~ which are very helul to project managers. and engineering personnel who donot have a ful geologleal oF feolechinical background + Ientiicaion of areas of eifcult ground, and the scale oftheir potential geonazards, + Rn enginaering geology report in two parts — Part 1~factul data’ wth all geological record Part 2 interpretation: ofthe ground prenertes and ondilons related tothe construction projec, Potential problems, and the ations of tho dala “Too often, inadequate or misirected investigations: + ‘oly on boronoles and trial pits that expose only a tiny fraction of the ground under a site; + examine parametors not relevant tothe problems; * tai to discover erica! ground conditions. ‘Unioreseen ground concions' ae, in most cases, only unforeseen because nobody had iooked for them. RECOGNITION OF GEOHAZARDS “The slaps In good geotecnnioal risk management Greate a team of geotechnical experts. Gather all available data on ground coneltons. Establish the lkelyfpossibie forms of construction. Identity the potential geotechnical hazards. Lstana rank risks for each part of te project. iat risks to engineering options and io costs 7 nite A total geological model for an ypland site that was lnfencad by variations in the Quaternary climat ‘The models In @ ground investigation: they are best cteated after the nial stage; this should alow 2 more fffclent main investigation with boreholes and testing: {and they shouls volvo as investigations and ste works Drogtoss ~ in ho syle of an abservational approach ‘The medels should provoke both directed and lateral thinking, and 80 lead to'a more balances and effective ‘found investigation, Even ithe models are not pursued in every deal, their Cconcopt is ‘applicable {0 every engineer who has to achieve an adequate understanding of the ground ondiins at hs project ocation. Progress in Engineering Geology This is well emanstates by the Glossop Lectures for the Engineering Group of the Geological Society Fookes, 1987, inoducod the concept of a broad understancing tough the Total Geological Mode Hook, 1999, moved towaras amare numorical ‘approach, paliclarly euited lo underground work. Hutcningon, 2001, trought geomorphology into the forefront of understanding ground condtons. Successtul engineering geelogy shouls incorporate all tres approaches, as appropiate fo each project. ™Geomorphology is the sludy of the ground eurlace, Quaternary processes accounted for a sequence of notably the Quaternary evohition ofthe landscape changos whinin the ground condtions by mechanisms ‘The Quatomary is ony a tiny tastion of geological time, that may not be acive at present — but it was s0 recent that 13 processes of erosion and Weathering and cegradetion of near-sutace solls and ‘weathering hove a disproportionate impact on the stale rocks, notably rolatod fo Polstocene perigacial zones. Othe ground today. Drit deposits with respect to Pleisiocene glaciation Geomorphology 1 often ovedooked ty engineers, but limits, temporary lakes and river drainage patos. simple surtace observations can provide data invalvable Erosional removal of cover rocks, causing svess-elie tp the intorpretaton of sub-surface ground conditions. opening of facture in rock, notably on hilides due to Primary geomorphological mapping plays» kay role in valley Incision (and also ovorconsolidation of cays highway enginearing in the iticult teraines of Slope instability interme of past crainace states ard the undovelopad countries. Contrasts in slope processes in changing chats. Brownfield Sites Incroasing demand for building land, and a shortage ol SETTLEMENT OF FILL greenfield sites, creates a need to re-use ‘brownie? Uncontrolled fil may have high potential compaction, Stes ~ derelict land, or'made ground that includes old For leading of 100 kPa (house strip Tootings), Young's opencast mines, backilod quar, old ndustial sites modulus = varies from > 10 MPa ‘or dense ‘ocktll 10 fan disused waste dumps. ‘2 MPa for domestic wast, Creep can last for yoars OF theee sites, about 85% are contaminated with toxe Easy field test of eatlement fa sanc-filed sip left on metas, chemicals, organics andr nycrocarbons. site fa month; most movement is vary rapid ‘Snclean made ground, sattamant ie main problem. Normalto use rl foundations for houses on sof fil Main hazard is long-term slflecential settlement (i) ‘over variate fil. Buried opencasthighwals and quarry faces must be traced and avoided, til could be ‘excessive ané could break a fall. Iundation collapse i los of volume when fi fret Saluraleg, by changed drainago or ning water table ater mine-pumping stops, Loss of thickness may be 1% ‘on compacted rock debris, over 7% on non-engineered mine waste, and higher on some reluse. SITE INVESTIGATION On wowed sts, this Ip moro than a normal ground investgation, as many legal, historical ana erviconmen- {al factors havo to be considered: ie a specialst Fels, ‘here the concept ofa otal geological mode is particu lly appropriate ‘Staged investigation is best on an unknown site; with pits and trenches to sample sols, allow probes to lost ‘gases, and boreholes to mentor leachats flow. CONTAMINATEG LAND ‘TREATMENT OF MADE GROUND This includes any sile where buried substances may Various methods of ground imorovement (section 27) become accessible nd So prosontahealthhazard. can reduce long-erm settlements. Each site fe ferent, nd may Yespond sitlerenly 10 Preloasing elfectvaly compacts the ground to a depth | distutance, noabiy by migration of leachateb or Gas; thatis about 1.25 times the depih of surcharge femediation ie only needed. where. the isk is Dynamic consoldation elle to dopine of © m in | unacceptable, but imis are not easily defined, ‘sand and rock, of 8 mi cay or mixad rluse. Harmful materials may have to be temoved Io a sale Vibroreplacement stone columns can improve any il ‘ste, may be buried onsite except ole) under clean soll Pre-inundation may teal dy fl prone to collapse. ‘cover, or may be isolated by grout culo and deop Methane, derived fram burled domeste waste or from Sura Tota eloan-up may ba costprenotve. coatboering rook, should bo ain te he a oF may ‘Organics may bs redveed by on-se bioremediation. Be taped and burned for power protien fosonasont postponed cn ‘ee goin Jewscane minor ort an Sorte soe reacnd tessa roundaons » 2 ‘otonoltesosyiaed ——roworioris SEM ror avid no houses ey _Satess0ne wn Varying conditions on brownie land with past mining and land, andthe state of houses bul on rafts. 7538 Rock Excavation EXCAVATION METHODS, Method relates to rock strangth and fracture density, ‘Direct excavation: possi in racturedrock of mass, class V (section 25) andin all ols using fave shove), backhoe, clam shell grab or dragine. Ripping: needed to break up slighty stronger rosk, roughly class IV; using tractor-mounted ripper. oF breaking with boom-mounted nyaraule pik (pecker). Blasting: general requiredin stronger, ess fractured {oek. Clase ill rock is loosened in the ground by Underchargedbiasting in some quarties;on urban sites n by hand-held pneumatic ail or by ive rock of mederate or high etength, iss lor, needs tobe fractured normaly by blasting where blasting is unacosptabe, breaking by pecker ‘or hydraulic breaker is very slow. ‘Stable Matai Seong i ‘iron me Stronger hate Sroager t Shales Heavily PANAMA CANAL, INSTABILITY OF CULEBRA CUT oop cut piannecas vertical, complete with 15° sides. Repeated sligos in saturated shales and tutfs only ‘overcome by American use of steam shovels. ‘46M m3; completed 70M m?. ‘CUT SLOPES IN CLAY Drainage changes stablity overtime where face Is cut into clay with inal water table near the surface, 4, Excavation permits stress fale, pwp decreases. 2. Pwp rises to regain equirium (drained state) srength and stability therefore decrease, 8. Siope utimataly rans (ors artiiclaly drained) tornew lower water table; reduced pwp then Increases stably. Fale of change depends on permeabity. Temporary faces. in clay can stand vertical to height 4 x cohesior/unit weight, less the depth of any tension fissures. Walls shear al citical values; base failure Lndercuts propped laces at sighty greater heights ‘Waker knestonen ‘Weaker sandstones Mudetone Weonewsecsoot CUT SLOPES IN ROCK ‘Sound rock can be cut to vertical faces; normally raked back by 10" and benched at 10 m Intervals to improve safely. Higher benches cannot be driled accurately, berms act as rock traps, on highway cuttings and in working quaris, Inclined fractures are main hazard, notably dipping 30-70" and daylighting in face. Dips > 50° normally Tequire cutting face back to clean bedding or fracture. Shale beds may weathor and undercut slopes In ‘strong sandstone or imestone. lake durability test measures % retained intact ‘through 10 minutes of weUéry cycles in standard drum ‘apparatus, Most rocks have values > 80. Valos = 50 for shales indicato susceptibity to weathering and long-term ‘lope degradation Hillside excavations may undercat unstable weathered Teck, ol landsides or sollucted head. Floor heave is rare in rock excavations; only ikely if Unloading stess > 6x shear strength ‘Cutting Slopes in Rock stamens Trmastonee sandstonas ractres rock ‘Values are reduced for siopes with poor drainage, steep dips or structural loading, In areas of deep weathoring, mining subsidence or selsmic activly, and for unbroken heights > 20m. Promature failure occurs where stability is due to temporary pore water suction falure may be in minutes. ‘or hours 60 faces are batlered back lor fongor satay. London Ciay, unweathered, is cut to 65° slopes fo 8 m high where smal sip can be tolerated; reduce to 20° for Unsupported faces belew buildings. Sif glacial il may stan close to vericalfor some months atless than crea eight, so retaining was canbe butt in front. Weep horizons on sand layers cause instbiiy. Lateral stress rele in sopas cutinover-consoldated clay ray cause outward movement, ‘Settlement acjacent to tabla cut slope may be 1-2% ‘of excavation doth, reaching 2-a xdapth back ror rest Of sope. aa igh H matoial__| cohesion | Gifssurod — fosued "| ‘Soft clay. 25 kPa sm am Fimeay | S04Pa | 10m bm J Sie Sake | 2am 1m 3 | _[vetes fori! suo dot = 2= 15OPEN FACE BLASTING Drilling: method should relate to rock toughness ~ highest in fine grained Igneous rocks. In soft rock use pure rotary dil In hard rock use rotary percussion drills with tricone or roller bits, or down-hole hammer. Drill holes: 50~100 mm diameter (0), protorably at 10-18" from vertical Burden Is distance of drilhole line from tree face, Inerelore thickness of rock tbe moved. Ideally shoul bbe 30-40 xD, generally 2m, Spacing along line = 80 x D, generally 3-5 m, Hole depth = 2~4 x burden, commonly 10~15 m. ‘Subailing needed below grade to depth = burden’3. oe 2 dye by 1B tease steting 1 BLAST VIBRATIONS Normally measured as peak particle velocity (ppv) in ‘the 5-20 He range. General safe limi of 50 mms ppv may be modo for afferent structures and rolaos To charge weight (of ‘aynamite) and astance to the structure: graph eters 10 ‘ypleal conditions, which may vary sighlly with the local geology Feeduee vibration levels with delayed fring (« 10 me between smaller indvigual charges wihin the round) ‘or low donsty explosives. cage oe Charging: generally with 0-4~015 kg ANFO perm? rock Stemming is sand filing of hole above explosive, to ‘depth = burden; to reduce ly rock. Firing is usually by oloctric detonator cape; electric delay caps allow firing of muttple ines in one round, feach with optimum burden; so second, Inner, line is layed by 5 milisoconds/m of burden, Fragmentation of rock is best datermined by tld trials; improve by smaller spacing and burden and short lays which superimpose wirations. Blast energy travels along joints; quarry faces are most ‘economical parallel to joints Controlled blasting of final perimeter line shoulé leave clean wall fee of basting fractures. Prespliting: holes wih spacing ony 10-20 xD; charged with 10% normal, low density explosive, decoupled (not Fammed tight against drilfhole walls, so reducing fracturing); ied simuitaneously with high burden (before ‘removal of main bulk), to create a single clean break linking the holes. Line drilling: holes with spacing only 2 x , not charged, so main blasting can work back Just to line of perforations; expensive, used only on fragile sites. GROUNDWATER CONTROL Good drainage of any site excavation Is essential as it |s normally the most economioal means of 7ock slope stabilization (section 36. Pumped drainage allows excavation below water table Horizontal grains, with slight gradient to provide gravity ow; boredhoias 100 mm diameter, 10 m spacing, 50m long, drain of ste or Ino pumped sump Vertical well points, for temporary dewetering while ste Is worked inside coalesced cones of depression; wel Points are jetted into sols, 1-2 m spacing, can lit § m With surface vacuum pump. Submersibie pumps in bored holes in rock or sal can be deeper ~ capacity and spacing depends on ground permeability and flows. Seepage flowing away from excavation improves slope stability Groundwater barriers permit dry excavation without lowering surrounding water table; sheet piles, concrete diaphragm walls, grouted zones or ground freezing, in ‘order ofrising cost grouting or freezing ean also corivol fising groundwater in thick aquifers. MAIN TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES Black powder (gunpowder) = potassium alate, ‘sulphur and carbon, slow expansion, used to extract ‘dimension stone (section 30), Dynamite « 20-60% nitroglycerine, with ammonium ritrate (or nitrocellulose in gelatin dynamites); greater power, lit, fracturing and vibration ANFO = 94% ammonium nitrate and 6% fuel ol; cheap, Salo to handle, dssolves in water, 40% loss Powerful than dynamite; more efficent in weak rock gerae S Sieeen 739 Tunnels in Rock ‘TUNNEL EXCAVATION Choice of three methods. All cost £1~20M/am Drill and blast: ia any rock, and forall large cavers. Roadheader: machino maunted with a rotary miling head (specific to rock type) lilo system best for use In rock = 60 MPa UCS. Tunnel boring machine: increasingly used, though uneconomicin tunnels <' Ar Tong, ‘Shait sinking involves tedious debris clearance; raise boring is sell clearing and often easier ORILL AND BLAST TUNNELING Full face, benched or crown heading and breakout were bad rock needs suppor. ‘Jumbo machines nave 2-5 dills on arms; can swing to ‘rit bok holes. Dail Roles converge round a central wedge which is blasted out frst; delay fuses (1-100 ms) then break Duter zone inte the central hole. ‘Smooth lating eaves clean walls with perimeter holes spaced < 1 m, gly eharged and tired simutaneously. ‘TATES' CAIRN TUNNEL, HONG KONG, 1989 rogcess in tunnel 107 m wide, 8m high, with tui face working in strong granite, | Two 10 h shitsiday, advance 60 miweek. Diling (8): round of 80 holes, 60 mm diam. 4:5 m ‘deep, each hole takes 8 min wth jumbo. ‘Charging and fring (2 hy: 45 kg dynamite pr hol, Mucking (4h: ont loader ils 20 dumptruck in 2 min; 1000 per round, ulks 50%. ‘TUNNEL BORING MACHINES (TBM) Full face rotating head, up to 9 m diameter, armed with ralier discs or chisel picks, turing 2-10 rpm. Now capable of working through hard rock. Progress by jacking against side gripper pads or the installed concrete segment ining Advance: 20 miday in soh Ground, less in hard rock Cannot vary diameter; tightest curve = 300 m radius. Some work as earth pressure balance shad, with @ bulkhead provcing face support in soft ground. DIFFICULT GROUND CONDITIONS: Faulte cause many problems ~ broken groune, FReroased water fon; dnd maybe change of eck ype Groundwater = Sic i high flows; worst ar karst fesures witrup lo 00 Us, may need bulkhead sealing andlor ow diversion. Overbreak in hard fractured rocks Is worst in Sedimentary and metarorphi song vera se ezing ground = pies fem, most in ays anc Stes anore UCSloverurden avese <3. Fockbureta occur mainly et depths > 600 m in rock win UCS > 140 Ma Swelling ground = wal closure due to any Increased rater content cays ‘Tomperature of groundinereases 2~4C/100 m depth Rocknead te major hazard Zone; ungorster tunnels Keep > 20 mock cover Strese reduction in roo causes loosening of jointed {ook and potoal doled fare Vertical stress in tunnel walls rises to 9 timos overburden oad 6 SEIKAN TUNNEL, JAPAN, 1985 Railtunnel 54 km ong, reaches 250m below sea level In aticut mbture of faulted voteanic rocks, wity UCS varying 3-150 MP Cut ay del and blast, wth 200 mm shoterete ining, and ‘al arches in soft rook; grouting in fault zones ater major fondng; cost £2500M, Kept 100 m below seabed; advance probes altho way. ‘CHANNEL TUNNEL, EUROPE, 1992 Rail wnnol 60 km long, twin bores 7-6 m diameter. Inimpermeabie chalk marl with low fissure denslty, UCS 125-9 MPa, close to ideal tunneling medium. Gut by 8.7 m TBM, and lined with precast concrete Seqmants 360-540 mm tick; cost 900M, Kept 20 m sound rock between crown and seabed. ADVANCE GROUND IMPROVEMENT Spiling strengthens arch of rock with advance fans of FeckDots 10° from tunnel ais Grout may be injected through similar fan of hol ‘ahead of tunnel onto exposed zones of weakness Drainage cont! trom surtace, by wel posting, ruting or freezing, usualy enn sols at chatow cep. GROUND INVESTIGATION Costs 05~3% of project, most in mixed weak rock. ‘Variable ground may warrant advance probes. 20-30 m ahead ol ace, ‘Seismic geophysies (section 22) can locate zones of oor rock by reduced veloc, beneath land or water.Rock Tunnel Support Systems PASSIVE SUPPORT ~ ‘S80 steal ribs (colary archos) cast with concrete or ‘uted on outsce Srecast concrete segments (otten placed by TBM) | lock may impose high siress on parts of suppor. * st concrete, on traveling formwork, now mainly used | 5 2 secondary linings for road tunnels ACTIVE SUPPORT Strengthens the rock, mainly with rockbolts ane shotcroto, £2 creala a slable selt-supporting arch within the rock | ‘mass over a tunnel opening, | ghumasemon nee Betior than passive supgor in af but weak sols. ‘Norwegian Tunnelling Method successfully defines the SELECTION OF SUPPORT SYSTEM fequrea support, iis an adaptable system (based on Chart above shows appropriate support system based on Sxperience) which can be applied to variable rock tunnel dimension ano rock mass quality Conaitons, Extent of boing, wit or without sholerete, ig Qvale defines rock mags properties on Norwegian defined by ock mass qualiy anc tunnel with system, summarized in section 40. Now Austian Tunneling Method (NATM) allows limited Class rofors to rock mass (section 25). ocx deformation around tunnel this odistnbutes sess to Equivalent clmension = actual roo! sparvESR. fackve new slable state, but ig not enough to permit’ Excavation Suppor Ratio relacte neods of salty: fosening and weakening. Bots and thin exible shoterete thing are rapidly instal to take oly a pat ot the eas, | Temporary mine openings si ‘éatormation (of 10-100 men is permitted Toktaceann | Water tunnels, pit tunnels a=30 16 raton (0-100 pred ao oes aria al ones 8 remaining stress, bet ndary lining Is installed, ‘Major road and rail tunnels 1.0 gHOTCRETE Undeaundsutonsueputiceress 08 Concrete 20-200 mm tick sprayed oro feck wal, Wihn each supper ysl, mensions vary broadly feash nonce teck orieg epcuredrSckine ingrante Soke rhe ges seal a eens Stongr rt mage erate 208 sous sts,” and eel soe wir ll Nerwepanaicabon Meee Palma eves ane tecbie seer In KAR ats toes eon aeaten sane.” [e Soe MyolieOnminckontomasaweremerer ites fas | v | wi wy «Ts rinse sy caren SSO TN es aan | : (od Bo overbawe, Faminead Fonte Seong wih stot wader. — nem “f FRorecrate contin 50-80 kg? of safes eseh ab Sciam ie boncreniseonen tan sted ea | = seats en nese ye rated tage cheats to oreataintogral ook-shotorote ach | Ltt tt 8 To oo 7 = al soe | Zo Sts ol ] Pe, | ROCKBOLTS Mostiy 2-5 m long, in 35 mm hol ‘Throe main types of xing Expansion shell, takes immediate load; cheapest. * Groutesin with rosin or coment; strongest. ‘+ Friction, various types: Swellex deformed stool tube is expanded in hole by 30 MPa water prossuro takes immediate load: simplest Roof batting shoula have: length = 3-4 » (tunnel wid) m; + spacing = lengti2 and < (3x jim spacing) * tension against cap pate o 60% capaci. toad to 100 KN,40 Stone and Aggregate ‘Demand for stone is around 200 Muy in Britain, Less than 1 My is used as dimension stone. All the rests aggregate of whic roughly Hall goes to roads, half concrete construction; + Overhalfis crushed rock, rests sand and gravel AGGREGATE PROPERTIES Fock strongth isthe prime requirement ~ usually needs UGS > 100 MPa or 102% FV > 100 kPa. Main demand is for partice sizes 5-50 mm; screened at quarry and normally 80 as single size. ually is specified by aggregate tests (below) Aggregate trade groups (opposite) Provide useful classication as they group materiale by Properties and not by geological origin. and theretore ‘ently some genera features: + "Basalt and gabbro shew good tar bonding to the lrorin thelr minors + Gristone and granite have very high PSV and thele rough surfaces adhere wel to their binders. ‘+ Flint and porphyry have smooth surfaces which can cause poor bonding, may have sharp edges and fare mora prone to alka reaction, ‘Some younger and coer imestones and sandstones fall ‘outside the grouping, along with all other we ‘Sedimentary reeks whic cannot be used as aggregate Lightweight aggregate may be provided by young volcanic pumice or some porous synthetics including pulverized fuot as. Conctate aggregate needs 10% FV > 100 for structural work, though 10% FV > 60 is adequate for Some ground concrete: alkali reaction potential Is Immporiant; rounded aggregate makes a conerote which flows more easly. Road wearing course needs 10% FV > 100, good tar bonding and PSV > 60, though PSV also depends fn the sorting and th binder, and diferent road types ‘demand ailerent valves. allway ballast needs 10% FV > 100 and AIV < 18, TYPICAL AGGREGATE PROPERTIES AGGREGATE IMPURITIES “These must generally be avoided, ard may be limited by Contract specications. * Clay and mica: weak, absorptive. expansive, + Opaline stica:aal reaction. ‘Pyrite: weathers to sulphuric acid and nus. * Coal and ignite: react with bitumen binders. + Organic (shel and plan): weak and reactive. + Salt: corrosion, etforescence, expansion. + Suiphate: expansion, florescence. ‘ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTION | A mechanism ot concrete deterioration due to reaction between certain types of aggregates and alkaline poe fiuids in the concrete. A siica ges formed which absorbs water and expands, thereby cracking the ‘concrete. This may take 5~10 years to develop. Fesultant cracks allow more water and salt in which cause evon more corrosion oF reinforcing steel and Seterioration of concrete Main reaction is with hydrated, opaline silica in aggregate ~ mostly in young acid volanis, tuts and Some cherts, Reaction can also be wilh mixture of alte, dolomite and ilte in some imestones. Avoid by using aggregates already successtuly used, or Koop alkalies <0:6% If acid volcanics or dolomite limestone have tobe used AGGREGATE TESTS Various tests are used for contract specications. Summarized in tabi, wit guidelines to indicate good and bad values, and limits generally used for wearing course roadstone Most teat procedures are dotine in British Standard 812; cher countries have thei” oWn similar tests; American tests are in volumes of the annual book of ASTM Standard Alltess are carried ou. on prepared aggregate samples. ‘Strength is indicated most eezely by ACV. This value is rarely quoted directly; instoad, 10% tines value Is ‘graphical datermined from a series of ACV teats wih Siorent loads, 10% Fines Value isn kPa and is numerically just a Matedal [Location [10% FV AW[Aav|psy] fare rimes value. sf Granite | Dartmoor 280 [16] 5 [60 | CBA i field tost; nas boon extended to testing sub- Dowrte |xvPennnes | 360 | 10| @ |60 | grace sols, which have lower values than aggregate, Groywacke | Pennines 220 | 14| 7 [65 | Plastic clays generally have CBR < 10; sandy solls Guitstone [Peak District | “90 | 40 | 26 |75 | typically have CBR = 10-40. LUmestone |Pernines v2o | 20| 42/40 Particle angularly. surtace roughness and thermal Flint Thames rvei| 460 _| 28 | 1 [05 | expanion may alo be measured and dtd in some STANDARD AGGREGATE TESTS ‘Aggregate property ‘Test procedure ange of values| Road (etalon in the appropriate pat of BS 812) Good | Poor | stone! “Aggregate impact vaive (AN) | % fines lst by narhmering on standard ig 5 | 3 [100) Flakiness index Weight % particles with minimam tiskness <60%mean | 20 | 70 | <3 Water absorption Weigh % incease atterimmerson in watarior2¢hours | 02 | 10 | <2 Frost heave Heave of a-cooled column of sample standing inwator S| 20 | <3 Callonia easing ratio (CBR) | Resistance to plunger penetration, compared to standard | 100 | 60 | >90 0CRUSHED ROCK ‘Angular rock chipings are better for roadstone, ualty contol ls simple where a single rock mass is being quarried. ‘Weak impurities are reduced to fines in crushing process ‘so1are easly removed by screening Main costs ar for blasting and crushing ‘Selection often based on sistance from quarry to ste: lang transport costs soon exceed quarry costs emote coastal quarries overcome environmontal ang cost problems; Glensanda granite quarry in NW Scotland can economical ship aggrogate to Bristol and London, and to Texas coast. AGGREGATE TRADE GROUP CLASSIFICATION NATURAL AGGREGATES ‘Alluvial gravels aro the most important resource, from Foogpiains and terraces. Dredged marine gravels and some glaciofluvial gravels are also used, acl tills too poorly sorted Rounded gravel particles are better for concrete, Quality conta is more ciffcut alluvial gravel consists of ‘any rocks within the fiver catchment, so may be varied: River Trent gravels are mainly strong quartaite trom “Tiassic conglomerates, but also contain coal tragments coal is removed by washing (density separation in {turbulent water. ‘Main costs are for overburden stripping and screening. [Group | including | Charactristios ‘uaiy Basalt | dolerte | strong, fine-grained, good basic igneous Gabbeo etrong, coarse-grained, ‘asic Igneous Porphyry | chyolte | strong, ine-qrained, ‘acid igneous Granite | gneiss —_|strong, coarse-grained, | good ‘acid igneous Hoel strong, ne-grained, 000 ‘ncleaved metamorphic schist | slate | akey, sheared or poor ‘ieaved metamorphic lauarzte strong, metamorprizes | rare ‘sandetone. Limestone | marble |the stonger imestones | good ‘and dolomtes| Gritstone_| greywacks the stronger, wel-cemented | good ‘andetones Fim | chen | iegrained sca, mostly as gravel Artic any syrihoti sags ‘eject fale soft sedimentary useless rocks Dimension Stone This is stone used in large, uncrushed blocks; rock ‘must have low fracture density to pormit extraction of large blocks. Construction stone may be any locally available rock with UCS > 50 MPa. Mostly limestones, sandstones and granites, now largely replaced by concrete Froestone is best used for carved ornamental work ‘as it hae no preferred fracture direction nor any plana Weaknesses Cladding stone is usod in 10-20 mm thick sheets as facing on concrete. Needs UCS > 100 MPa, Should be attractive and must offen take a polish Dominated by marbles and granites. ‘Armour stone is large, uncut, chunk rock used! for erosion defence. Exposed marine sitgs need UCS > 150 MPa in large blocks, so granite used; but density > 2.8 un? (In dolerite and gneiss) may be spectieg. Limestone with UCS > 100 MPa acceptable for smaler \waves on lakes, and for protective riprapof smaller sized Blocks on eartn dam faces. Sandstone: Much use in the past, less today. Cannot polish and rough surface blackens with soot. York Stone is any Carboniferous sandstone from the Pennines of northorn England. Flagstone: Variely which spits into bedding slabs 40-50 mm thick. Good for paving flags; also used on roofs but very heavy due to thickness. Granites: Very strong, sultable for all uses, but hard and therefore expensive to polish. LLarvikite: Variety wih internal rttectione from feldspar crystals; makes attractive dark cladding Limestones: Strong imestones which take a polish are known in the trade as marble; they are softer and ‘choapor to polsh than grants. ong with the strong limestones make ‘excellant cladding and architectural stone. Softer limestones: Do nol polish, but freastones make ‘excellent building stone — notably Cotswold and Portland Stones of southern England. Some may weather badly, Out these case-harden due 10 | Fedeposition by porewater on exposure. | ‘Travertine: Soft, easly carved, best for intemal use, ‘Slate: Strong and very durable; may be split along Cleavage, using hammer and onsen sheets 4-8 mm thick; ideal for roofing. Best Welsh slate has highest Nlexural strongth and can be cleaved to 1 mm thick. Somo used cut fr architectural work. High value of best dimension stone means it can be shipped greater distances. and is widely available. Notable examples are Carrara marble {rom Italy, larvikite trom Larvik in Norway, slate from Wales, Rock ‘of Agos granite trom Vermont in USA. aAppendices DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASS QUALITY BY THE NORWEGIAN Q SYSTEM Batings aro determined visual forthe six paramoterz. These tables only summarize the Q parameters. ‘The G value is then calculated ‘The full system, with many refinements, and its {ppleaton tothe Sesion of tunnel suppor aysiems ih 2 GSR) Skin, Lan, and conde, J (1974) eaghneotng ‘valuasare comparedio ockmassproperes andor easstzation of rock masses or tunnel eign, Ack ratings syatome nsocion 25 HMechanes. 68), 189-298 ck Gcalty Designation Rad | [Joint Set Numer Values from borehole data 10-100 | Massive, no or few ints 10D <10, use 10 to caleulato | One joint sot; random also, add 1 “Two joint sets; f random alse. ad 2 “Three joint ses; it random algo, xd 3 Four or more joint sets (Crushed rock, eathike ‘eint Roughness Number oe ‘oint Alteration Number va Discontinuous joins + | | Rock wats in contact Rough or ineguiar, undulating 3 | | Sauna >2s¢ Jo75-10 Smooth and undulating 2 | Sight altered joint was | 25-30" | 2 Rough anc pianar 15} | Sityorsandy day coatings | 20-25" | 3 Smooth and planar 10 Soft clay coatings ee | 3 | Sickensied ard planar 05 | Gouge orfiing <5 mm thick Nerock wal contact across gouge 10 Sandy garcles orfaut breccia | 25-20" | 4 ecoVc“TC | Silay geen we-2e | 6 | Sottorswoling day gouge | 6-12" | 8-12 Thiek continuous clay zones | 6—24" | 10-20 Joint Water Factor Water pressu te ry 0 minor ow < 100KPa 10 ‘Madium inflow 100 250KPa 068 Large flow in soune rock 250- 1000KPa 0 Large tow washing out joint ints 250-1000 kPa 0.38 Very high fons 100K 02-005 ‘Stross Reduction Factor SRF Fractured rock prone to loosening ‘ula weakness zones with cay lose rock 10 Mute weakness 20Nes, no ly, loose reek 7 Single weakness zones, cover depth > 50 m 3 Single weakness Zones, cover dopth < 50 m 25 Loose open joints 5 Sound rock ‘Ucsimajor stress Low siress, near sutace >200 2s Mecium stress 90-10 40 High stess, ight stwctue 10-5 08-20 | Mild-boavy rock busts <5 5220 ‘id squeezing oF swoling rock 3210 Heavy squoozing or swoling rock 8220 ‘Cover photograph. The westom poral of the Penmaendack road tunnel, completed in 1989 for the improvements tothe North Waies ‘coast 7080. The tunnel was cut through 660 m of cass 1! and class | rock, asttong myelt with tree sos of widely spaced ents. Removal (of scree and weathered rock tom tha ste ofthe paral alowed stress ‘alia within re myolte, This was countered by 48 rock anchors each 77m ong. installed before cutting tho tunnel, to prevent opening ofthe Joints. Extension of to secondary concrete ning beyond the face, ‘and the masonry rack catches above, are to prevent small stonetall reaching the road. 82REVIATIONS AND NOTATION S5SAET QE 2525532 585F5 NATM NGR 0D Pa PI pus RMR ROD PB SiO; acceptable bearing pressure centigrade ‘cohesion cffecive cohesion residual cohesion ‘cone penetration test Young's modulss of elasticity iron ‘acceleration due to gravity 1,000 000 000 Pascal {ground probing radar hectare, area 100 square metres Hertz, frequency of 1 cycle per second coefficient of permeability klogramme alometre 1000 Newtons 1000 Pascals liquidity index liquid mit litres per second +000 000 earthquake magnitude metre millimetre 1,000 000 Newtons, about 100 tonnes 1000 000 Pascals, about 100 vm coetticient of compressibility million years Newton, lore to accelerate 1 kg to 1 mis? ‘0 that, under influence of gravity, 1 kg =9.81 N rrew Austrian tunneling method national grid reference crdnance datum, etfectvely mean sea level Pascal, unit of stress or pressure, Nim? pulverized fuel ash plasticity index plastic limit point load strength rating value of rock mass, Norwegian system flow rack mass rating on Geomechanics system rock quality designation second safe bearing pressure silica, siicon dioxide standard penetration test tonne ‘tunnel boring machine pore water pressure Lnconfined compressive strength 100 mm diameter soil sample water content three-dimensional Unit weight of material ‘micro, a millonth part sum of stess ‘tfective stress rormal stress shear strength intgenal friction angie etfective internal friction angle residual internal fiction angle FURTHER READING ‘AS references are not cited throughout the text, the most relevant iterature is cited below for each section of this book. The first citations are the major source books and Useful papers in the subject area. These are followed by the primary papers on the case studies, cited in the ‘sequence in which they are mentioned within the text. ot Rn 6. Ae, 19%,the hate of ergraeing the Gist hundred yours Govt Soe Ars meth Spa Voume 3, Opp. out" ea 4988 Holmes" prntles of physical geoigyNeleon thomen 6. een ASE aonay A 1058. Geooy ana Sepioorng McGraw il St a Gigs 10.8 Cabhay, M198, The Sgnicnee of sccreerng greg fo conscion Geol Soe Ene. Gest Spec, Publ, 18, 3-29 Bennet i & Boye, P1387 Bivreamena get. : Sotpe Murce’’s W., Skinner, B. J. & Porter, S. C., 1996, Erironmerial gece. Wie, 53500 wathamn T1556" Catesrepne: the violnt Earth ‘Macmian,170pp. ‘Google co.uk — the best search engine or geological data. 02 Sn, 2 ao 00 pom Ns age ee Sey outer rte eR ES oI he eae eS Stan i,t oft a 1,10 ey ee Seas e : Shen 8 0 ema mare a at eae Sete ema see ct Ws 08 Park, R. G.. 1997, Foundations of structural geology. Nelson Thornes, 202pp. a Twiss, #J.& Moores” EM, 1992, Structural geology. Ws Freeman, 33200. Spencer, EW, 1988. Introduction 1 the stucture ofthe ‘Ear Mcrw-til, 58pp. Ramsay, JG. & Huber, Ml, 1987, The tec ot ‘modern structural geoiogy: valuma 2: folds and fractures. Academic Press, 400pP. the’. 5. Ge ul nd gel, J, 1985, Gace! structures and maps itera Hemamann, ape. rmemas, Gui engines Bach, 9 er iSsh The mage of geological srucures Wey, 18 earman, WR, 1991. & geological mapping ‘utteniorth Heinemann, S80pp. 09 Kearey, P.& Vine, FJ. 1996. Global tectonics. Blackwell, ole" & Pain, C., 2000. The origins of mountains. outedge. Bop.10 Bot, B. A. 1998. Earthquakes. WH Freeman, 386pp. US Geological Survey, 2001+. Earthquakes hazards ‘program. www usgs goviearthquake Franct, P. 1993, Volcanoes. Clarendon, 4439p. ‘Smithsonian Institution, 2001+. Global volcanism program. "worn voleana siedulgvp 1" Dutf, BM. D. & Smith, A. J. (eds), 1992. Geology of ‘England and Wales. Geological Society, 651pp- 2 Steam, C. W. (80), 1979. Geological evolution of North “America. Wiley, 540pp. 3 Siang, W. & Rolls, D., 1998. Weathering: an introduction to the scientific principles. Arnold, 27ipp. Gerard, Ardn, 9986" Hooks and ladtorms. Unwin Tynan, 916pp. 4 Ahoert 1896. Intoduton to geomorphology. Armed, SS2pp. Keng, 0, 1988, yal os and processes a new perspective Amol, Foratot Ay Culshaw bk Gr Crips, J.C, Lie, J A & ‘engineering geology. Tr Gea! Soc. Eng. Geol. Spec. . 724pp. Brookes, “A., 1685. River channelization. traditional ‘engineering, physical consequences and alternative practices. Biog. Phys 9, 44-73, idson, C.. 1983. The Exmoor siorm and the Lynmouth floods. Geography, 38, 1-8. 15 Menzies, J. (ed), 1996. Postglacial environments: ‘Sodimenis, “forms and tet niques. Butterworth Heinemann, 896 Bennett, M fi Ciasser, N. F, 1996. Giacial geology ‘an ee sheet lanetorms Wiey.S76PP Eyles, Ni & Sladen, JA. 1981. Stratigraphy. and piesa! popes of Veanered lodgement en jrthumberiand: Quart dour. Eng. Geol 14, 129-141 Bryan,'A., 1951. Accident at Knockshinoch Castle Coliery’ Ayrshire report HMSO, London, 48pp. 16 Livingstone, 1. 8 Warren, Ax 1986, Asoian ‘geomorphology: an introduction. Longman, 2119p. Cagka, F U., Brunadon, D, Doomiamn 4. & Jones, B. 982. Urban logy in. orylane Ortore Univerty Press, S7Opo. Watson, A. 1865. The contr of wind blown sand and ‘movig dunes. Quart. Journ. Eng. Geol, 18, 237-252. @allantyre, C.K & Harts, C., 1994. The peniglaciaion of ‘Great Britain. Cambridge University Press, 220pp. Coxon, A. E., 1988, Failure of Garsington embankment. Depi. Environment Report, HMSO, London, 180pp. ‘Skempion, A. W.'8 Vaughan, P.R., 1993. The fallure of Carsington dam. Ge 143, 151-173. Waltham, T. & Fookes, P. 2001. Ice wedges of the Dalton Highway, Alaska, @. Jour. Eng Geol Haro, 34, 65-70. 7 Pethick, J... 1984 An introduction to coastal ‘geomorphology. Arnold, 2609p. Haslet, 8/1, 2060. Coasial systems Routledge, 2180p, Baret, M. (ea), 1992, Coast zone planning and mas Teh PP. fan Standards, "oB1, Martime sttutures:quide tothe ‘design and construction of breakwaters. BS &349, 92pp. 1° Grassington, F., 1998, Feld Wiley, 24800 Pree, "Mt, 1886. Introducing. groundwater” Nelson Tindmes, 9050 Mackay, Rilgy M & Willams, GM, 2001, Simulating joundwater contaminant migration at Vile’ Facms {Esoons"O wou Eng Geo! 34,218 08 19 Biiish Standards, 1999. Code. of practice for site ‘rvestigatons. 55 £920, simone Hy Mens 8 & Mathews, M. 2001, short ourse jn. geotochnical ‘ste investigation. Thomas ‘otors, 2508p, Wottnan’ Ab'® Head. JM, 1989, Site imestigation ‘manus. CiRIA London, 1445p 2 Misom, J, 2000. Field geoptysics. Wiley, 187 aliorg, W.M. Gelgar t. Pa Sherif AE. 1991 ‘Applied geosivsics. Cambridge Univ Press, 7800p 23 Waltham, A. C., Vanderven, G. & Ek, C. M.. 1986. Site investigations on cavernous limestone. for the Romeucnamps Viaduct, Belgtm, Ground Engneerng, 198), 16-1 24 Goodman, A. E., 1989. Introduction to rock mechanics. Wiley, 583pp. Wyle, B-C..1899. Foundations on rock. Spon, 401pp. 25 Hoek, E., 2000+, Practical rock engineering, wri rockeng.utoronto.ca Barton, N.. Lien, F.& Lunde, J, 1974, Engineering ‘lastiicalion of rock masses for'the design of tunnel ‘Suppor. Hock Mechanics, 6, 189-236. Bieniawski, ZT, 1974. Geomechanics classification of Tock masses and ts application in tunneling, Proc. rd Int Cong. Rock Mech. 2 (2), 27-32. Bieniawski, ZT. 1989. Engineering rock mass lassications. Wily, 25199, Hudson, J. A Harrison, JP, 1987. Engineering rock ‘mechanics. Pergamon, 444pp. Wylie, 1909. see #24. British Standards, 1986. Code of practice for foundations. ‘BS 8004, 160pp, Bell AL, 1984: Grouting in the ground. Thomas Telford, "580pp. 26 Severson, 1, Greenwood, & Fost M2002 2unations of geotechncal engineering. Spon, SEPP. craig, AF 3907 So mechanes Span, 26pp. Pa Waltham, a, C., 1989. Ground subsidence. Blackie. 202pp. Ege, J. R., 1884, Mechanisms of surface subsidence Tesulting| from solution extraction of sat. Geol. Soc. ‘Am. Reviews in Eng. Geol, 6, 203-221 Cooper, AH & Waltham, A. C., 1999, Subsidence ‘caused ‘by gypsum dissolution at. Aipon, North Yorkshire. Quart Journ. Eng. Geol, 32, 305-310, Stephens, J.C, Allen, LH. Chen, E, 1984, Organic ‘Sol subsidence, Geol. Soc. Am. Aeviews in Eng. Geol 6, 107-122 “the record ot Hutchinson, J. N., 1980. The record of peat wastage in 1e East Anglia fenlands. at Holme Host, 18461978 Journ, Ecology, 68, 228-249. Samson, L: & La Rochelle, P, 1972, Design and performance of an expressway constructed over peat by preloading. Can. Geotech. Journ. 9, 447—466. 2 eck, R. 8. & Bryant, F G., 1953. The bearing capaci ‘are ol Transcona elevator Gooiochnique, 3 20Teo8, Burland, 1997. Propping up Pisa, Royal Academy of Engneeing, London 2090. Figustos Vega, G. E., 1964, Land subsidence case Ristory: Mexico. Unesco “Studies ‘and Reports 40, 217292 Zeoraert L, 1957, Foundation design ane behaviour of the. Tower Laing. Americana’ in Mexico City Gootechnigue, 7. 115-133. Carbognin, L- & Gatto, B, 1986, An overview of the “subsidence of Venice, Int Ass, Hydrol So, Pub, 18%, soicwe,2» Sowers, G. £, 1975. Failures in limestone in humid 3, Proc. Am. So. Civ. Eng. 101 (G18), 771-787. waltham, 1989, see #27. Culshaw, M. G, & Waltham, A. C., 1987, Natural and artificial cavities as ground engineering hazards. Quart. Journ. En 20, 139-150, Newton, J. G., 1987. Development of sinkholes result ‘om man's actives in the eastern United States. U. Goat Surv. Circular, 988, 54pp. 20 6. . 1078, Sutace stabity in areas undertin “apy tsi nonge, Ground Enact 35-80 aig 1078 Conauaatn gold csi twinge. Gr ering. 124), 15-21. watham aso. see 32800" Ctishaw'& Wathom, 1987. see #29 3 Whittaker, 8. N. & Reddish, D. J., 1989. Subsidence: ‘ccurrénce, prediction and contiol. Elsevier. 5280p. National ‘Coal Board, 1975. Subsidence’ engineer's ‘handbook: NCB, 112 pp. 2 Bromhesd, E. N, 1997. The stabilly of slopes. Spon, phe ‘crudeh,D.M. & Varnes, D. 1996, Landslide types and processes. 96-75 m lume’ and Schuster, soe 92 ‘einer AK, 8 Sehunior 9d), Tobe Candice: invesigaton. and misgaton. anopartaton esearch Board Special Report 47, 87Spp. pt, 8, 1978-9, Hocksides and avalanches volumes ‘ard 2 Elsevier 8X3r8S0pp. Haley 48,1978 Madison Canyon rocksise, Montana, USA. 67°10 n Voight vol 1 s00 432 Voight 8. 1976. Lower Gros Ventre side, Wyoming, BEA. 113-66 in Vogt volt, seo #22 Wieczorek, G..F, 1986" “Candide triggering mechanisms, 76-06 in Tuner & Schuster soe #55. Platter ©. 8 ickson, G. E1978, Nevadoe Hascaran {valanches, Per. 27-314 in Vognt vol | see 983 33 Bromhead, 1997. see #32. Gruden, D:M.& Krahn, J, 1978. Frank rocksiide, Alberta, Canada. 97-112 n Voight, sae #32 Ehlg, P-L. 1992. Evolution, mechanics and mitigation of the Portugese Bend landslide, Palos Verdes Peninsula, California, Assoc, Eng. Geologists (Souther Caitfornia Section), Spec. Publ 4, 531-553. Hendron, A.J. & Patton, F, D., 1986. A. geotechnical ‘analysis of the behaviour of the Vaiont slide. Civil Eng. Practice (Boston Soc. Cv. Eng.) 1(2), 65-190. 34 Watson, R.A. & Weight, H. €.,, 1969. The Saidmarreh Tandside, lan. Geol, Soc. “Am. Spec. Paper, 123, 115-138, Torrance, K. J, 1987. Quick clay. 447-473 in Anderson, M.G. d Richards, K.S. (eds). Siope stabilty. Wiley. Crawlord, C. 8. & Eden, W. J, 1963. Nicolet landside of ‘November 1955, Quebec, ‘Canada. Geol. Soc. Am. Eng. Geol Case Histories, 4, 45-50. ‘Anon., 1967. Report of the tribunal appointed to enquire into the disaster at Aberfan on October 21, 1966. HMSO, London, 148pp. Siddle, HJ, Wright, M.D. & Hutchinson, J. N., 1996. Rapid failures of ‘colliery spoil heaps in the South Wales coalfield. Quart Journ. Eng. Geol, 29, 103-182. 38 Bromhead, 1997. sae #22. Norrish, N. |. & Wyle, D. C., 1996. Rock slope stability ‘analysis, 391426 in Turner & Schuster, see #32. Waltham, A.C. & Dixon, N., 2000. Movement of the Mam Tor landsiide, Derbyshire, UK. Quart. Journ. Eng. Geol 33, 108-123. sutcie Rh: 1868 Evaluation of roctall and is control ‘Highway Rlasaarch Board Record (Canada), 17, 13-28. 26 Bromhead, 1997, see 492 Bromhoad. €, Ni 1997. The treatment of landslides. cross Cw Eng. Gooch, Erg. 128, 85-80 cE. & Bray J. 1881. Rock Sope engineerng. Inst Win, Met London’ 40200. Jumer & Schuster i096. soe #22 Hutchinson, JN, 1960, A reconsideration ofthe coastal Tandotdes ai Falkestone Waren, Kent. Geotech-nque 19,6-38 Wyte, 0.6. & Norish, N., 1996. Stabilization of rock ‘opes 74-504 n Timor & Schuster ae #32. Brith Standards, 1998, Code of pactes for earth retaning structures, BS 8002, 14 antign Standards, 2001. Geotexties: characteristics Tequied for earthworks, Touncations and retaining Stuctures: BS EN325%, 34pp, artis Standards, 1969, Code of practice for ground ‘anchorages. BS 8081, 180pp. 37 Fookes, P. G., 1997. Geology for, engineers: the geological model, prediction and performance. Quart Journ. Eng, Geol, 30, 293-43 Hoek, 1990. Puting numbers. to guology ~ an ‘ongineer’s approach. Quart Journ Eng, Geol, 92. 1-19 Hutchinson, J.N., 2001. Reading the ground: morphology aed gly ste appeal: Quart Journ: En. Gel ty 34, 750, Davison, L,. Fookes, P, Baynes, F. & Hutchinson, J., 20011. Total geological history: a model approach’ vwra.uwe.ac.uk/geocalotalgeology Charles, J. A, 1993. ‘on fil: geotechnical aspects, Building Research Establishment Report, 163pp. Hester, FE. & Harrison, Fl.M. (eds), 1997. Contaminated Tand and is reclamation. Thomas Yello’, 1609p. British “Standards, 2001. Investigation ‘of potentially ‘Contaminated land. BS 10175, 82pp. 38 Franklin, J. A. & Desseaut ‘engineering. McGraw Hil, 401pp. Hudson & Harrison, 1997, see #25. Peffifer, G. S. & Fookes, PG., 1994. A revision of the ‘laphical method Tor assessing the excavatabity of foe M. B, 1991. Rock ‘Quart Journ. Eng. Geol. 27, 145-168. Lutton, A.J Banks, O.C. & Stich, W. E, 1979. Slides in ‘Gaillard Cut, Panama. 151-224 n Voight vol 2. see #32. Bhandari S., 1997. Engineering rock blasting operations. ‘Balkema, 375pp, Fr Franklin, J A. & Desseauit, M. 8, 1991, Rock engineer ing apslcafions MeGraw il, ipo. sujeiiosd, A. 2000: Tunneling: management by design. Spon, 2079 ‘Teup, M, Sawada, 7. & Takizawa, M., 1996, Extraordina ‘nundioon accidents i the Sekan undersea tunel Prox ie CEng Gatech. eng 11 (i Harng CS. Hart Yh 8 Vari BM Wiaten,C , * ring. geology ot the’ Channel Tan thomas Tor, S809. Barton, N. & Grimsiad E1994, Rock mass conditions “ictie choice between NMT and NATM, Tunnels and Tunneling, October 39~42. Brith Standares, 1098. Speciation for rock botng in ‘coal mines: 8S 768%, 3800. 40 MeNaly, GH. 1998. Soi! and rock construction materials Spon, 403. Latham J 5"(ed), 1908, Advances in aggregates and ‘amoursione evaluation. Gaol. Soc. Eng’ Geol. Spec rnin Standards, 1992. Speciications for aggregates tian ‘Standards, 1992. ons ‘rom natural sourcea for concrete, BS 682, 1 Jofloron By Bo 1888, Bullng stone: the. geclogical “dmengion. Quart. Journ. Eng. Geol, 26, 305-319, ition Standarde, 1976, Code of practice for stone ‘masonry, BS 5990, 4p.Index Aine 52 aa 5 ‘abandonment plan 40 ‘Abertan faire 68 ‘ablation tl 31 ‘abrasion value, aggregate. 60 ‘abrasion sand 32 acceptable bering prossure 51, 53 faci igneous fd inection 37 ‘acoustic emigsion 71 ‘civ layer 33, 68 ‘ctv suppor 79 ‘cy of lay 52 ‘at an 37.72 ‘age of rocks 2 agglomerate. 4 agoregate 80-81 ‘aggregate tests 80 ‘aggregate trade group 80-81 fr photograph 20-40, ‘Aska pipeline 33 ‘aka aggregate reacton 80 ‘aloval fan 6, 26,32 oval plain 32 ‘luvum 6, 28-29, 32, 28, 52,84, 81 Apne folding 23, Aine lacabon 30 aneraton 10 anygcale 5 nono ck 65.73 fangeste 5, 19,23 ANFO.77 nizing 13.36 aquetude 36 ‘autor 36.37 aqutge 36 auiard 96 arch 32.34 Archean 19 ‘area subsidence 61 ‘remcuous 8 rte 30 argllaceous & armour stone 35,81 arroyo 32 artesian aguier 36,66 anesian news. 36 artesian wel! 37 fash, voleane. 4,21 ‘Anwrberg its 52 augie & ‘ureole metamorphic 11 ‘al plane 13 back anaiysis 68 back ap 70 backti 6, 60, 6, 75 Bangkok $7 bar 34,95 batchan 32 bamerisiang 34, 95 basalt 4,5, 18,25, 24 25, 48,54, 80,81 basicignesus & bastard bring 54 Damolth 45, 19,28 beach 34 beach stabilization 35 Dearing capacty 26,91, 56 Dearing pressure 3,51, 58 easing 7 Deoding plane. 7, 12,64, 67 bello 61 bentonite 57 Derm iodge. 72 bootie 5.11 Diack powder 77 Blasting 76, 77 lock aide 4 botd and pila mine 60 bored ole. 73. borehole. 38, 42, 49, 46,47, 56, 58,71 borenote rain 72 Dorehole log. 40,43 Bortowiale Vocanics 23 Douider clay 30-31 ‘owl of subsidence 62 Braziin est «9 break ol slope 30 breakwater 35, breccia 8 roca, faut 12 brine steam 54 being 54.66 Britsh Geological Survey 40, 41 baiteness. 48,49, 53,68, 68 browned ste 75 Dudget, shuvaine 34 Dodget, water 36 culking 60 burden 75 burned sinkhole 58 ‘uned valley 26,31, 48 Bury St Edmunds 59 bute 32 Duta, rock 73 cable and tot ait 42 table brake 71 calcutte. 8 fale 6,7, 8,13, 12,92, 80 caicate 22 Calseonian 22, 23, calcne 32 Calomia bearing rato. 80 camber fold 13.33, 58 Cambnan 19 canaizaton 29 aplary water 26, 37 ‘carbonate 8 ‘arponate sediment 34 Carboniferous. 18, 22,29, 27 Carsingion Dam 33, 46 ata andsoe 85 cave 5, 27,34, 37, 43, 47, 54, S869 Cavity in vock 40,42, 45,46, 51,54, 58-59 cavity in soll 57 cementation 7 chalk 8, 23,27, 83, 96 48, $9, 72,76, 78 Channa’ Tanne!’ 78 channel 28 chert 2, 80, 81 ‘Cheshire basin. 23 Cheshire alt 54 chlorite 13 ehlriizaton 10 tender cone. 21 adding stone @1 ‘laste sediment 8 ay 3, 6-8 28, 31, 36,48, $2-63, 6-58, 64-68, 72,76 clay cuter 42 ‘lay mineral 6,7, 8, 8,10, 26,52 clay subsidence 56-57 ‘ay with iets 33cleavage, rock 10, 12,50, 64 leavage, mineral 5 cleavage, slaty 10 cit erosion 34 coal 6 8,48, 60, coaleld 22, 23,25, coast erosion 34,65, ‘canesion 49, 50, 52,53, cohesive sol. 52 collapse sinkhole $8 olaps9, cave cot 8, 51, 69 ‘collapsing soi 22, 54 cole aren 79 ‘column, 26 ‘columnar joining 5, 13 ‘compaction 7. 56, 87 ‘compensation, subsidence 63 ‘compression “62.63 ‘compression coefciant 53 ‘compressive sent 48,49 ‘concrete aggregate. 60 ‘cond ow” 37 ‘cone of depression 37. 75, ‘cone penetration test 43, 83 confined aquter 36 conglomerate 8 ‘cone volcano 21 ‘conservative boundary 18 Consistency, sal 52 coneoldaton 7.53.54. 55, 56 onstruction stone. 81 constuctve boundary 18, 19 Contact metamorprism 10 contaminated an 75 Continental rust 18, 19 contraction joint 19 controled bring 58 convection 19 Convergent boundary 18, 19 oombe rook. 33. core ding 42. 43, core recovery. 43 corrugations 32 CCotawold limestone 23.81 Coulomb equation 49,52 counteont eran 72 cer 43,53, crater 21 reep 26.59, 61 Cretacoous 19,23, cial height 78 crial sip cle. 68 cross bedding @ cross-section 15,17, ‘row hole. 61 uesta 13 Culebra Cu sises. 78 current bedding 7 cutsiope 70,76 tye beading 7 Oaracian 23 Darcy's iaw 26 Dawson 33 saying 64, 72 Sebes fow 64,75 etiaton 32 ensigns! 5 denis ck 48 ‘esi Sand 53 ontal masonry 73, ‘deposiion 6, 26-35 ‘desert 32 ‘seaariiaton 22 eck study 40, 47 destructive boundary 16, 19 destructive cing 42 Devensian 30.33 Devonian 19, 23.30, diamond ding #2

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