8s ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS THEOM An traduction pes ) Copyright @ 1071 by Mee ie A Rohs Resaves uo oat ot hie putieavon maybe rerodct, red in» rsroval pete, or tants, n a fart 0B a4 a ‘etrnie mecha! photocopying, fcoeing atari ‘watout the ge wer pemiono he buh Pres nina erngeen wid McGrail Ie iow Yok “Ths tion can be expert to Inds ony he Publishers, “ate MeSrew i Ping Coma Lee ~ ibang oy Yaa Mere isting Company Linked and le by Mahan Maan st Rata Bevan B.S, Moye Den COED {| | Margaret Bik And List‘Moto: Think MKS 8 Preface “The Voted States elect wiityinguzy rats umber one in many respects ‘With a wal plat ad equipment neste of 2200 99 etn diss (1870 ‘uted iis he legs indy i he country andthe weed ‘With ap annual prediction figure of almost 2 wilion blowathous, tot only outpoduces every other eounty in the word bt actualy accounts for ior than oer of theft weld production of eee exe Te ea he wold In peaceful te f the nom of Te writing the ndsty har under development aod constuction more miler pat eapuciy then the re of the wort pt together 1s the oly Utd State inst tat bs been able o main an averane 7 1 8 percent anal growth rate oF slmst four decades, and om al id sions wil continue wo expan x che seme rtf the sex ve decades ‘And jt, somewhere along th ie, bas ended up atthe Baton of the 121970 only hand f United States univer cam websted snd moter proprame is power ssensensinering In lat, most univers fer nether andeepradunte eouner noe graduate resetch opportunites Ia the fed. This stustion has developed gravalysigce World War I. It would serve no useful purpose wo Uy bee 1 af the lane, "The picture id gat aways look #9 dma Daring the thie and fortis most coleges offered good power prgras, wll ated 1 the feed of 8 Times} Scme of today's power courses are actully resets trom those dy 1A large perceatage of toy’ pacing power ayes enioers i of pe ‘Word War Hite Since thse engineers ae leving he sane tough earl atin, the ele {Te emg “per” ad ee” are om i a ah aetna nt ‘oak Fiona arta pad, ure cts Sor ameter wh lec nergy, ecm hier form move Roper.tcc uly indy wil in Ss in somewhat of 3 manpower cris, And this oppess atte wher the iy inthe mut Of "neler Fevehon is encountering sn “environmental barrie,” an fas whole ne eo eh olga protlens dae tos esernereaing POWET density ‘Nowhere isthe academic pala role of the elect Uy Inde ore ga logy obvious than inthe etbook fel Ata ine when doves of se tet ate publiebed annul in speci areas like computer technology, contol theory. etwores, te. 4 pofetor offering a courte In else energy sates teary ost be content with undergraduate tons which ae anywhere fom ten 10 ten ear al ‘On the sesamption tata eaialy new teaching spptoach long overdue in ‘he energy syste el he aubor Sto to develop ae of cau notes eect ing such a moder tesehingphlosophy. The present ext grew out of thee ‘notes. Upon consting a reat many engineers and eddeators, i was peste to esya set of deat Seanves whic should characterize 2 meer Unset yaduate energy stems tet Thee “The main objatve ofthe else energy sytem shoul be cley presented sagsns = backround ofthe national ener stunion and pesied fre demsnas, 2 A pens sppicach should be followed, with primary eanphass placed 08 (he essen over epatonal fates. |, Mathmatial models of all main s)sem components should be icles. “The moder shoul be acurate enough ote wnt for bth sendy tte and ynamie ytens sade, 4 A curr Gemonstvation should be siten ofthe interplay between the fe ‘otro, Ylage, aed reat and reactive power Row varables whieh’ chars tere the quasistatic seadysiate operation ofa stem 4. A tecough dscussinn most be included of the stems cone problem, 6 aspects of sytem stability shouldbe given ample emphasis 7. Fault snlyss and unbalanced operation should be ested ‘Toece ae verging opinions in regard othe ned for nelson ofpriberl ‘opis he Dixebutonechnolony ‘Sostems protection Syms communication nthe ial anspsis they wpe all dropped for the simple resson of pace maton. "The end peasuct ¢ stems tet intended for wie by the senior unde radu and ft yer radate tent. The reader expected to have taken a8 Intoductry tess couse, and it x desl, Bos not nce, 0 Bare bad machinery core, He should algo have been expoted to Laplace transforms, ‘lemenary control theory ad linear arent auton, ‘Doe t0 the comply of even the elles power sytem, ii possible 40 esive analytical soitions of sytem models ony und de rare of cco stances Is therfore iperative to provide the ener wih an aml eerie fof compute sion methods. Suck methods fave been presesed in the for: ‘of computations fw ohare. Mos ergaduate sce ve ken roa hing cours and shold have 2 Problem in weting the nesay computer propa tom these Row chars. However, detalled computer prosam [etered in Appendix B forte important oad fow analyses. Matrix anal i sed thrughowt the text. Hower, the simplest of mats cpertons sie, and thy ate simimayied ia Appendix A forthe reacts te facia ith Ds to “The complete emptais on computer analy methe tony one of any ove fests of the text The profs of seem vel which determine Toth the sae and dynamic state of power stem} comtts a forovdble roadblock forthe stidest who wihes tp prin even ah inve understanding {Sf what goer ow isthe system. We bive ted to esove this roadblock by Inaking extensive ose of simple analogs. ‘We havea led fo pares in the pitare By the meta (devetoned once perl) of claiying the ast nombre ster alles ito “sal,” contl” and "trance variables. We have atempled to lai the cue fect eationshipe BY ae of modern seaskiviy anal To the exenve caper on system canta, we have neded the methods of epimm cone! aoa we hve ertcllypxamined (and fund Gas i) exist ing comrot pasties, We have sugested shermatve conta eps Linea graph theory, genera programing, and ui of saleable models Jo formulating the stbity peobiem ee also novel ina ondertraduate txt ‘The book ean easily be covered in to semeses of tree quar. In sme instances the material in Capes 4 to 6 may be covered in depth in he le tecl engineering curses n which case hee chapters maybe shied alge. ‘Asitane and encouragement wer received tom many souees during the preparation of thi manuscript, My colleague Proesnr Er ie ried ee}? ‘versions ofthe manuscript in ur undergraduate program. 1h, alg, the bel? ‘of dedicate suet, without whieh 0 project of this aaa ould hate Been completed, I remember With special pleasure and prattudethe many atnulating ‘iscusion sesions (many in ance in the Floriéabsckwaois) with Chares Fosha, Bob Solivan, Charles Dusck, Jin Dickenson, aad Doo Saith, These "ders have proofed he mancrp teed the compote flow charts, obtained ‘computer seartingn, 208 supgetd many tcovetents AoUghOU te txt 1A simple won ste epcting nea ti character by 12 variables.yr Till 11 tii i bp go ty en pt ic cae sexing, posted bythe Fort Poel aod Lp Co Pn one Crp, "Tanpa Ese Coy tad Gulf Power Co, Mice asta nthe fr Contents Sl tas rd an ses wi tard bom te enpy nd h : ta pr anode ytd Mess TF. Then. Jones WG Snes AN. Ag SK. Mead. BM “Te hares cae To sur ceparistet roid he proper aden seta, dwn est nr ote eet ora nd lg ee ‘Bip aos cans De wayee Che ‘iin vio Moppin pet the ele anor and He expert woo - fully appreciates. te L.Figert pnerace Vil fuerte 3 wrRooueriON : LY BiewieBiey i inpsctonSocey 1 152 Bhecse Enerky Soares 1-21 Hydropower : ‘ 122 Fosil Fuels 5 125 Nuclege Power 6 1.3. The Structure and Economy ofthe Beene Energy Induwry 7 14 The Futue of EESE 8 References 10 ‘CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF FLECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS EMGNEERING 2D 2.1 The Fundamental Power Formli—Electromsgnetic Energy 13 22 Additional Forms of Electric Feergy 17 BRI Bletre Field Energy Wo) IT 2-22 Magpeti Field Enety tay 19 . 222 Onmie, or Disipalve, Foray wo 20 ' 2.3 DC sermon AC Poner-Conceps of Real sad Resetive Powers 21 2-31) Single-phase Transmission 21 . i 2-32 Threephase Transmission 27 i 2-4 Coneypt of Complex Power 3 25 ert Representation of Impedances, Currents, Volage, wires ke 2| Exercise 39 Referens 43 ‘hapTER 3 THE ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS a 3-1 Objectives at 302 The Structure ofthe Elec Energy Sytem 45 3-21 Distibuion Lev 45 3-22 Sabtrmamisson Level 46 3-23 Trammission Level 47 3-3 Tranemision Capacity 49 34 Lood Chuscerstcs 53 3-41 Voltage snd Frequency Load Dependency 58 “3-5. The Real Power Balance and Is Elect on System Fresueny 57 35:1 Load-eeguency Mechanism 57 3:52 AMechinical Acalog 59 3-6 The Reactive Power Balance and ts Best on Sytem Voluge 60 ~3.7 Questions of Steuy aad Cost 64 8 Summary? 65 Reercies 65 References 68 CuNPTER 4 THE SYNCHRONOUS MACKINE—SYSTEM MODEL REPRESENTATION 70 41 Intodeton ~ 70 422 Elememury Maes and Analogs 71 4-21 Contol of Synchronous Machines 72 422 AMechanieal Analog 74 423 The Torgue—Power Aagle Mechanism 75. {24 Tongue Creation 76 463, Development of Geaeral Machine Equations 77 43.1 "The Basic Machine Parameters 78 432 TheGeneal Machine Equations $2 433 TheGenerat rower Equation 86 43. The Bloadel Transformation a8 44 Steady.state Machine Models 92 441 TheMachine tNoLosd 92 4-42 The Machine under Symmevical Loading Conditions 93 45 Machine Ratings 109 45 Sommay 110 Execs 110 References 142 CHAPTER 6 THE POWER TRANSFORMER 116 « 5-1 Practical Design Considerations 115 SeL1 Diferent Types of Cor Arrangements 117 5-12 Diferent Winding Arrangemeats and Flectical Connections HIT S13. Ratiogs 119 5.2 Equivalent Cres for Twoswinding Teaformess 119) 5-2. Bxaet Equivalent Circuits of Y¥-connered Teaasorners 119 5-22 Approximate Equivalet Circuits for Y¥-connected Transformers 121 5-23 Equivalent CucitforS-connecte ‘Teaslormers 124 5-24 w Equivalents 126 5-25 The Impedance Matix of @Symnetiealy Operated Three-phace Transformer 128 53. Eyuivaleat Circuits for Meliwinding Transtormers 129 5-4 Autouansfornes "135 5-5 The Transformer a8 a Control Device 137 S-S1 TCUL Traesocmers 137 5-52 Regulating Trasformess 138 5-6 Summary 148 Exercises 148 References 151 CHAPTER 6 THE HIGHENERGY TRANSMISSION LINE 352 6-1 Introduction 152 62 Design Considerations 155. 6-3 BecteLine Parameters 157 G-A1 Line Resistance and Shunt Cendvetoce 157 6-32 Lige fductance 158 53.3 Lise Capacitance 170 6-4 Longiioe Theory 183 G41 Longline Equations 183 6-42 Compusationt Considerations 186 6-43 Bquivalet Nework of LongLie 189 6-44 TheLosless Line 191 6-5 Summary 196 Exerciser 396 References 198AND LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS 200, TL ADemonstetion Example 29 TLL Sytem Model—The Stale Load Flow Equations (SLFE) 202, 7-12 Important Characteristics of SLFE 208, S713 Chusiseation of System Varsbes 206 T14 Soluion of SLFE—A Basic Dilemma 207 TALS. Mosied Specifations—Solution of Our Dilemma 207 CHAPTER 7 THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY TATE SYSTEM MODELING 7-6 Geveraliraton ombus System 208 TUT Practical Sttesvariabe Coastaints 210 TELE Practical Conol-variable Coastaims 210 TTA9. Praccal Variable Specification Procedure 7FAL10 Bus Classfeaton onthe Basis of Speciation au Type 212 7-2 Seastvgy Analysis and the Problem of Control 213 TH2.1 Perturbation ox Sensivty Analysis 213 7-22 Jacobian and Sensvity Mawes 215, 7-3. Defation ofthe Load Flow Problem 218 7-4 Network Model Formalstn 220 7-4)" & Demonsvation Example 220 742 SLFEIn General Form 222 43 Network Terminology 223 144 Primitive Networks 226 TAS. Linear Nework Graphs 227 7-46 Choice of Lincarly Independent Network Variables 228 7-4. Network Variables in Loop Frame of Reference 250 | an eee es Sens egieeng: Rewer thse ate onl sep ‘urlcaton an coe rev srl poral between the to geal) | fil and 47 Joe tothe vast esas between the cena phys! tare conned, omarion an eegy. The coms of tama Soa oa ard to dete Eo, om te coneary, a welded reared pyseal concept, The fear Is most certainly slay ae eee wn te demenary peste of elec eee), aos TORE aectap im magmas, ee Since wi be sje 0 tom eed acntan throughout te book, it may be appropcatef0 selena ime sme oie hrc kot hat for various eon, we sal nd it convenient en mE mo tanto the energy wl, os ‘Tac nate oe poser. dtnison we have aut gow ey ‘few words mst be sit aboot our choice of notation. We wre rower rots tiougout tones sn ution fiestas | TS SAL yma p tector Indates the magoitde of elec power TNE ming momen and should therefore, sre, be ymbolzed pO) Jistoser neal often fer the shots symbol From Eq, (1) obtained upon integration wo fire werd @2) [Note that w will depend upon the atbitrarly chosen ial time fy “this bc tne case with power, and constotes the basic reason why ™& refer is use. ree Se for lectic energy and electric power inthe mks system Shree erect es sence Se rae aa 1GW = 10 MW = 10" kW = 108W TkWh= 36x10" Ws cet or yl epee mag ed vert wh te TESTUSCREA Eiger te etcnaies pacar oF wine Sales Some “The entire technology of EESE i based upon thesphyialesly that ite possible to transform the “raw” energy forms avaiable in nature into electric Form, tansmit this electric form of energy to the potential user and then finally transform it back into useful energy forms of various types. These ‘nergy transformations take place often in a rather roundabout fashion, “Take, for example, te chemical energy stored in coal In pulveid form the coalismixed with an the combustion chamber ofthe bole, where the chemical energy i yelessed into thermal o eat, energy. Ina sequence of heat exchangers ts thermal energy i teansmited to another medium, rater, which spon absorption ofthe energy changes it phase into steam “The sles, upon posing through the turbine, gives of some ofthis thermal nergy in mechantealenergy. inal, inthe electric generator, the mechan {nal Energy i ansformed into electri energy. Th each of the above steps, the energy transformations take place at the expense of losses that may be of considerable sz. In the proces just described, the largest los energies are ound inthe combaston gases emited ‘rom the stack and in the condenser coling wate. Practically 100 percent of the elacrc energy that i produced ttay is obtained fom rotating generators, where the last energy ransormation step is mechanical to electrical Intensive research efforts ae being expended in direct energy conversion (DEC) methods. The outstanding feature of all DEC techniques is that ane tres to eliminate the intermediate mechanical ‘energy step and thot seeks to obtain electric energy siety from either ‘thermal, solar, or chemeal energy forms. ‘Although many DEC devices (thermoclectric, thermionic, fel cl, MHD, and others) have found important applications the low-power ars, {tis bighly doubifl tht they wil compete the conventional rotting gene= ator out of « market inthe high-power fed within the next two ot three ecades. Tn this section we shall discuss the charactersties of the energy once it has reached the eecrie form. “However, It is unimportant how it eached Where. Our starting assumption is therefore the avalablity of a device, fefered to a a generitor having a sini of to output termes, OM. Which we are able to draw a wafined curcent I at a ssfined terminal potential v. We shall make the ational assumption that © and ¢ are (quasi-static, tele variations are relatively slow, which in peactce means “hat they should not contain frequency components in excess of a few Kiloeyles. "The fndamentl power formula now states that the generator supplies energy a the rate a Ww es)fox pecon weommt uronic on lem a MEE eee ee Fe ee eT eras tit dhn atone a ay pion, Es ee AE eet de Bos, ce ae (as is commonly done in field theory) the so-called Maxwel!’s field equations, (i ie i i ee a ee ere CE rac sect a eer be per nn ee Oo a co af hey Sie eae een aloe peen eos See Te tela uepcee cane Se ete Lone LI . - at “Motor ee Fig 24 -Plenesty comgytnslion set (a) Ets cse; ‘Stine ‘The student say gain a still beter feel fr ity mesning by drawing putallel with the Bydraulic power tansmision system in Fig, 215." The ectric conductors comespond to the hydraulic pressure lines carrying a9 fncompresibe huis. Tee hyaaulie pump, corespoading tothe generator, supplies a fig dow off ms and malntins a presute erence ot « Nim If the sectional area of the presire lines pd my the Bud velocity wll therefore be 4 iss and the tual force (as fet bythe motor piston) 40 N By using the frenla ‘Mashanial power = force « velocity - we obtain te folowing expresso forthe mechanic power tanemited by Bis system ton = then W en en the same result asin Eq. (23). Thete are, to be sure, fndamentit Uifrences between the two sytem in Fg, Dasa b For example, theres no doubt that in the hydraulic system the eaegy transfer betwen the pump and motor actualy tals plae Inde the pressure lines, We have 0 sich guateatee in the clecine transmisoa system “Although Eq, (2-3) places the emphasis on the curen! which no doubt is ‘ocalzed inside the conductors, the moder physical view tends to place the nergy fw side the covets ie sheckonsenctc Bld that surrounds them. Supporters ofthis view delegate tothe conductor the roe of ware= vides, ewe aonpt his intrpretation, we designate the transite energy 1 electromagnele energy. We Would not, oF coure, expect find the fncrgy uniformly distributed the outside space, but rather having a vole ‘loneity that ould increare in Some proportiog to the intensity ofthe Held ‘vectors ‘The pheaomenon is besusfully and compactly described by the Poynting vecor P, XH Wint es Tn this formula the vector symbole represent = eee ld strength, Ven Him magnetic Bold strength, A/m “The vector P defined by Ea. (2-) evident has a direction pespendicule to the place containing E snd Hand a magnitude [P| eqsling JE Hsia «, wherewith angle between E and H, It hs the dimension of watts per reetes square, “The interpretation of Eg, (25) ie fellows ‘Theelectromagnetic energy race, oradater, ina dietion sitciing, withthe direction of P. The amount ofevergy that penetrates a unit ares PeCoveted perpen othe cation cretion) per time uit i ven by the magnde Te eaemplly, It us apply the concept of eetromagnetic enerey radiation to hesnglesyten ng 2a, Theccromagietifld pure rw he eh wich ae saune ight an reat, pe Wee Ta" The magnet eld tines ae actully perfest nonconeattic ‘Goaeh, andthe eet Bld lines consti segments of cies that are Ghogoaal ots magnet one. "ince E aod Hare bo locate i a plane perpendiculs to the come ductor willbe dete along the wires and (ling he alo wectoe Ses pode toward the lade Due othe orthogonality oF and Hy the mmagntade of Peal : P= tenth Wit and sine Band Ht have tei largest intensities close tothe conductors, the ‘ergy deny s highest othe immediate neighborhood ofthe conductors, in22. omg fel piste soon wins of Fi. 21a —— play diminishing with the distance from the conductors. Note that if ‘the conductors are perfect, the electric eld willbe 2er isi the con= ‘core, and thos no energy tavel inside the conductor. “The totally radiated energy i obtained by infegration over the ttat sectional area in Fig. 22. This isnot parueulalydilfleult in view ofthe Simple geometry, and if we actually perform the necessary operations, we ‘obtain the resul poe Ww Les the same’ result as given directly by the fundamental power equaiba @, ‘We ae free to adopt whatever interpretation appeals most to us; the cond eect she same. The entry is present; it does travel from generator to load and in magntades that db agre with £9, 3). ‘We shal, finaly, discuss one addtional and important arpct of the ‘eectromagnetic energy is sped of travel. Consider, ist, fr comparison, the hydraulic analog In Fig. 21d. How fat does the energy treel in that system? Obviously, with the same velooty with which a pressure di turbance propagates through te hydraulic uid, ie, the veloety of sound {or the fd ia question, Ta the eiectrie system of Fig. -1a the speed of energy travel equals the speed with wh a valtage (or current) perturbation propagates along the line. This velocity varies somewhat with the line parameters, uti alvays slighty less than the velocity of light} » We ea theretore eoelod that, for all practical purposes, the enseay transmission takes place instantaneosly, ‘Tals fact ha important pracieal consequence, to be decosed in laer chapters 22 ADDITIONAL FORMS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY In addition to electromagnetic energy, Weare concerned in EESE with three addtional forms of elec energy 1 Bret ld ner 2 apo el ey ar 5 Gums outs ee “This form of energy ents wherever in space there is preeot an eletie field, for instance, beeweea te plates of plate capacitor or surrounding the 1 Compare te dicing on wave propuatin Cup 10ites of a tmnsmision Line. I iy found in vem deste that can Be coupured fom t ds ‘Geol ~ Where E = electric eld strength, a before er Wel? eo 1 60 5pp X10? = dielectric constant forvaceem - 6 = relative dziectse constant of medium in question We ote the terminology thatthe letre ld energy storia the sets ” can nt cy no pt 3 ita mre sem meron Serengeti tearm, a Sauce tens teermas cette Sach Sag ope Siem oe Since is ces i conta roupou he Ho) mone Af we tu hint ney (Jermte s srecoont Bet wae en rar te Sti ux deny ene in Vat, We wl be chal cnr ‘Sth ori and ner eda, hare we ae he reeSonhip. andi sc.) ees the sel £9 28. ee —f tk Fe29 Silene capacton > “Tee cpactance Co theese i and tho oii wy ntor Ws os) “ri forma cam aly Ge pote ad for ay apo omy nd athe Magnetic eld enery tiny is found everynbere in Space whete there i a magnetic eld present. its enesy volume density is computed From diver kat) where H = magnetic Bld strength, as before iy = fn 10-T = magnetic permeability of vacuum (2 = eleive magpti permeability of medi in question = han HE Wain e109) Just as in the case of the cletic Feld energy. we obtain the ftal ragnetic field energy by integration ver the total Yolume whete the feld Fora circuit element (co) having the inductance Land earyng the current i, we can easily derive the formula ni Ws on representing the total magnetic feld energy stored in the coil The vo symeteicequations (29) and 2-11) are qt refunding the inductance fnd capacitance for various cirri elements We shal later we them Tor 1h for tal wae aa ere mes ey ie i Wns a rma Gm mutt wat ew thm ae £4,210 cee th Singer E10 ‘FToemapoee tl nny fovmaa ors son tinge soul code wena ‘donald tobe tuna nae Fares fra yam of ts fey the cen yan we mee HE (ot te asec he tar ne st em) Wie an osthat purpose. We shall also return to those formulas in our dtcusion of| ‘reatve power in Set. 23 ‘This oer of energy is dissipated imo heat whenever a cutrent Bows in a estive medium. "On pervolume basis tht energy dsipation takes place atatimerstet dre ti er where T= current density vector, Ala = specif resistivity, 2°, of medium in question es) Example 22 s contr of length Lm and wna rs A crying 4 ta rn fmm sure ryt Ni), wea rt a poles = o snd hi vs he wlan forma at sion, mont ow en 1s many instars his heat inipation ncn 3 afl ew fr, ‘erexamp, ianccaly Mad ow. Insts nan here te cen ergy ma tm conse so ergy." Tis aay ten ano bk cig Die Dustoioe ese hts romen wales ae ‘haved poner a Pan = 17 orm aly as to ae, Eo wie enw) nani ad ear edi we base Best Vin and 85 18 rs 10 ler Ea, 4, By making we fw elite he areata bin Pow . ats) By puting th powers in'elton tau omer we et tee ale 20 “Tis oma aches wa npr’ Rn The rei lat of pone lt Inert ppt he ie of he amo sige “The lst example brings into focus the need fr high transmission volt- ages, AS an extra bonus, a high tansmision voltage also rents isi treated “transmistion capocy,” x concept we shal explain in the next chapter. 123. De VERSUS AC FOWER-CONCEPTS OF REAL AND REACTIVE POWERS ‘The fist power transmission systems put into operation in the early 1880s Gncluding the historic Pear Street, New York, plant built by Edson) were ‘operated on dizectcutrent. Singl-phace alternating current came into use inthe United States in 1890, polyphase alternating cuenta few yeas ltr ‘Three-phase alternating current has dominated the Scene snes the lat ocade high-voleage direst curent has reetered th pictre, and a8 ofthis ‘wating several important diet crren links are in operation around the orld. eis sae to say, however, that three phase alternating cater wll eimai the dominant tansmision method forthe freyeable Tatu Direct current has some inberent advantages that make it the ideal tcansmision medium i cere stan, Alterralagcortent, oa the ater hand, can be easly generated and conveniently tansformed to high vlige levels, and sine cheap and effective ae mors can be Dut, this has naturally become our most common form of else enery. We shall proceed to present some ofthe Fundamental characteris of ae power. We sal tart with single-phase and demonstrat Inter the advane {ages ofthe thee phase technique Consider, therefore, dhe case where the voltage and current in the system depicted in Fig. 2-la.ae ofthe snusokdal forts aay 1 = fax Sin (ot — 9) YBy using Eq. (2-3) we thus obtain the folloning expression forthe. tl power: P= 21 = Paualane 50 sia (at — $) p= Sessets fos 6 — cos @ar — #)} ex We introduce at this juncture} the efective, or rms, values of eutent and voltage in accordance with L WIE Fatae 1 2p 11 tae may aad can then write Eq, (222) a5 follows p= [Viliicosd —[VNle0s Gor 4) 029 “The teansmitted pover evidently pulsats (Fig. 2-4) around an average power (\V||1\c05$) at double ragian frequency 20. During certain periods fhe power actuallys negative, indicating thatthe energy How during thee Interval i in the negative dreton. Lynn th sini ie a el tay at fae ‘Bw ttt scout dro rove sy yb ef "Comer he ena volage tn ennai) Wy ym i nag ew wt = ttn) = Vit tnt = fo eso i he pe ote = Vitm vem) ‘We teh olloning eae about pases: 1. We ymtoize tem by capa ter mle 2 Apher maps = na eget maf cempondig 2. Aphtor asa piss /¥ = ta gu de pase angle othe tne ction. Fig 24 Vos, cen and peri saghephase cit Equation (2-28) can be transformed into p= [Villloos 61 coe ot) — [ViMisin sin 20 025) We have actually decompose the power ino two components (marked 1 and Hin Fig. 240): the fist plats around the same average valve 38 before bur never goes negate, ad the second has a zero average valu "We intodace here the fllowing two quantities: 2 |V|INc05$ real, or cto, poe VIllisin reactive power ~ and can then write Eg, 2-25) more compactly. p= Pll ~ os 2at) ~ Qin 2or -‘These newly defined concepts ae of tuch fundamental importance io TEESE that we find it appropiate to say few words about shar meaning 1, The eal power P is defined asthe everage value of p and theefore, ‘physically, mean te wefel power being wansmited. Its magnitude Legends vey strongly onthe pomer factor cos. 2, The reactive power Q ie by definition equal the peok vale of that power ‘component that travels back and forth on the line, resulting in zero fsverage, and therefore capable of no useful work " ‘Pand 0 both have dimension watts, but to emphasize the fac that the latter represents a “nonstive,” or “restive,” power, i i messed in e>o eco | | . 8 “|b Bo soltomperes reactive (ears). Laggerand move practical units are ilovars nd ‘epavats, elated, a5 follows, tothe base ual. UE ntvar = 108 kas vars ‘Table 2 summarizes the real and reactive powers for the most ‘commonly encountered load types, Note in particule, that an inductive load absorts postive Q. Tn power lingo, we say thst an inductor consumes reactive power, A capacitive loud, onthe otber hand, absorbs negate Q. ‘Wesay that a capacitor generates eactve power. The'gn situation should not pest any mystery tothe atetiveceader, who wil cline that a gn change in Q simply means 2180 phase shin the second power component in Eq. 225, a the following example we demonstrate the physical relationship between “reactive power” and the magnetic Bld eer. ample 24. consider the ouh enya Table 27, Le these AE eu, Ihe Tote the fom i = VEIN enw ‘en Ano fom pl it aay tse cet il be fe fxm f= Visor = yee Teron ae sng . Tren By utattton to Eq (229) we heroes po gta - o rei a tee Ona wr ‘es polo sate be ace power to the stra magi lé nergy sate cdg sncecewtsEg (21), ey ale venience git mea] om “The rte of charg fh aed cme it et aan gr — eon at Fin (or — eos oe = 8) yn =e snae net $2240) ~ #)~ Osn2001 —9) om Te at tp ftw rm Bg, 2-20, We cbc: “To opel ny at vrs telly with a eqn f 20, eng nay nee “Ta fem fly ifs tae pve ompoen in Ey. 228) ther compen a ria, sd ie pe es fal) oe ad (Songer hea whe mgr ld gy ‘antl mala ae Bre} of he apc cis woud reel sinatra eee een per he ted este ed nary ‘te caput Treen hurl comer et oer sine he aly expan the ply nate of ease per "wel continatnso a a ad a eau, a shown Fig 2A spe patent Eg.) elu tt aanecae powers 28 pe sro ‘ibe el tad epson especie are pom — (PM sin200 p= Md in200 [Anca exp the power ate 10" ou of ps, Th tale power p wl ‘etna vem of 4p pret pe= Pld ~ a0 Nat hat re poe pp and ee py ate, ‘As inuretng yr ue bane ion seh onelf rene ‘oe cae and id Be now eel ae hoor te owes pp Fin 25. Poner fom in LC cect mae Taamiion ee Pow tom Fie 24 yc analog of ogg ten, ste sgat capes Te pepo Amb eae Ppl Spot Tania, ele ere rs ae Coenen ae eo Seem ta Sa caper See oe Ferrin ‘The transmission system jst deserbed & referred to a8 sngephave. TE probably kas occured tote reader thatthe gest drawback a thi arrange= ‘ent isthe pulating character of the power. -Wernay ras ausefalyralel ‘with the hydraube system in Fig. 246, characteried by a pulsating motor Shalt tongue. Considerable torque improvement can be ebisined by an “2d Fe 2 ys ang of repay.‘poems toss Fig 24 ‘Thee phase anin ystem, arrangement of the type shown in Fig. 2-7, consisting of three parallel: ‘operating single phase systems. Note that i the crankshaft hat the pat= ticular design showa inthe figure, then the iastantaneovs total id flow i ero, This means that we ean diveard the thee individual return pipes. Note also that we very well could have used larger nomber of pistons fo achieve the same smoothing effect onthe shat tongue By taking acue fom theaboye hydrate alo, wearrveat the clase three-phase transmission system depicted in Fig 28a." "The theeepbase generator supplies the thee sinusoidal phase voltages VMI sin or y= ViIMLsin (or 1205) i ean VAM sin (ot ~ 240%) Invernally inthe three-phase genetitor (Chap 4), the thre phases are cconected 10 3 neutral point which usally is growed. “The tee phe tollgges tt, ade ate therefore Usually measured relative to ground he If the load is balanced, oF symmetrical, the three phase currents will then be ofthe symmetrical frm . = VIN si erg . Vili (or — 0-4) * ean) b= VB IN sin (or — 240" — 4) I we utlize the phasor method of characterizing voltages and currents, we obtai the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 28. ‘The toa transmitted three-phase power equals the sum of the ndvid- val phase powers Pam ht Oh od, aay By using Eqs. (231) and (2.32) and ater some simple trigonometric manipulations, we obtain forthe balanced ease Pg = SIMI Mleos g os) We note thatthe tots! instantaneous three-phase power is constant, having a magnitude of three times the fel power per pase. We thus have Py a 3P eas) In these two ast formas P [7], and [represent perphae valves, We make the following easly’ confirmed observations about the alonced tee phase tansnsson system 1, The algebaic sum ofthe three phase currents equal zero. No return ‘conductor is therefore needed in a balanced threephase system. 2, The algebraic sum ofthe three phase voltages alo equals 20 3. The three Ine volages (neasured between the three phases) are of equal ‘nagnitude (VJ. The following selaonship exists between the line and phase voltages a l= V3¥! ~ z a) When refering toh otage eel of tree phase sytem, one inaribly amderstand the fne voltage, Ta teas of the ine voltage, the power ‘equation 234 rads = p= VSIA em 4 Since the instantaneous powers constant, we are tempted to assume that the reactive power sof no importance in three-phase system. This is not the ease. Note thatthe power in each phate sil sof “sagle- hase type," as dascibed by Eq. (2-27) .eee etl lel leeks Compare: The three phase caren add upto 2er0, but they are still ery och in evidence in each phase. 5, Equation (2-35) telus that the three-phase ea power equals three times the single base real power. Weare thus led to ask whether smi orm, i, C= 30 23) is aplicabe forthe reactive power, We realize immediatly thatthe concept of “three-phase eastive power” Qs, makes a8 ltl physical sete as would the concept of @ hreephase‘curent” yy 231, "Newrteless, when ‘we refer 10 reactive power ia a three-phase system, we-ahaye expres it as & “ehree pase power” in accordance with Eq. (2-38). The only reason for thin strange custom” i to obtain symmetry between fala reactive powes. (Compare Example 26, below) It shovld be added, however, that the use of pet-unit values (se below) eliminates {ny confusion between “pins” and "three-phase" values. 6. Due tothe complete symmetry between the thee phases, iti sufcient, i analysis, to determine the curtent,vokage, and power in one phase, the "reference phase" only. The knowledge of these varabls fo one phase immediatly implies knowledge inal phases. We refer to this fs perphae anal ‘We exemplify some of the above points by tie following example Example 24 Theale induction mtr oa ote of SEXY tanainion ‘vor an beeps an mgeance 210+ 020 pepe ; shown nF 29. (St sho dnsion of fond fepresentation Chap. 3) ‘ z ‘We wh dete the land restive powers bce by ad pr 5 to te ase ‘Soe th choles tet te pass, we iit on lis topum noni We commer heen ahr edorom pase Ye DHE aptamer eA . . nn t= BOG amie cots = ae wo + Tear rer by wig 9.23, we hen bain forthe ot pone (e510 pr fase) “sot tf ylage a creat ath form re sre in Ab vas, he Soha pone cone ont ety in megs) From Ey (20 we en (hale fore ate pone pe ase rags VI AM x 0798 1 O80 = 1S se 0998 0600-382 Mompise (e166 Moa te ee pe) 24 CONCEPT OF COMPLEX FOWER tier he snp cat sho a Fig 1a, wich may, fo xml re he be the hepa etn 29. Weave forte o = i ia.240 Perpineeproeatton of trees 0Gr voltage and current phasors vane raed We introduce now te conjugate current deied by ~ heyew ex) ‘wbereupon we form the product ve 40) ‘This product has a very useful propery, which we may confirm by subuituting I into Eq. (240), We gst . Sa Mt = Meets = yin ere ‘The phase angle /V — /Listhe carl introduced 4 angle (Fig, 2-108), and we this get Sa [Met = (ViMeos $+ jIVIMsing=P+j2 G41) | ‘The las step follows directly from the defini of Pand Q. We can wre Eq. (2-40) ip two alternative forms by using the relationships Vazl nd ‘we obtain Inw Sayryt- rp sour = 200 By summarizing, we ths have the thee alternative power expesions S=P+j/Q= Vl =ZUIh= ¥e\Vp em ‘The complex number S defined by Ege, (2-40) is relersed tos complex ‘power, Upon computing 5 Trom either af the thee alternative expressions (@-12), we obtain P and Q simply a5 the real and imaginary parts of S, especialy. "The magetude [S] ofthe complex power is referred to a8 apparent power, Tecan be expesed in any one of several ways I)= |= VP es) ‘The unit of [S| is obyjously voltamperes (VA), but in ELSE we prefer the larger units KVA or MV. The practical signiennee of appceat power isan rating wnt for generators and wansformers (Chaps. 4 and 3). = o ig. 244 Muon ce. ‘Ver ote we dit convein to we he matin ule for comple: power" Conte te to case sown nig 2-11 Tote ses eat ie {eadul sees elements abort, scoring to Eg. QA) the idl powers sv=unZ, Sour, unZy “he fol power eq Sqm Siac we hve Vat lt Men wecan wrt he ot power an Shag (Cy + Tog $b LI PZ Ma We herr obtain the summation rile ' ser$s sae etnies“The caer wil easily verify that this summation rle also applies tothe parallel iri in Fig 2-11, where S, now means the power absorbed bythe 2h admittance, Let us give examples ofthe use of complex power. ample Lsicimpeti lan power ene ESSE know nis emp, te sag and ings bt mt te wr iconv eet fr EG. P= _ 960s jams +78" ie 908 +006 = From Eg (40) me hen gt ey rye (few ienes0ype2 “Tee, the, athe perp as of P and Q, Sie he vgs ea tivo he owes Come tn sewn tn, we we eae ‘lng deci we met obtain el, or Be pas, alge Pag 10g C38NCONE + 0006) = 188-4116 | __Terae soul ompare hs oe ethod Wh the one edn Example Example 2 Coser a4 snd expe he sion ink epic in Fig 212. "Psi coulé mpm anemone sonsstog two he, a08 of 8 peop Fi ora dacs ah ym nF 212 a oe ein of ne hap 3 = % . : Fe 2 Fepae prsan of pe estane .... esta negro or po ane) ig tad ‘rs hin te owing tapes REISS rite fen 7g nde nee NGS anttigs i! Foray tt ence ay ‘palette Cal ont een eh nl ie ibsrtep” weap espn ya eee TASS eee ab gd es (drectd ent fom the reco bce Siac we ota for he ie powers Wraekterten Sam tt foun Mae = YL = WE WA eter 7 se araencrrers as Sim fn vicar = warts We tod som he rere cael ~ 8 Le, th pies ang een be wo bs vag. Uj mbiuton of 3 in 0B edhe cptag pain nol tcupy CEIPAY— RIANA + XU dla) coed cv ee ive —r0v4rtc008 LH IVh=08) ey (RIV ~ RIV — XIV and) @, crim a ppt rir faems ation Ao lf gs ee tio tn saad al ee neha sect at ata ora one el ~ 25 ERUNIT nuPRBSERTATION OF IMPEDANCES, CURENTS, ‘The eects power systems engineer prefers to express impedances, currents, voltages, and powers in per-unit values rather than in ohms, amperes,Iuloyolts, and megavars of megawatts, Several advantages can be gined by this pct 1. Per-oit val repretentation results in more meaningful and easly ‘coreated data 2, There willbe less chance of mixup between phase and tne voltages, Single-phase or three-phase powers, and, inthe cate of transformers, between primary and Secondary voltages. _Ascume we are informed thatthe armature resistance ofa de machine ‘equals 530. What does this piece of information communicate to us about te relative magnitude ofthe resistance? Realy, very ite! Ifthe machine ielarge, the given numeri value could indicate an unl high resitance vali ifthe machine happens tobe small the opposite wil be tue, ‘Assume gow that We ae informed about the fsstace in question in the following roundabout manner: "The resistance has such a value that if ‘avd machine curent is pased through it the voltage aos the Impedance ‘will amount to 11 peceat or 0.11 per uot ofthe rated machine voage.” ‘Ata fist lace the second alternative would seem tobe an uanecessary complication. Certainly “$382” i more concise statement than the 33+ ‘word gentence. However, It us now initead of using the gven sentence, Sinply debte thatthe resistance equals “O11 per nit,” of "Il peeert”” "Thetwoalternativeate cow equally concise, bet the perunit vale gives, In addition, arelaize-magnitude ifrmation wissing in the Best ateroative, "In sytem studies, when many machines of difereat ratings ate it~ voted te more practical to choose « common bave clue for curent and voliage, to which we then can refer our actual values Let [hl and [Val epresent the base current and base vatage, expesed in kiloamperes and ovots,respetvely. The product Isl= mi ova es) is then referred to as our base MVA. Note that, of the three base values ‘thut defined, only two are Independent. Rather than choote the [4 1% pai as we did, we could have chosen (and thei far more olen done) the [S31 pai. ‘Tn terms ofthe chore base Values, we then dine the base impedance eee e8) 1 Not tat, ent nth ner, he bas pean i spl ta pea one ‘ich we can mene tb ange the caret ough oe [he second stp follows dey from Bq, 248) “The last formula can be witen Birr iS . . ‘nd thi then sigs that our rests come out the same wheter We use perphase valves for|/ and Sor ine values and threw-phase values. But ‘we must always be consistent. Ts tert ofthe four base values thus defined we can now compute pee it value of voltages, eurtents, powers, and impedances, ample, expres the omic impedance Zq in per-unit valde Zu From the dsintion of perunit impedance we bave the following alternative conversion formulas" Za _Zalh\ _ Zalhl a Fe Bie Ke on) ‘When we work with admittance, the las conversion formula reads Lm oy Wa 1 Ym EF ais ~ "1ST on ‘We sometimes need to convert an impedance from one base system, (1S to another one, IF, [5]. From Bq. 2-50) we et By eliminating Za we gst our conversion formula: 7, SIM ISN cos ISP os sample 29 We hve eda pr ty eng a a vu 10 isi 8 Mv, We want to expr in peranit aus te folowing wel, crens, Powe singetan ta ae:We fr compure te tae caret an bse peda Irae son ‘We’ ten diy: ‘Saba mt are B AKO Spee jpn 00 Toe ithe: anspo op > call our problems in this book willbe worked in per-uit vues, ‘the student will get ample opportunity to get aoguanted with this practice, We have attempted inthis chapter to give a brief demonstration ofthe baie physical laws upon which the EESE technology based In pertcla, the ‘arous ele enesgy forms with which we shal be concerned have been discussed. The practically important three phase transmission technique dna teeo presented, and its basic advantage the constaney of transmied over, has been sresed ‘The concepts of rel and reactive powers ive been rGvewed and ‘elated tothe three-phase sytem. These concepts are of sich fundamental importance thatthe reader should not proceed unt he has gained s thorough \oderstanding of them. We have algo reviewed the concept of complex power and introduced’ the reader to the practically important perunit bes: -epesentaton of electrical quantities, Both wil prove invaluable through- ‘out the book. > exercises “a ‘ 2 For hepa apse oy Tale 21 lem), dere epee racine pont Thc pov ta taser th hal t cange fe er ae pe Cope a) 532 The pou option (20 war tad 0 he sump the hae pase oad SE REET ci stain see woh ghd cttw dp Fig 24 Untlacedeepaead . + i212 show pith pew ow ne anal ing com bon, te amptude of wih roporoa! tthe untae BR We ake 8 xno date utaensrettvgy sal Le, Ree Te a num eraee ieee Seem sehr eter ets oon ceeee eee amar aig ent SSme Snes og dea pana PA Ss te tg apt fil a, jn cenit rscymerian pie net oaths ot Ge See ett ao asin hat Vas ¥ by 10.” Taconic wih 9,40, eta ave dF owt ase sg a scaly be con! wtb be eae thee)