SOCIAL SCIENCES AND RESEARCH A. Definition: "Social Sciences" Social Science is a set of academic disciplines that stud) as well as the nature and dynamics of interactions institutions that comprise society. 'y the behavior of humans as members of societies, and relationships between individuals, groups, and B. The Major branches ‘+ Sociology: Studies human societies, their contextual bounds, and the interac ; ter preserve and change them. interactions and processes that Psychology: The scientific discipline that studies mental states, biological processes and behavior. + Political Science: The systematic study of governance which examines the state, its organs and institutions. Anthropology: Studies human beings in aspects ranging from the biology and evolutionary history of our species, to the features of society and culture that decisively distinguish humans from other animal species. Economics: Seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth and resources. Philosophy: The rational, abstract, and methodical con: dimensions of human existence and experience. jeration of reality as a whole or of fundamental, History: Studies the chronological record of events, as affecting a nation or people, based on a critical examination of source materials and usually presenting an explanation of their causes. Geography: The study of the diverse environments, places, and spaces of Earth’s surface and their interactions. C. The Scientific Method Scientific Method refers to a standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge, such as how to make valid observations, how to interpret results, and how to generalize those results. Must be able to satisfy four key characteristics: 1. LOGICAL: Scientific inferences must be based on logical principles of reasoning. 2. CONFIRMABLE: inferences derived must match with observed evidence. 3. REPEATABLE: Other scientists should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific study and obtain similar, if not identical, results. 4, SCRUTINIZABLE: The procedures used, and the inferences derived, must withstand critical scrutiny (peer review) by other researchers. D. TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Exploratory: Often conducted in new areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope ‘out the magnitude or extent of a particular phenomenon, problem, or behavior, (2) to generate some initial ideas about that phenomenon, or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study regarding that phenomenon. Descriptive: Directed at making careful observations and detailed documentation of a phenomenon of interest. Explanatory: Seeks the explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or behaviors. 119E, Research Methods QUANTITATIVE: Involves the use of computational, statistical, and mathematical tools to derive results QUALITATIVE: Dependent on the collection of behavioral, observational or verbal data that can be interpreted in a subjective manner, Case Study: Examines a person, place, event, phenomenon in order to extrapolate key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to Practice, ang/ or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. Cohort Analysis: Group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group. Group members share a particular characteristic or experience. Ethnography: The method to study groups and/or cultures over a period of time. The goal of this type of research is to comprehend the particular group or culture through immersion into the culture or group, Experiment: Implores the use of Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Variable: It is the presumed cause. Stable and unaffected by other variables. It refers to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by the researcher. Dependent Variable: It is the presumed effect. The variable that depends on other factors that are ‘measured. Expected to change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables. Field Studies: Academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural setting, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other structured environments. Focus Groups: Small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining specific topics or problems, including possible options or solutions. Consists of participants, guided by moderators to keep the discussion flowing and to collect and report the results, ‘Survey: Technically termed as “statistical inference”; ; the process of using data from a sample to make estimates or test hypotheses about a populatior n.SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY: soc) A. DEFINITION OF “CULTURE" ETY, CULTURE AND CHANGE within society) that persist overtime, are interrelated ors as. whole and the activities ofits individual mente” Institutions: stable patterns of behavior that define, govern, B, ELEMENTS OF CULTURE 1. Social Norms: Rule or standard of behavior si internalized, or they may be enforced by p ‘and constrain action, shared by members of a social sitive or negative sanctions, Conventions: Arbitrary rules governing the countless behaviors that ini lividuals engage in every day without necessarily thinking about said acts deliberatively. oat “Mores: Set of rules that has strong cultural significance and enforcement which expresses the group sense of what is fitting, right and conducive to social welfare. Considered indispensable, and violations incur social punishment and peer disapproval. Folkways: Uniformities in the behavior ofa group which develop relatively spontaneously and even unconsciously in adapting to common life conditions and which become established through repetition and general occurrence. Laws: Formal means of social control. Generally recorded, codified and enforced by a governing authority or body for the protection of life, property, and liberty, Deviance: Actions or behaviors that violate informal social norms or formally-enacted rules. Formal deviance: The violation of legal codes. Results ir inal action initiated by the state. Informal deviance: The violation of unwritten, social rules of behavior, and results in social sanction, or stigma. Lesser degrees of social violation result in preference rather than stigmatization. 2. Material Culture: Centers upon objects, their properties, and the materials that they are made of, and the ways in which these material facets are central to an understanding of culture and social relations. These are tools, weapons, utensils, machines, ornaments, art, buildings, monuments, written records, religious images, clothing, and any other ponderable objects produced or used by humans. 3. Language: A system of conventional spoken, manual, or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, express themselves. ‘The functions of language include communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release.¢. CONCEPTS Cultural Universal/s: Guiding principles of human civilization that are so central to human identity that can be found, in some form, in all societies, both past and present, around the world. Cultural Alternative/s: Refers to two or more different forms of behavior, which co-exist, and are socially acceptable in a given context. 1. INTRACULTURAL PROCESSES Socialization: The process of deliberately shaping, by way of tutelage, of the individual for the development of behavioral similarities within a culture. Enculturation: An encompassing or surrounding of the individual by one's culture. The individual ‘acquires, by immersion, what the culture deems to be necessary. Subculture: Ethnic, regional, economic, or social groups exhibiting characteristic patterns of behavior sufficient to distinguish them from the larger society to which they belong. Gemeinschaft: One of the two types of social organization conceived by German sociologist, Ferdinand Tonnies. Referred to as the “communal society”. Associated with rural societies that typify personal relationships that are defined and regulated on the basis of traditional social rules. Gesellschaft: In contrast to Gemeinschaft, itis typified by modern, cosmopolitan societies with their government bureaucracies and large industrial organizations. Rational self-interest and calculating ‘conduct act to weaken the traditional bonds of family, kinship, and religion. Human relations are ‘more impersonal and indirect. 2. INTERCULTURAL (CROSS-CULTURAL) PROCESSES Acculturation: The processes of change in artifacts, customs, and beliefs that result from the contact of ‘two or more cultures. Assimilation: The process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnic heritage are absorbed i the dominant culture of a society. Involves taking on the traits of the dominant culture to such a degree that the assimilating group becomes socially indistinguishable. Cultural Relativism: A general tolerance and respect for difference, which refers to the idea that cultural context is critical to an understanding of people’s values, beliefs and practices. Ethnocentrism: A term applied to the cultural or ethnic bias, whether conscious or unconscious, in which an individual views the world from the perspective of his or her own group, establishing the in-group as archetypal, and rating all other groups with reference to this ideal. Xenocentrism: The opposite of ethnocentrism and refers to the belief that another culture is superior to ‘one’s own, Fy ‘Stereotype: The positive or negative beliefs that an individual holds about the characteristics of social a groups. 4 Proud: ‘An unjustifiable negative attitude toward an outgroup or toward the members of that ‘outgroup. Discrimination: Unjustified negative behaviors toward members of outgroups based on their group membership. Social Change: The alteration of mechanisms within the social structure, characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behavior, social organizations, or value systems. Social Problem: Refers to social conditions that disrupt or damage society. = Lag”: Coined by American sociologist, William Fielding Ogburn. Refers in particular to @ gaP i t develops between fast-changing technology and other slower-paced sociocultural traits.. MACRO AND MICRO THEORIES ABOUT SociETy 1. Functionalism: Emile Durkheim Ail aspects ofa society (institutions, roles, oles, norms) serve a insert for the long-term survival of te, sr bose, an that all are necessary, therefore junctional unity in which all parts of the system work togethes yen assumed to have consistency. gether with some degree of internal 2. Conflict Theory: Karl Marx Claims that societ Itholds that social conformity. in a state of perpetual conflict be p ecause of competition for limited r order i maintained by domination and power rather traneorsenns sd 3. Symbolic Interactionism: Max Weber and George Mead ‘A micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society ‘Communication, the exchange of meaning through n igh language and symbols, is bli in which people make sense of their social worlds. ee! 4, Structuralism (Withee wonat) Emphasizes the mutual dependency of human agency and social structures. Itis the school of thought that states people are not just independent actors making independent decisions, but products of the social conditions in which they live. 5. Evolutionism: Edward B. Tylor Built from Darwin's theory of evolution and natural selection. States that just as species were thought to ‘evolve into increasing complexity, so too were cultures thought to progress from a simple to complex states. 123te GEOGRAPHY, STATISTICS AND ECONOMICS A, STATISTICS AND DEMOGRAPHY Statistics: Concerned with collection, classification, analysis, and interpretation of numerical facts for drawing inferences on the basis of their quantifiable likelihood (probabil), Demography: The statistical study of human populations, especially with reference to size and density, distribution, and vital statistics (births, marriages, deaths). i 1. KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS Carving Capacity: The maximum sustainable sizeof a resident population ina given ecosystem Ceneu A canvas ofa given area resulting nan enumeration of the entire population and often th compilation of other demographic, social, and economic information pertaining to ther populate | a specific time. ulation at Closed Population: A population with no migratory flow either in or out, so that changes size occur only through births and deaths. 'ges in population Dependency Ratio: The ratio of people in a dependent age group (those underage 15 or ages 6s ‘oductive age group (ages 15 to 64) of a population, For instance, a child dependency ratio of 0.45 means there are 45 children for every 100 works adults, age Double Dependency: Moderate child dependency and rel or near replacement fertility and declining mortality, Emigration: The process of leaving one count another. Emigration Rate: The number of emigrants de of origin in a given year. latively high old-age dependency reflect above ry to take up permanent or semi-permanent residence in parting an area of origin per 1,000 population in that area Fecundity: The physiological capacity of a woman to produce a child. Fertility: The actual reproductive performance of an individual, a couple, a group, or a population. Immigration: The process of entering one country from another to take up permanent or semi- permanent residence. Immigration Rate: The number of immigrants arriving at a destination per 1,000 population at that destination in a given year. Life Expectancy: The average number of additional years a person could expect to lve if current ‘mortality trends were to continue for the rest of that person's life. ‘Megalopolis: A term denoting an interconnected group of cities and connecting urbanized bands. “Metropolitan Area: A large concentration of population usually an are with 100,000 or more people ‘The area typically includes an important city with 50,000 or more inhabitants and the administrative ‘areas bordering the city that are socially and economically integrated with it. Migration: The movement of people across a specified boundary for the purpose of esebltinga ne ‘or semi-permanent residence. Divided into international migration (migration between cout and internal migration (migration within a country). the same kind, Population: A group of objects or organisms of t children to replace Replacement-Level Fertility: The level of fertility at which a couple has only enough themselves, or about two children per couple. / i ith a growth rate of zero, Zero Population Growth: A population in equilibrium, with a growth rat plus immigration equal deaths plus emigration. Ue Te achieved when births 124B. ECOLOGY ‘The scientific study of the distribution, aby undance and abiotic and biotic organisms and with ‘ namics ofo their physical resent environment. interactions with both KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS ‘Amensalism: An interaction between two o reanisms, wi increase in costs imposed by conditions here one suffers a reduction in resources, or an ue to the pr * ‘ no benefit or cost from its interaction with the harmed onan ll Biodiversity: An accepted shortening of the Phrase ‘biolo species richness, The biological variatio n found in a de Commensalism: Refers to the interaction bet re one orgat shelter from conditions, due tothe presence ofthe other species, The latter ‘or cost from its interaction with the commensal, : cal diversity’ commonly used to describe lefined spatial area, tween two species wher sm gains resources or Pecies gains no benefit Competition: The process where organisms gain a greater o lesser share ofa limited resource. Ecological Balance: A state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in which genetic, species and ecosystem diversity remain relatively stable, subject to gradual changes through natural succession. Environment: The sum of al external forces outside of the organism. ‘Mutualism: A biotic interaction between two organisms, where they gain an increase in resources, or a ‘eduction in stressful conditions, from the presence of the other organism, Parasitism: A trophic (feeding and nutrition) interaction in which individuals of one species, called the Parasite, feeds upon the tissues of living individuals of another species called the host. Predation: A trophic interaction in which individuals of one species (the predator) kills and eats individuals of the other species (the prey). C. ECONOMICS, Malthusianism: Originated from the works of Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834). The theory that the world’s population tends to increase faster than the food supply and that unless fertility is controlled (by late marriage or celibacy), famine, disease, and war must serve as natural population restrictions, 'Neo-Malthusianism: The position that population could be controlled by using birth control methods, and also identified the working class with the problem of overpopulation, Law of Diminishing Returns: The economic law stating that if one input in the production of a commodity is. increased while al other inputs are held fixed, a point will eventually be reached at which additions of the input yield progressively smaller, or diminishing, increases in output. 128PSYCHOLOGY ‘A. HISTORICAL SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT 1. Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward B. Titchener ‘Sought to analyze the adult “mind”, defined as the sum total of experience from birth to the present, in terms of the simplest definable components. 2. Functionalism: William James Focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior. 3. Gestalt Psychology: Provided the foundation for the modern study of perception. Emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts, therefore, the attributes of the whole are not deducible from analysis of the parts in isolation. «the whole is greater than the Sum oF its parts” Behaviorism: Suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces. Focuses on observable behavior, “environmont” 2. Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov A type of conditioned learning which occurs because of the subject’s instinctive responses, either (1) a given stimulus (or signal) becomes increasingly effective in evoking a response or (2) a response occurs with increasing regularity in a well-specified and stable environment. b. Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner ‘Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. Conversely, actions that result in punishment, or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely to occur again in the future. “Operant”: Any active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences. Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. Positive Reinforcement: A response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. ‘Negative Reinforcement: A response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. Punishment: The presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. Positive Punishment: Presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. ‘Negative Punishment: Occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. 5. Cognitive Psychology: Explores mental processes and studies how the human brain works, how we think, remember, learn, and how people acquire, perceive, process and store information. a. Theory of Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget Suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. Focuses not only ‘on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years Infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7 - Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.At this stage, they tend t. 5 10 be cae “Bocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11, Thinking b i : eeeeten ee logical and organized, but still very concrete. Childr ductive logic, or reasoning from particular pieces of information ene oe principle. information to arrive at a general Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up Abstract thought emerges, Starts to use dedi m i sti sob pelaert aed luctive logic, or reasoning from general principles to . Kohiberg’s Stages of Moral Development Focuses on the thinking-process that occurs when one decides whether a behavior is right or wrong Thus, the theoretical emphasis is on how one d , lecides to resy ‘one decides or what one actually does, ae, Level 1: Preconventional Level Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience Orientation Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose Orientation Level 2: Conventional Level Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation ‘Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation Level 3: Pastconventional or Principled Level ‘Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation ‘Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation = tasty sdldhood etperionces unconscious mind = speites Meant = preadtinn stipe According to Freud, there are three levels of consciousness: (1) conscious, (2) preconscious, and (3) unconscious. Emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. 6. Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud Id: Consists of Ego: Charged with dealing with reality (censclous oat yreconeciaus) MHC DFECUTIVE DILECTOR” (nalty yin) : : Superego. Holds all of the ideals and values we internalize C conscious preconscious, oma un conscious) “WE MORAL WATCHDOG” (uonscience) a. Psychosexual Stages of Development states thet personality develops through series of ilhaod stages'n which the Pleasars seeking energies ofthe id become focused on certain erogenous areas, At DEE VOUS zone is Seeing vseed as “an area ofthe body that Is particularly sensitive to stimulation: PHALLIC Erogeneus Zonex f Oral Stage: Birth to 1 Year (Mouth) Oedipus complex jae, SMO | anal Stage: 1 to 3 years (Bowel and Bladder Control) -cagtration arwichy Electra compux Inactive) -some ser yh OP Latent Period: 6 to Puberty (Sexual Feelings Are In ppeeoere (Maturing Sexual Interests) Phallic Stage: 3 to 6 Years (Genitals) Genital Stage: Puberty to Death 127el gy ge ee egy hee N ye dey ee »b. Defense Mechanisms: Any of a group of mental processes that enables the mind to reach compromise solutions to conflicts that itis unable to resolve, Curconsciously conc) Repression: The withdrawal from consciousness of an unwanted idea, affect, or desire by pushing it down, or repressing it, into the unconscious part of the mind. Cew\es vnaccephaott ia fe $M dncance Reaction Formation: The fixation in consciousness of an idea, affect, or desire that is opposite to a feared unconscious impulse. Crlasve ) Projection: A form of defense in which unwanted feelings are displaced onto another person, where they then appear as a threat from the external world. andl Regression: A return to earlier stages of development and abandoned forms of gratification belonging to them, prompted by dangers or conflicts arising at one of the later stages. (pret te op heat 10s ing = Pilon) Sublimation: The diversion or deflection of instinctual drives, usually sexual ones, into noninstinctual channels. (cadis+ 4 borer) Denial: The conscious refusal to perceive that painful facts exist. Cama. Mg acemowteage Cunndely ~preduc Rationalization: The cognitive distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening. (less Oteptable motire te wore axceptalele one) Displacement: The redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute target. ‘¢. Psychotherapy: Any psychological service provided by a trained professional that primarily uses forms of communication and interaction to assess, diagnose, and treat dysfunctional emotional reactions, ways of thinking, and behavior patterns. ‘Transference: A patient's displacement or projection onto the analyst of those unconscious feelings and wishes originally directed toward important individuals, such as parents, in the patient's childhood. Countertransference: The therapist's unconscious (and often conscious) reactions to the patient and to the patient's transference. These thoughts and feelings are based on the therapist's ‘own psychological needs and conflicts and may be unexpressed or revealed through conscious responses to patient behavior. 7. Humanism ~ sf ~oervale ton Concerned with the fullest growth of the individual in the areas of love, fulfillment, self-worth, and autonomy, 3. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Ilustrates an individual's drives in order of decreasing priority or potency but increasing sophistication: physiological needs, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Only when the more primitive needs are met can the individual progress to higher levels in the hierarchy, b. George Kelly's “Personal Construct” Theory, are said to perceive the world according to personality and leads them to direct their ‘and Carl Rogers’ “Self-Centered” Theory: Individuals their own experiences. This perception affects their : behavior to satisfy the needs of the total self. Carl Rogers stressed that, in the development of an individual's personality, the person strives for “self-actualization (to become oneself, s elf maintenance (to keep on being oneself), and self enhancement (to transcend the status quo).” neonsse Fixation- untgolved panera stage conglict 128BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY ‘The study of the physiological bases of behavior, C: ‘oncerned primari psychological processes and the underlying PiReGoerEee with the relationship between 1, The Nervous System: The system of neurons, nerve: » Nerves, tracts, and associated tissues that, z , together with the endocrine system, coordinates activities ofthe organism in response to signals received fe i and external environments. ved from the internal Central Nervous System (CNS): The entire comple le ire plex of neurons, axons, and supporting ti coordinating and integrating incoming sensory messages and outgoing motor messages. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Lies outsi here sea (PNS): Lies outside the brain and spinal cord, All parts outside the central ‘Autonomic Nervous System: The portion of the nervous system innervating smooth muscle and glands, including the circulatory, digestive, respiratory, and reproductive organs. Autonomic responses typically involve changes in involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, salivation, digestion, perspiration, pupil size, hormone secretion, bladder contraction, and engorgement of the sexual organs and its parts. Divided into the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system, Sympathetic Division: In the service of enhancing the “fight-or-fight” response. Includes dilation of the pupils to facilitate vision, constriction of the peripheral arteries to supply more blood to the muscles and the brain, secretion of epinephrine to raise the blood-sugar level and increase metabolism, and reduction of stomach and intestinal activities so that energy can be directed elsewhere. Parasympathetic Division: Defined functionally as the system controlling rest, repair, enjoyment, eating, sleeping, sexual activity, and social dominance, among other functions. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates salivary secretions and digestive secretions in the stomach and produces pupillary constriction, decreases in heart rate, and increased blood flow to the genitalia during sexual excitement. Neurons: The basic cellular unit of the nervous system. Composed of a cell body; fine, branching extensions (dendrites) that receive incoming nerve signals; and a single, long extension (axon) that conducts nerve impulses to its branching terminal. The axon terminal transmits impulses to other neurons of to effector organs (e.g., muscles and glands) via junctions (synapses). Neurotransmitters: Any of a large number of chemicals that can be released by neurons to mediate transmission of nerve signals across the junctions (synapses) between neurons. Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA): Implicated in brain development, muscle control, and reduced stress response. Serotonin: Believed to play many roles, including, but not limited to, temperature regulation, sensory perception, and the onset of sleep. ‘Acetylcholine: Plays an important role in memory formation, learning, and mediates skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contraction. Glutamate: Plays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions. Dopamine: Involved in motivation, learning, pleasure, the control of body movement, and other brain functions. Endorphins: Produced by the brain, in response to pain or stress, to blunt the sensation of pain. Norepinephrine: Acts to increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction and the rate and force of contraction of the heart. ‘a. Major Structures of the Brain 129