www.newfoodmagazine.

com Issue 5 · 2014

Beverage Food fraud

Processing prevention
John Spink, Director of the Food Fraud
Supplement Initiative, Michigan State University

Viscosity BrauBeviale
measurements 2014 preview
in food products
and manufacturing SPONSORED BY:

Sarab Sahi, Principal Research Officer,

Baking and Cereal Processing, Campden BRI
 Brewery
made
simple.
Life is complicated enough. So make

1 3 t h N ovember
11th – , BOOTH 321
it simpler — with the new solutions

HALL 5
for valve manifold from Bürkert —
designed with the needs of the
brewery industry in mind, featuring a
hygienic design, easy cleaning and
simple operation. A complex fluidic
task can therefore become simplicity
itself. Perfect for high process yields
and your peace of mind.

Multifunction Block:
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It simply keeps everything
under control.

We make ideas flow.

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 Making ideas flow
Measurement and control of fluids: when it comes to working with liquids and gases, Bürkert is
at your side – both as a manufacturer of sophisticated process control products such as process
valves, sensors and controllers, and as a problem-solver with an eye for the big picture and as
a partner offering you reliable advice.

Bürkert Systemhaus and company headquarters in Ingelfingen, Germany

Customised fluid control products for the food and beverage industry
Through Bürkert’s customer-oriented application approach, the company has developed its
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a more comprehensive and attuned range of customized products and system solutions.
Having 36 international subsidiary offices and a global distribution network means that Bürkert
is even closer to its customers.
Our strong brand focuses our energies within the food and beverage arena; we are leaders in
research and development, production capacity, knowledge transfer and especially customer
service and support.

Bürkert at BrauBeviale 2014

Bürkert will be attending BrauBeviale in November
2014. One of the highlights on Bürkert’s stand will
be the Type 2000 Modular System – a new
solution for valve manifold. Designed with the
needs of the brewery industry in mind, the Type
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fluidic task can therefore become simplicity itself.

Find out more at www.burkert.com

Come and visit us at BrauBeviale 2014

– Hall 5, Booth 321
 INTRODUCTION

Founder
Ian Russell
Managing Director
Tackling food fraud
In September 2014 the long-awaited Elliott report into food authenticity
Josh Russell
was published. The aim of the report, which had been commissioned by
Editor
the Government in the wake of the 2013 horsemeat scandal, was to advise
Anne-Marie McKenna
Senior Publications Assistant
and make recommendations on issues which impact consumer
Karen Hutchinson confidence in the authenticity of food products.
Group Sales Director We expected the report to address recent failures in the food supply
Tim Dean network and the subsequent implications for food safety and public
Publication Manager health, and it did not disappoint. Professor Elliott highlighted key recommendations which
Claire Singleton included putting consumers first; adopting a zero tolerance approach to fraud; promoting further
Production Manager gathering and sharing of intelligence; improved laboratory services; a move towards modular
Brian Cloke auditing; further support from the Government; better crisis management; and, perhaps the most
Front Cover Artwork intriguing recommendation, the creation of a Food Crime Unit within the FSA to become the lead
Steve Crisp agency for food crime.
Food crime is a huge, and growing, issue for both consumers and suppliers alike. I was lucky
Schedule enough to speak to David Edwards, Food Safety Consultant at NSF International, shortly after the
New Food is published bi-monthly release of Professor Elliott’s report, and what is evident is that the issue of food fraud prevention
(six times per annum) and is available by
subscription at £90.00 for a year which includes cannot be tackled without adopting a harmonised approach; it’s not just about food safety but
on-line membership access. Back issue copies about protecting the supply chain, and it will be interesting to see how the industry confronts this
can be requested at £15.00 per copy.
issue going forward.
Subscriptions Carrying on with this theme, starting on page 18 of this issue of New Food, you will find an
Subscription enquiries to insightful article from Dr John Spink, Director of the Food Fraud Initiative at Michigan State
khutchinson@russellpublishing.com University, which examines the issue of food fraud prevention; looking beyond adulterants and
or telephone +44 (0) 1959 563311
towards decision-making.
Publishers Elsewhere in the issue, we have a Beverage Processing Supplement (starting page 23), which
New Food is published by: features an article from David Berryman Limited on the use of fruit juices as natural colouring agents
Russell Publishing Ltd, Court Lodge, and from former Professor of Brewing at Heriot-Watt University, Paul Hughes, looking at improving
Hogtrough Hill, Brasted,
Kent, TN16 1NU, UK the non-biological stability of beer. Also within the supplement we preview BrauBeviale 2014.
Telephone: +44 (0) 1959 563311 As always, if you have any comments or would like to contribute an end-user article to
Fax: +44 (0) 1959 563123
Email: food@russellpublishing.com New Food please contact me directly via the email address below. Don’t forget to also
www.newfoodmagazine.com bookmark our website (www.newfoodmagazine.com) and join our LinkedIn and Twitter groups
Copyright
– details opposite.
Anne-Marie McKenna
ISSN 1461 - 4642
Editor
Copyright rests with the publishers.
All rights reserved amckenna@russellpublishing.com
©2014 Russell Publishing Limited
Registered Office as above.
Russell Publishing Ltd, is registered
as a Limited Company in England,
Number 2709148
VAT Number GB 577 8978 47 Supported by

Circulation
New Food can guarantee its circulation New Food is proud to be affiliated with EFFoST,
is 13,599 (for the six issues distributed between The European Federation of Food Science & Technology,
1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014). The publication is a non-profit association that federates food science
Independent audit
watchdog service for
ABC audited. This is an independent verification and technology organisations in Europe.
printed publications that our circulation is genuine.
*Half price subscriptions to New Food are available to
all EFFoST members. Contact Karen Hutchinson
Social Media khutchinson@russellpublishing.com for further details

The New Food Editorial Board

Dr. John Holah Karina Badalyan Supriya Varma
Join us on LinkedIn: Follow us on Twitter:
http://linkd.in/NewFoodMag http://twitter.com/NewFoodMag
Technical Director, Yerevan State University Scientist, Frito-Lay (PepsiCo)
Holchem Laboratories Limited
Brian McKenna Lilia Ahrné
Dirk Nikoleiski Emeritus Professor of Director of Process and
Printing by Production Protection & Hygienic Technology Development, SIK
Food Science, UCD
Design KFE, Mondelez International
Huub Lelieveld Huug de Vries
No responsibility can be accepted by Russell Publishing Limited, the editor, David Acheson
staff or any contributors for action taken as a result of the information and President, Director, IATE
other materials contained in our publications. Readers should take specific President and CEO,
advice when dealing with specific situations. In addition, the views The Acheson Group Global Harmonisation Initiative Yasmine Motarjemi
expressed in our publications by any contributor are not necessarily those Food Safety Advisor
of the editor, staff or Russell Publishing Ltd. As such, our publications are Kata Galic François Bourdichon
not intended to amount to advice on which reliance should be placed. Corporate Food Safety, Microbiology Duncan Goodwin
We therefore disclaim all liability and responsibility arising from any Food Technology and
reliance placed on such materials by any reader, or by anyone who may be Biotechnology, University of Zagreb and Hygiene Manager, Barry Callebaut Director of Technical Services, NSF
informed of any of its contents. Published October 2014

www.newfoodmagazine.com 3 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

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 Contents
3 INTRODUCTION 42 MICROBIOLOGY
Tackling food fraud Microbiological criteria and
Anne-Marie McKenna, Editor testing: Dos and don’ts
François Bourdichon, Corporate Food Safety, Microbiology and
6 NEWS Hygiene Manager, Barry Callebaut

9 EVENTS 47 WEBINAR PREVIEW

10 FREEZING Viability PCR – the next level in
Current advances in food freezing PCR-based pathogen testing
Christian James and Stephen J. James, Food Refrigeration
and Process Engineering Research Centre, Grimsby Institute 48 HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING
of Further and Higher Education Opportunities and
14 EHEDG: FOOD SAFETY perspectives of high pressure
Hygienic design of conveyor systems – processing to produce healthy
new EHEDG Guideline shows the way food products and ingredients
Vibeke Orlien, University of Copenhagen; Francisco J. Barba,
Jon J. Kold, Chairman, EHEDG Conveyer Systems Subgroup
University of Valencia; Roman Buckow, CSIRO; and Netsanet
Shiferaw Terefe, CSIRO Animal, Food and Health Sciences Division
18 FOOD FRAUD
Food fraud prevention – beyond 53 SHOW PREVIEW
adulterants and to decision-making Hi Europe & Ni 2014
John Spink and Douglas C. Moyer, Michigan State University
54 HEALTH & NUTRITION
Inprofood: Exploring new
ways to establish dialogue and
mutual learning
56 LISTERIA
Listeria and produce:
a troublesome liaison
Reha A. Azizoglu, Lisa Gorski and Sophia Kathariou,
North Carolina State University

60 EXTRUSION
23 BEVERAGE PROCESSING SUPPLEMENT Extrusion: Conversion of
Featuring an article from David Berryman Limited about the use of semolina into pasta
fruit juices as natural colouring agents, a piece looking at Frank A. Manthey and Elena de la Peña,
improving the non-biological stability of beer from brewing North Dakota State University
specialist Paul Hughes and a show preview of BrauBeviale 2014
64 VISCOSITY
38 CONTAMINANTS Viscosity measurements in food
Contaminants: products and manufacturing
Definitions, acceptability and Sarab Sahi, Principal Research Officer, Baking and Cereal
Processing, Campden BRI
EU contaminant legislation
Sarah Howarth, Scientific Committee Member, IFST 69 CHOCOLATE PROCESSING
Chocolate mass –
This issue of New Food is sponsored
by Bürkert Fluid Systems
an overview on current and alternative
Bürkert Fluid Control Systems
processing technologies
Bürkert’s products have a wide Christian-Bürkert-Straße 13-17 Siegfried Bolenz, Professor of Food Technology, Neubrandenburg
variety of applications and are D-74653 Ingelfingen, Germany University of Applied Sciences
used in a number of industries, Phone: +49 (0)7940 10-0

such as hygienic processing and

Fax: +49 (0)7940 10-91 204 76 IN A NUTSHELL
Email: info@burkert.com
water treatment. www.burkert.com With Doug Baldwin, Vice President, Food and Industrial Products
Division, Wenger Manufacturing Inc.

www.newfoodmagazine.com 5 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

Newsbites
Fonterra and MFAT partner to
advance dairy in developing countries
Dairy giant Fonterra and the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT) have agreed
to work together to help developing countries
build viable dairy industries and increase dairy
nutrition knowledge.
Under the partnership, called the
Framework for International Development in
Dairy Excellence, Fonterra and MFAT will
seek to develop initiatives to enhance food
security, knowledge and nutrition in emerging
markets with relatively undeveloped dairy
industries, and help build economically
viable farm systems with a focus on food
safety and quality.
“New Zealand and our dairy industry have
an important, global role to play in promoting
dairy as a source of good nutrition and helping
developing economies meet the local demands
of their populations for dairy products,” said
Fonterra’s CEO, Theo Spierings.
General Mills completes
acquisition of Annie’s Inc.
U.S.-based General Mills has announced that,
effective 21 October 2014, it has completed its
acquisition of natural and organic food
company, Annie’s Inc.
The acquisition involved General Mills
purchasing all issued and outstanding shares
of Annie’s common stock at a price of
$46 per share. With the acquisition, Annie’s
will join General Mills’ portfolio of natural and
organic products and will function as a wholly-
owned subsidiary of General Mills.
Jeff Harmening, General Mills Executive
Vice President and Chief Operating Officer –
U.S. Retail, said: “This acquisition will
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
© Sandra Cunningham / Shutterstock.com
Russia bans
animal fats from
EU countries
Russia has announced a ban on animal fat
and meat by-product imports from the
European Union.
The announcement, made by the country’s
veterinary and phytosanitary service,
Rosselkhoznadzor, said the ban would take
effect from 21 October 2014 and would
extend an earlier sweeping ban whereby
Russia had banned Western food imports,
worth $9 billion a year, in response to the
United States and European Union’s
sanctions against Moscow over its role in the
Ukraine conflict.
A spokesperson from Rosselkhoznadzor
confirmed the temporary restrictions were for
bovine, porcine and avian fat products
and cited 17 cases of substandard food
items from EU nations including Austria,
Germany, Denmark, Italy and Poland as the
Activities undertaken by the partnership will
reason for the ban. It follows the one-year
include initiatives to raise on-farm milk safety
ban on European fruits, vegetables and meat
and quality standards, increase farmer
announced in August 2014.
productivity and profitability, build
The European Commission has already
cooperative governance, improve milk
given €155 million to the EU as emergency
collection and transport, and educational
funding to help farmers hit by the ban, but as
nutrition programmes with local communities.
Russia is the second largest market for
MFAT’s CEO John Allen commented:
European produce after the United Sates, the
“The goal of this Framework is to enhance
ban is expected to further it Europe’s
food security, income and nutrition in targ-
agriculture sector.
eted developing countries by promoting
www.fsvps.ru
dairy industry development and food safety
and quality.
“We are pleased to be able to sign this
Framework with Fonterra. It will allow World’s top
MFAT to investigate potential future pro-
jects in areas like building the capability of 100 food and
farmers in developing countries, or enhancing
co-operative models and business structures.” beverage
www.fonterra.com
companies
announced
Leatherhead Food Research has published a list
of the world’s top 100 food and beverage
companies by total food sales.
The top spot once again went to Nestlé, with
food sales totalling $77,810,000. Nestlé was
significantly expand our presence in the U.S.
branded organic and natural foods industry, followed by PepsiCo Inc. totalling $66,415,000,
where sales have been growing at a 12 per cent and then The Coca-Cola Company with
compound rate over the last 10 years. Annie’s $46,854,000. Places four to 10 went to JBS,
competes in a number of attractive food Archer Daniels Midland Company, Anheuser-
categories, with particular strength in Busch InBev, Mondelēz International, Tyson
convenient meals and snacks – two of General Foods, SABMiller and Cargill respectively.
Mills’ priority platforms. Mars narrowly missed out on the top 10
“We believe that combining the Annie’s coming in in eleventh place with total food sales
product portfolio and go-to-market capabilities of $33,000,000, and was followed by Unilever,
with General Mills’ supply chain, sales and Danone, Heineken, Lactalis, Kirin Holdings,
marketing resources will accelerate the growth Asahi Group, Suntory, Kraft Foods Group
of our organic and natural foods business.” and General Mills, making up the top 20
www.generalmills.com global companies.
www.leatherheadfood.com
6 www.newfoodmagazine.com
 Newsbites

© Anna Hoychuk / Shutterstock.com

The Coca-Cola
Company
announces
actions to drive
stronger growth
The Coca-Cola Company has announced
actions to reinvigorate growth. The action
support the previously announced five
strategic priorities to restore momentum and
the Company’s long-term growth target of
high single-digit comparable currency-
neutral EPS.
“We are taking decisive action to position
The Coca-Cola Company to continue deliv-
ering long-term value for our shareowners,”
said Muhtar Kent, Chairman and CEO of
The Coca-Cola Company. “We have taken a
hard look at our progress to-date and realise
Cambridge study reveals
that while the strategies we laid out at the
beginning of the year are the right track, growing price gap between
the scope and pace of our actions must
increase. In addition to announcing an
expanded productivity programme, we are
more and less healthy foods
streamlining our operations and further A study by the Centre for Diet and Activity said lead author Nicholas Jones. “The increase in
aligning our incentive plans to deliver against Research (CEDAR) at the University of the price difference between more and less
our growth objectives. We are also evolv- Cambridge has revealed a wide price gap healthy foods is a factor that may contribute
ing our 2020 Vision to reflect these changes. between more and less healthy foods, with towards growing food insecurity, increasing
“Within this context, we are maintaining healthy foods costing three times more per health inequalities and deterioration in the health
our long-term high single-digit EPS growth calorie than less healthy foods. of the population.”
target, while changing our operating income The study tracked the price of 94 key food and According to the National Health Service, the
metric to profit before tax and adjusting our beverage items from 2002 to 2012 and found annual cost of diet-related ill health is estimated
net revenue target to mid-single-digit growth. that in 2002 1,000kcal of more healthy foods at £5.8 billion.
“While we expect the macroeconomic (as defined by criteria devised for the UK The findings showed that there could be merit
environment to remain challenging through Government) cost an average of £5.65, in public health bodies monitoring food prices in
2015, we are confident in our ability to return compared to purchasing the same quantity of relation to nutrient content; hopefully taking into
to sustainable growth over the long-term. energy from less healthy food at £1.77. By 2012, account a broader selection of foods than could
This confidence is supported by the attractive this cost had changed to £7.49 for more healthy be used in the study. The study’s authors pointed
long-term dynamics of our industry and the and £2.50 for less healthy foods. The researchers towards other studies which indicated that the
unparalleled reach of our brands and our commented that this trend could result in people EU’s Common Agricultural Policy – which
global system. We are fully dedicated to increasingly turning to less healthy food. subsidises the production of certain goods such
strengthening our position as the world’s “Food poverty and the rise of food banks have as dairy, oil and sugar – has the potential to affect
leading beverage company.” been an issue of public concern in the UK, but as public health by influencing the availability and
www.coca-colacompany.com
well as making sure people don’t go hungry, it is the price of foods.
also important that a healthy diet is affordable,” www.cam.ac.uk/research

Air Products continues to increase options and

flexibility with its cryogenic freezers
In its Cryogenics Centre of Excellence, located in Basingstoke, UK, the
Air Products’ Freshline® R&D team continuously work on customer
requests and suggestions for improvements.
This is why Air Products’ range of Freshline® cryogenic tunnel freezers
can satisfy the needs of most types of processors, from small start-ups to
global food processing companies.
The company’s latest improvement was on the Freshline® MP (Multi-
Purpose) freezer. This tunnel freezer is Air Products’ most versatile
solution for larger volumes of high quality cryogenically frozen products.
It is amenable to various sizes, throughputs and end results without
making any compromise on safety or hygiene. Its latest feature is the
slatted belt option. Standard belts can usually leave marks on delicate
products such as soft cheeses, liquid/pasty products, or desserts. This
can be less attractive when these products are served thawed, and even
more so when they are intended to be used in the hospitality arena.
The slatted belt option now ensures that these frozen products are kept
intact giving them an impeccable surface when thawed. The belt is
available in two widths, and can be ordered as an option on a new
Freshline® MP tunnel freezer.
www.airproducts-freshthinking.com

www.newfoodmagazine.com 7 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

Newsbites
Centre for Industrial

© grossartiger / Shutterstock.com
Rheology: Advising
the F&B industry
Working with some of the world’s leading food and
beverage manufacturers, the Centre for Industrial
Rheology provides rheological profiles, viscosity testing,
texture analysis and powder flow testing, as a low-cost,
low-risk, rapid-turnaround outsourced service. With a

Study warns of health wealth of capabilities and years of experience, this

specialist laboratory obtains illuminating and insightful

consequences from increasing
consumption of energy drinks
A study by the World Health Organisation
Regional Office for Europe has warned of
dangerous health consequences in
children from increasing consumption of
energy drinks.
These non-alcoholic beverages contain
caffeine, vitamins and other ingredients
such as taurine, ginseng, and guarana,
which are marketed as energy boosting
agents. A primary research on health risks,
consequences and policies related to
energy drink consumption have led the
authors to believe that there are reasons for
concern, with scope for further research.
The study states: “As energy drink sales
are rarely regulated by age, unlike alcohol
and tobacco, and there is a proven
potential negative effect on children, there
analyses of foods including sauces, dips, dressings and
batters. This data helps developers formulate winning
products; process designers to specify plant needs; quality
managers to achieve consistent production; and provides
valuable insights for processing, handling, sensory and
is the potential for a significant public storage performance. Providing practical solutions, all
health problem in the future.” analyses are backed up with friendly and accessible
According to the European Food support to ensure the least-technical of clients gain value
Safety Authority, 30 per cent of adults, from the data delivered.
68 per cent of adolescents and 18 per cent The Centre for Industrial Rheology also provides
of children below the age of 10 consume recommendations on rheology and viscosity test
energy drinks. Apart from setting an upper equipment purchases and runs practical training courses in
limit for the amount of caffeine allowed in rheology and viscosity testing.
a single serving of energy drinks, the If you would like to obtain a rheological profile of your
authors of the study have suggested products (or maybe those of your competitors!) you
several other actions to minimise the risk can contact the Centre for Industrial Rheology at:
from energy drinks such as regulations to lab@rheologylab.com or on +44 (0)1730 829858.
enforce restriction of labelling and sales of www.rheologylab.com
energy drinks to children and adolescents
and enforcing standards for responsible
marketing to young people by the energy
drink industry.
www.who.int
Arla Foods acquires
Falbygdens Ost
Arla Foods announced in October 2014 that it is

Key appointments at acquiring cheese company, Falbygdens Ost, from Atria

Scandinavia. The acquisition is in line with Arla’s
strategy to drive its premium cheese segment.
NSF International The acquisition is subject to approval from the
Swedish Competition Authority.
NSF International has appointed two global food safety executives to new leadership “Falbygdens Ost is a strategic complement to Arla’s
positions. David Richardson has been promoted to Vice President of Europe, the Middle own cheese business. The decision to acquire
East and Africa, while Serban Teodoresco has been appointed as Global Managing Falbygdens Ost is in line with Arla’s strategy, both
Director of NSF International’s Consulting and Technical Group. Both will play key roles globally and in Sweden, to drive its premium cheese
in expanding NSF International’s food safety and quality services including global food segment. Through its acquisition, Arla is further
safety certification, food fraud prevention and integrated risk management. securing that it is adding value to its farmer-owner milk
David’s appointment underscores the strategic importance of NSF’s operation in the and that it continues to be profitable,” said Henri de
EMEA region and the continued focus on the development of technical and commercial Sauvage, Arla Foods’ Executive Vice President.
solutions to anticipate and meet the sector’s changing needs. With more than 25 years of “Employees at Falbygdens Ost have considerable
strategic, commercial and technical experience in the food safety industry, David has experience in working with cheese, along with strong
established and developed an international network of offices offering broad-based channels for sales of premium cheese. They represent a
services for the agri-supply chain. proud cheese-making tradition that we now wish to
Based in Montreal, Canada, and with more than 30 years of food safety, risk build upon. Falbygdens Ost has a solid foundation in
management and corporate entrepreneurship experience, Serban has spent his career its brands and its partnerships with well-known cheese
providing food safety and risk management solutions to industry-leading companies producers in other countries. With Arla’s expertise in
around the globe. This appointment will allow NSF International to expand its crises innovation and production, along with its marketing
prevention and risk management services; helping to protect brand reputation and the and sales channels, we can work together to develop
safety of global food supply chains. the passion for and interest in cheese for both
“As the food supply chain becomes increasingly more complex, David and Serban will customers and consumers.”
each play essential roles in assisting companies worldwide by providing innovative risk Arla will take over Falbygdens Ost on 7 January
solutions to protect public health and the food supply chain. Both are strategically focused 2015 at the earliest, pending a decision from the
and results oriented with the competency to lead and execute effective global initiatives,” Swedish Competition Authority. Once this decision has
said Tom Chestnut, Senior Vice President, Global Food Division at NSF International. been made, local union negotiations will take place.
www.nsf.com www.arla.com

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 8 www.newfoodmagazine.com

Events
NOVEMBER 2014
Dubai International
Food Safety Conference
and Exhibition
Date: 9 – 11 November
Location: Dubai, UAE
t: +971 42 06 42 35
w: www.foodsafetydubai.com
BrauBeviale 2014
Date: 11 – 13 November
Location: Nuremberg, Germany
t: +49 (0) 91 18 60 68 111
w: www.brau-beviale.de
Total Food 2014
Date: 11 – 13 November
Location: Norwich, UK
e: totalfood@ift.ac.uk
w: www.ifr.ac.uk/totalfood2014
Flanders’ Food
Technology Days
Date: 13 – 14 November
Location: Brussels, Belgium
e: veerle.degraef@flandersfood.com
w: www.flandersfood.com
Emballage 2014
Date: 17 – 20 November
Location: Paris, France
e: emballage@comexposium.com
w: www.all4pack.com/emballage
Food Matters Live
Date: 18 – 20 November
Location: London, UK
e: info@foodmatterslive.com
w: www.foodmatterslive.com
Second International
Conference on Nutrition
Date: 19 – 21 November
Location: Rome, Italy
e: fao-hq@fao.org
w: www.fao.org/icn2
DECEMBER 2014
3rd Annual Canadean Alcohol
Innovation Congress
Date: 2 – 3 December
Location: London, UK
e: events@arena-international.com
w: www.arena-international.com/aic
www.newfoodmagazine.com
Hi Europe & Ni 2014 Anuga FoodTec 2015
Date: 2 – 4 December Date: 24 – 27 March
Location: Amsterdam, the Netherlands Location: Cologne, Germany
e: karina.vos@ubm.com e: m.schlueter@koelnmesse.de
w: www.figlobal.com/hieurope w: www.anugafoodtec.com
JANUARY 2015
Snaxpo 2015
Date: 28 – 31 March
IFPAC 2015 Location: Orlando, Florida, USA
e: msmith@sfa.org
Date: 25 – 28 January
w: www.snaxpo.com
Location: Arlington, VA, USA
e: info@ifpacnet.org APRIL 2015
w: www.ifpac.com/food
Food Ingredients China 2015
FEBRUARY 2015 Date: 1 – 3 April
Location: Shanghai, China
ProSweets 2015 t: +86 10 59 79 58 33
Date: 1 – 4 February w: www.chinaexhibition.com
Location: Cologne, Germany
e: visitor@prosweets-cologne.de 2015 European Symposium
w: www.prosweets.com on Food Safety
Date: 20 – 22 April
5th Healthy Bars & Location: Cardiff, Wales
Grain Snacks 2015 e: info@foodprotection.org
Date: 5 – 6 February w: www.foodprotection.org/
Location: Cologne, Germany europeansymposium/2015
e: info@bridge2food.nl
w: www.bridge2food.com
Bta.
Date: 21 – 24 April
Location: Barcelona, Spain
MARCH 2015 e: bta@alimentaria.com
w: www.bta-bcn.com
13th Annual Global Food &
Food Safety Summit 2015
Technology Summit
Date: 2 – 3 March Date: 28 – 30 April
Location: London, UK Location: Baltimore, MD, USA
e: enquire@wtgevents.com e: fisherc@bnpmedia.com
w: www.foodsafetysummit.com
w: www.foodinnovate.com
MAY 2015
Pittcon
Date: 8 – 12 March Vitafoods Europe
Location: New Orleans, USA Date: 5 – 7 May
e: info@pittcon.org Location: Geneva, Switzerland
w: www.pittcon.org
e: daria.smith@informa.com
w: www.vitafoods.eu.com
CFIA 2015
Date: 10 – 12 March European Food Manufacturing
Location: Rennes, France & Safety Summit
e: cfia@gl-events.com Date: 18 – 19 May
w: www.cfiaexpo.com Location: Huis ter Duin, the Netherlands
e: enquire@wtgevents.com
ife: The International w: www.foodmanufacturingevent.com
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Date: 22 – 25 March If you have an event you wish to publicise or
Location: London, UK are interested in setting up a media
e: emily.mosedale@freshmontgomery.co.uk partnership, contact Martine Shirtcliff at:
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9 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
FREEZING

© Iakiv Pekarskyi / Shutterstock.com

■ Christian James and Stephen J. James
Food Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre, Grimsby Institute of Further and Higher Education

Current advances
in food freezing
Frozen food is one of the largest sectors of the food industry and its value is increasing throughout the world.
The frozen food market in seven of the major Western European Economies was valued at €83.51 billion in 2013 and
is expected to grow in value by 10.89 per cent by 20161. The market is broadly segmented into frozen; vegetables
and fruits, potatoes, ready meals, meat, fish/seafood and soup and more than 35 per cent of this market is in the
frozen ready meals sector. In a previous article for New Food2 we discussed different innovative freezing technologies
for foods. Apart from impingement, many of the technologies discussed are still in development. In this article we will
look at proven technologies.

There is a general view that fast freezing, and the formation of small ice
crystals, offers some quality advantages. Although not true for all foods,
minimising freezing times can be advantageous in also reducing energy
consumption, increasing throughput, and improving yield.
Refrigeration systems
There are two main types of freezing system: mechanical (which use a
circulating refrigerant to reduce the temperature of air or a liquid which is
passed over the food) and cryogenic (which use the direct application of
liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide onto the food). Both systems can freeze
the food using various freezer designs, including tunnel, spiral, fluidised
bed, impingement, spray, immersion, etc.
There has been a constant debate in the industry between the
relative merits of mechanical versus cryogenic systems. In many ways
this debate has been to the benefit of all sides leading to advances
and improvements in all systems. Fast freezing rate, smaller foot-
print, and lower capital costs are usually cited as the main benefits of a
cryogenic system, while high cryogen cost is often cited as the main
disadvantage. However, advances in both technologies are reducing
these distinctions. In practice, the food manufacturer must carefully
balance the capital cost, operating cost, throughput and product quality,
when deciding on which systems to install.
Freezer designs
There is no single type of freezer that is best for all food freezing
applications. The selection and design is dependent upon operational

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 10 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 FREEZING

requirements as well as product condition. Many parameters will

influence the choice of system, including: product type, size, in-feed
temperature and condition (any prior process such as cooking or
marinating), appearance, production line capacity (kg/h), critical
operating times and factory space limitations.

Blast air freezers

The most common way of freezing food is to use an air blast freezer.
In many small operations products are batch frozen on, or in, racks of
trays that are manually loaded into a freezing system. These freezers
require double handling and it is difficult to achieve uniform freezing
conditions. For larger operations it is better to use linear tunnels or spiral
freezers. These can have single or multiple conveyors, the latter enabling
freezing of more than one product at a time and at different throughputs.
Linear tunnels are of simpler construction than spirals but can restrict the
floor space available. Although this restriction can be solved by using
stacked multiple passes. Flat belt tunnels are modular and thus can be
extended many times over. The limitation to capacity is only set by the
space available and the energy consumption costs of running straight
tunnels with high fan loads. Spiral freezers are often a more viable
alternative. The rise in the use of spiral freezers can be seen to be a
response to the importance of reducing the footprint of freezers in order
to fit more in existing factory plans.
There is a belief in industry that spiral freezers represent the peak of
freezer technology. We have often heard talk of replacing existing tunnel
systems with spirals under the mistaken belief that spiral are more
effective and faster at freezing. This is a common fallacy. Spirals do offer
footprint advantages over tunnels, but neither is more inherently
effective at freezing, and spirals can be more expensive and complex.
The freezing time of the product is reduced as the air speed is
increased. An optimum value exists between the decrease in freezing
time and the increasing power required to drive the fans to produce
higher air speeds. Up to 30 per cent of the total energy consumed in a
blast freezer may be consumed by the fans and the extra refrigeration Welcome to the
required to extract heat generated by the fans.
Fluidised bed freezers are used to prevent small products (such as
GEA Cosmopolitan City!
peas and rice) sticking together and to the conveyor belt, thus ensuring
the pieces are Individually Quick Frozen (IQF). Air is circulated up
The right product in just
through the conveyor belt at high speed, lifting and agitating the produce a few clicks
to ensure it remains separated. Such agitation to produce IQF products
can also be accomplished through mechanical means. GEA Refrigeration Technologies manufactures pro-
The use of impingement technology to increase the surface heat
ducts for every cooling process: wherever cooling
transfer in air freezing systems has been one of the few recent
– or heating – takes place with refrigerants, our in-
innovations to be truly commercially realised. The very high velocity
impingement air jets increase heat transfer by breaking up the static
novations assure a future worth
surface boundary layer of gas that surrounds a food product. living in. 2owerful, efƂcient, and
Impingement freezing is best suited for products with high surface area sustainable. Discover the great
to weight ratios (i.e. products with one small dimension, such as burgers diversity of these refrigeration
or fish fillets). The process is also very attractive for products that require and plant facilities in the GEA
very rapid surface freezing.
Cosmopolitan City!
The big advantage of air systems is their versatility and flexibility,
especially when there is a requirement to freeze a variety of irregularly
shaped products. There are an almost infinite number of configurations
available, enabling equipment manufacturers to ‘tailor make’ solutions
GEA Refrigeration Technologies
that will fit within almost any facility. www.gea.com

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 engineering for a better world
FREEZING
Contact freezers
Contact freezers are extremely efficient and often faster than air
systems. They can also be more energy efficient and well suited to
soft, delicate, liquid or semi-liquid foods.
Plate freezers
Plate freezers are contact freezers where a refrigerant is passed
through hollow metal horizontal or vertical plates that are
pressed either side of the food being frozen. Plate
freezers are best suited limited regularly shaped
products with a maximum thickness of 50 to
70mm. Air spaces in packaging and fouling of
the plates can have a significant effect on cooling
time. While often overlooked as old tech nology,
modern plate freezers are fast and energy efficient. Fully
automated semi-continuous plate freezing systems are
available and developments in single station opening plate
freezer design allows the accommodation of multiple package sizes
on the same line.
Belt freezers
One recent development is the renewed interest in contact belt freezers.
Current belt freezers generally use a disposable plastic film that acts as
the conveyor belt travelling through the freezing tunnel over refrigerated
plates. These plates rapidly and effectively freeze the contact surface
of the product, while the tunnel environment
is cooled to reduce the entire product
Equipment manufacturers are
temperature. Using cryogenic or mechanical
increasingly citing the hygiene and
refrigeration systems these freezers are mainly cleanability of their equipment; ease
designed for processing delicate, sticky and and speed of cleaning clearly being
hard-to-handle products, even liquids can be seen as important benefits
frozen with ease. They may also be used for
crust freezing, particularly of the underside of the product, prior to
full freezing in an air blast tunnel or spiral. As well as rapid and efficient
freezing, the use of flat belts delivers products free from belt marks and
wrinkles. Since the belt is disposable, the freezer can be quickly
and efficiently cleaned at the end of production, minimising expensive
delays. Due to the single-use film, different products can be processed
without cleaning steps.
Immersion/spray freezers
Immersion freezers utilise tanks of non-toxic salt, sugar or alcohol
solution in water, or cryogen (liquid nitrogen). The product is immersed,
either wrapped or unwrapped, in the solution whilst being conveyed
through a tank. Alternatively the cooling medium can be sprayed on to
the product. Some freezers, notably cryogenic systems, utilise both
approaches, as well as often combining an aspect of air blast freezing.
The same principle is used in drum, tumble or coating freezers, where the
refrigerant (usually liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide) is used to
rapidly freeze products within a rotated drum. The product can also be
simultaneously enrobed/coated by spraying a sauce onto the product at
the same time.
Clearly if the food is unwrapped, the liquid has to be ‘food safe’. Any
uptake of the cooling medium, whether food safe or not, by the product
may present problems both in terms of flavour changes and the
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 12
© xxx / Shutterstock.com
requirement for periodic replacement of the medium. This transfer can
be minimised by packaging, although this may hinder heat transfer.
Spray/droplet freezers
In spray/droplet freezing, a liquid is injected in the form of a spray or
droplets into a cold gaseous or liquid environment (usually liquid
nitrogen) where they subsequently solidify into
individual frozen droplets. Such freezers can
produce novel products that would be difficult
to manufacturer in any other way.
Key drivers to improvement and change
There appear to be a number of key drivers
leading the improvement and development of current refrigeration
systems. These include: Cost efficiency, hygiene, maintenance, space
saving and energy efficiency. Some of the biggest developments have
been in the practical running of these systems. Developments include
systems designed for long-running, low maintenance and ease
of hygiene, with an all stainless steel internal structure. The use of
touchscreen computer interfaces that allow the user to monitor
operation and maximise performance are now common. Equipment
manufacturers are increasingly using direct drive technology, eliminating
drive chains, sprockets and frequent oiling inside the freezer.
The build-up of snow across the evaporator in mechanical air blast
freezing systems can prolong production downtime and lower output.
Many food manufacturers demand extended production runs without
requiring downtime for defrosting. Overall, a mechanical system can be
custom designed to run for as long as needed to minimise production
downtime and maximise output through the choice of the correct
evaporator and sequential defrost coils that can be independently
isolated and defrosted or automatic air defrost technology.
Equipment manufacturers are increasingly citing the hygiene and
cleanability of their equipment; ease and speed of cleaning clearly being
seen as important benefits. A number of manufacturers cite the use of
run clear surfaces to enable quicker and simpler cleaning processes
that minimise downtime between product line changeovers. Clean
www.newfoodmagazine.com
 FREEZING

in Place (CIP) automated cleaning and sanitising system are also
becoming more common. Reduced water usage is often cited as another
benefit of such designs.
Few food manufacturers can now ignore energy use, from
commercial and environmental points of view. Refrigeration makes up a
large proportion of the energy used in food manufacturing and it
estimated that the efficiency of most refrigeration systems could be
improved by 20 per cent. Energy consumption can be reduced by
optimising the heat loads on the plant and/or by operating refrigeration
equipment more efficiently.
Equipment selection can have a large effect on overall efficiency.
Although often initially more expensive, equipment such as inverter
drives on compressors are beginning to be used more widely to allow
more efficient use of compressors over a range of conditions.
Evaporative, adiabatic and water cooled condensers can also save
energy. Recent developments in electronically-commutated
fans, electronic expansion valves and controls have also provided
energy savings. Considerable energy savings are also possible by
optimising defrosts.
Using modern insulating materials and protection can also reduce
heat loads across insulation and through openings. With claimed
thermal conductivities up to five times lower than typical polyurethane
panels, vacuum insulation panels offer enhanced thermal resistance for
the same or even reduced thickness.
The questionable long-term sustainability of HCFC and HFC
refrigerants and implementation of the F-gas (fluorinated gasses)
regulations has resulted in interest in new refrigerants and new
refrigeration technologies. Many of these refrigerants are not actually
new refrigerants but are ‘old’ refrigerants that have either come back into
vogue or are now better able to compete due to improvements in
equipment, such as ammonia, carbon dioxide and air. Other refrigerants
such as hydrocarbons have also been successful in certain markets.
About the Authors
Christian James is a Food Technology graduate and a Senior
Research Fellow in the Food Refrigeration and Process
Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC) at the Grimsby Institute.
Christian joined FRPERC in 1993 and has now been active in
food process engineering research for over 21 years. He has
carried out studies on rapid cooling, initial freezing points and
super-cooling, the use of heat pipes and tempering among
others. He has also been very active in thermal processing of food including
cooking and surface decontamination studies (particularly the application of
steam and hot water interventions for treating meats and produce). He is author,
or co-author, of over 150 publications on these subject areas. He routinely carries
out industrial consultancies in all aspects of food processing.
Stephen J. James is the Founder and Director of the Food
Refrigeration and Process Engineering Research Centre
(FRPERC) at the Grimsby Institute. After working at the Meat
Research Institute (MRI) and Institute of Food Research – Bristol
Laboratory (IFR-BL), he joined the University of Bristol and
formed FRPERC in January 1991. In 2009 FRPERC moved to the
Grimsby Institute. Over the past 47 years he has carried
out research into all aspects of food refrigeration ranging from primary
chilling through to domestic handling. He is author, or co-author, of over
450 publications on these subject areas. He routinely carries out industrial
consultancies in all aspects of food processing, including expert witness work.
References
1. Food for Thought (www.fft.com)
2. New Food, Volume 15, Issue 4 (August 2012)

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EHEDG: FOOD SAFETY

■ Jon J. Kold Chairman, EHEDG Conveyer Systems Subgroup

Hygienic design of conveyor

systems – new EHEDG
Guideline shows the way
With a new guideline on hygienic design of belt conveyors for the food industry, the European Hygienic Engineering &
Design Group (EHEDG) addresses two of the major challenges in safe food production. First, how to avoid
contamination of food through inadequately designed processing equipment. Second, how to improve food safety
without operating costs for cleaning and production hygiene skyrocketing.

EHEDG is a consortium of equipment manufacturers, food industries,
research institutes as well as public health authorities with the aim to
promote hygiene during the processing and packing of food products.
The principal goal of EHEDG is the promotion of safe food by improving
hygienic engineering and design in all aspects of food manufacture.
Transportation of food products via belt conveyor systems is an
important part of most food processing installations. Therefore good
hygienic design of the conveyors is essential to ensure that the highest
level of food safety is maintained while providing economic benefits by
reducing the time, effort and cost of cleaning.
The new guideline applies to the hygienic aspects of belt conveyor
systems used for the transport of product in areas where it is vulnerable
to contamination. The guideline is intended to assist equipment
designers, purchasing officers and production engineers. It may also
be used as a communication tool between food processors and
equipment suppliers.
The guideline is based on a prior Danish guideline on conveyors
published in 2006 by Staalcentrum, an innovation network focusing on
processing equipment for the food industry. Staalcentrum is funded by
the participating companies and – as a partner in the Danish Material
Network – by the Danish Ministry of Higher Education and Science.
In 2010 the EHEDG Secretariat called upon Staalcentrum to chair a
subgroup named ‘Conveyor Systems’ commissioned to prepare an
official EHEDG Guideline. The subgroup has 14 members representing
companies and knowledge centres in eight countries: Denmark,
England, the Netherlands, Israel, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium
and the USA.
Belt conveyors
There are several types of belt conveyors. The Guideline describes
hygienic design of the following types and components:
 Friction driven
 Positively driven
 Modular belts
 Metal and wire belts
 Round- and V-profile belts
 Frames
 Belt support systems

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 14 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 EHEDG: FOOD SAFETY

 Lateral guides for belts Construction materials

 Drive stations and motors
 Accessories.
It is not the purpose of the guideline to recommend specific solutions or
suppliers, but rather to provide guidance to current best practice.
The quick and efficient access to clean belt conveyors is a major
consideration in the hygienic design process. Where the Guideline is
successfully implemented, improved food safety and reduced operating
costs will result.
Design rules
The construction engineer must ensure that the delivered equip-
ment meets the requirements and is of a quality consistent with its
intended use. Therefore, the Guideline comprises a number of general
design rules leading to good hygienic design of conveyors as well as
other types of equipment. As examples, a few of the general design rules
are mentioned below:
 The equipment must be designed to facilitate cleaning and be free of
crevices, grooves, uneven or rough surfaces and any similar
impediment in areas where cleaning is difficult or impossible
 Hinges should be able to be disassembled for cleaning
and inspection
 The construction should be designed without hidden areas or blind
spots where water, detergents or dirt may collect and accumulate
 All horizontal surfaces should be reduced to an absolute minimum,
and should have a five-degree inclination to allow water to run off
 The equipment should be as open as possible.
Construction materials shall apply to the European regulation
concerning materials in contact with food (EC 1935/2004) as well as
national regulations. Therefore, the materials used in conveyor
systems must be non-toxic and non-absorbent. They must not
adulterate the food by imparting deleterious substances to it, nor
affect its organoleptic characteristics. Obviously food-contact materials
must not contain lead, arsenic, cadmium, or mercury which may
leach into the food.
Generally, stainless steels offer excellent corrosion resistance, and
are therefore widely used in the food industry. The range of available
stainless steels is extensive but the selection of the most appropriate
grade will depend on the conditions of intended use, the stresses to
which the steel will be subjected and the constraints of machinability,
formability, weldability, hardness and cost.
Aluminium is generally not sufficiently corrosion-resistant and
should be avoided for food contact especially where wet cleaning
procedures are applied. Similarly, zinc-coated substrates are not
recommended. If nickel- or chromium-plated equipment is used, the
plating must be manufactured reliably and its integrity regularly checked
to ensure that it does not flake and thereby contaminate the product.
Plastic materials may be used to avoid metal-to-metal contact
(e.g. for bearing surfaces), as guides and covers, or for hoses because
of their flexibility and corrosion resistance, but it must be noted that
some plastics are porous and can absorb product constituents and
harbour micro-organisms.
Rubber materials and other elastomers which are commonly used
for gaskets, seals and scrapers may be damaged by excessive

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EHEDG: FOOD SAFETY
mechanical or thermal compression or by severe deformation, and this
may adversely affect their cleanability.
The use of many traditional materials (such as wood) in conveyors
should be restricted and considered in all cases as a hygienic risk.
Attention should be drawn to EHEDG Guideline N°32 on the selection
of Materials of Construction for Equipment in Contact with Food.
Specific design
In the following, a chapter from the guideline illustrates the content.
The chapter describes measures to be taken by design of Fabric
Conveyor Belts (light conveyor belt with fabric carrier). ‘Fabric conveyor
belts’ or ‘coated fabric belts’ are defined in the International Standard
ISO 21183-1 ‘Light conveyor belts – Principal characteristics and
applications’. They contain an embedded fabric carrier. A driving pulley
with or without friction cover drives the conveyor. Fabric conveyor belts
are mainly used in straight running conveyors, either horizontal or
inclined. However, also curve conveyors with special constructed fabric
conveyor belts are available.
Construction
On the construction of Fabric Conveyor Belts the Guideline states:
 Fabric conveyor belts typically have one or two fabric traction layers
with a variety of thermoplastic or rubber covers on both sides
 The belt material must be ‘food approved’ according to
local legislation
 The most common available colours are blue and white. Blue is
nowadays preferred in the food industry, as it does not naturally
occur in foodstuffs and is easy to detect as contamination
 For hygienic reasons, it is important to keep the fabric embedded
and not exposed to any dirt. Edge fraying should be avoided by
sealing the edges, or by using special designed ‘non-fraying’ or
knitted fabric conveyor belts
 Fabric conveyor belts can be made endless by means of welding or
with mechanical joining methods. The latter allows easier
dismantling but can form a trap for germs and bacteria
 Fabric conveyor belt accessories, like flights, are usually extruded
and welded/stuck onto the belt surface. This should be done without
creating any crevices
 To track the belt, one (often the drive pulley) or several tapered
or crowned pulleys are used. Alternatively, traction of the belt
may be done with a fitted guiding strip welded on the running
surface of the belt
 For proper tracking of curved conveyors, the belts of the conveyors
are equipped with guides such as welded profiles on the backside.
Cleanability
On the cleanability of Fabric Conveyor Belts the Guideline states:
 Cleaning can be carried out manually or by Cleaning-In-Place.
In general, the surface is homogeneous and smooth, and therefore
easy to clean. To preclude porosity, the belt must have sealed and
dense surfaces
 Any damage to the belt (e.g. edge fraying, surface cuts) may prohibit
proper cleaning, resulting in poor hygiene. To avoid belt damage
through chemical degradation, the chemical resistance of respective
synthetic belt materials must be considered
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
Junction box: The casing has a watertight sloped top roof with a minimum
five-degree inclination towards the front edge to allow water to run off
and in order not to enable the placing of tools on the top. The casing is
mounted away from the equipment. Here, the cable inlets are from the
side, but the cables are separated correctly.
 To clean the underside of the belt, the conveyor design must allow
for release of the initial belt tension so that the belt can be removed
or lifted
 In cases where the belt is supported by a flat plate, full accessi-
bility for cleaning the underside necessitates an easy method
for removing the belt
 As mechanical joints may become a trap for microorganisms, they
must be fully opened and thoroughly cleaned.
Service and maintenance
On the service and maintenance of Fabric Conveyor Belts the Guide-
line states:
 All belt surfaces should be regularly examined for damage – for
example worn top coating, edges fraying, surface cuts and crevices
and dirt accumulation. Particular care is needed with complex
fabrications involving welded flights, guides and sidewalls
 The belts, conveyor frame and slider bed should be regularly
checked for accumulated dirt and damage
 To avoid slippage on the drive drum during operation, the correct
initial belt tension must be applied. For that purpose, the tensioning
device must be intact and fully functional
 All rotating conveyor components (drive-, tensioning-, head- and tail
pulleys, idlers, carrying rollers, etc.) must be regularly checked to
ensure that they are clean and functioning properly.
The new Guideline, together with 42 other EHEDG guidelines, is for sale in
the EHEDG webshop (www.world-of-engineering.eu). Company and
Institute Members of EHEDG are granted a free of charge download of all
guideline documents from this website. A 44th Guideline on Building
Design is under final review and will be published soon.
About the Author
Jon J. Kold is Chairman of EHEDG Subgroup ‘Conveyor
Systems’ and Director of the Danish innovation network,
Staalcentrum. He has comprehensive experience on
production hygiene and hygienic design of food equip-
ment from the Danish food industry and the Danish
Technological Institute.
16 www.newfoodmagazine.com
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FOOD FRAUD

© Valentyn Volkov / Shutterstock.com

■ John Spink ■ Douglas C. Moyer
Assistant Professor and Director of the Food Fraud Assistant Professor, Program in Public Health,
Initiative, Michigan State University Michigan State University

Food fraud prevention

– beyond adulterants and
to decision-making
Food Fraud is a very hot topic at the moment and the development of a ‘Food Fraud Vulnerability Assessment’ is the
next important step. There are several major projects underway that will shape our industry. Fortunately, project
teams are collaborative and many of the same thought leaders are working together. A key point is that the
assessments need to cover all food fraud, not just adulterants. The assessments also need to provide analysis that
supports clearly defined decision-making for companies and countries.

To use some common food fraud concepts, the scope is the ‘what’ and
the guidance for implementation is the ‘how’. The scope of the
assessments should include:
 Who will use the assessment?
 How will they use it, and to make which decisions?
 What format is needed for the analysis to be directly applied?
Our work at the Michigan State University (MSU) Food Fraud Initiative
(FFI) has evolved over time as we continue to follow the research
questions posed by the practitioners1. We have found a continuing
expansion of academic disciplines needed to holistically address food
fraud prevention. Our research started in food safety and criminology,
and we have since added supply chain management and business
managerial accounting. We now see a natural expansion to public
health, law and prosecution (all explained in further detail below). Since
the ultimate goal is consumer confidence, we also needed to include
consumer behaviour.
Food fraud prevention academic disciplines
Food safety
Our core and academic home lies in food safety and the College of
Veterinary Medicine. MSU has offered a Master of Science degree in Food
Safety since 2002. This is an online programme, and has incorporated
students form all around the world. I developed and teach three

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 18 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 FOOD FRAUD

graduate courses including Packaging for Food Safety, Anti-Counterfeit
and Product Protection (the foundation for food fraud prevention), and
Quantifying Food Risk. I have been teaching the packaging course for
almost 10 years and in addition, teach food fraud and packaging-related
modules in Global Food Safety, Food Safety Management, Food
Protection and Defence and Food Toxicology. Combining four of those
courses provides the foundation for MSU’s Graduate Certificate in
Food Fraud Prevention. MSU also offers a Food Fraud Overview free,
open online course13,14.
Criminology
The theoretical foundation of food fraud prevention is – logically – based
on criminology. When we first started our research in 2006 we did not find
the root cause until our colleague Dr. Robyn Mace (School of Criminal
Justice, MSU) introduced ‘Situational Crime Prevention’ and the ‘Crime
Triangle’. If the ‘biological organism’ was a microbe we’d engage the
discipline of ‘Microbiology’. Since the ‘biological organism’ is a human
it’s logical to engage the social sciences and criminology.
Criminology provides a wealth of resources we can draw upon to
understand motivation in committing food fraud, and to focus on
prevention. The Situational Crime Prevention theories have been
broadly researched and widely implemented since the early 1970s. From
as early as the mid-1700s, criminology has had a focus on ‘prevention’
(to keep from happening) not ‘mitigation’ (to make less harsh)2-5.
For example, criminology scholar, Bentham, once stated “the ultimate
goal is the prevention of all crime”3. Another source stated that “if the
peace has been kept, crime has in effect been prevented” and that the
focus is to “eliminate potentially dangerous or criminal situations”5. And
to quote another early crime scholar, Beccaria: “Laws and punishment
[and now countermeasures] should be as restrictive as necessary to
deter those who would break them by making it not in their best interests
to do so.4” Some – admittedly not all – crimes can be prevented.
Public health
While taking all these disciplines into consideration we find the
government and agency decision-making is often based on public health
issues. The discipline of ‘Public Health’ has a unique focus on
population-wide concepts and issues. Government food agencies are
focused on the formal ‘Public Health’ issues (that is, the discipline of
‘Public Health’ not just ‘the health of the public’). This is an area that will
increase in focus as the governments continue to propose, implement,
and manage their food fraud laws and regulations. MSU just completed a
research project on the awareness and public-private countermeasures
related to seafood fraud. In another recently completed study we
reviewed consumer awareness of the prevalence of counterfeit product
in the marketplace.
Laws, enforcement and prosecution
A topic that is critical to the entire food fraud prevention process is how
the laws and regulations will be enforced and prosecuted. We are in an
era of shrinking government budgets and that includes food agencies.
The more general law enforcement authorities are already stretched and
courts are also overwhelmed. In addition, there has been a focus on
reducing costs in the prison system, so more criminals are diverted to
parole or non-incarceration options. MSU has just concluded a three-
year study on the consumer expectations for law enforcement of product
counterfeiting that related directly to food fraud6.
Consumer behaviour
Finally, consumers are becoming more of an important participant in the

Supply chain management

Another important discipline is supply chain management. Surprisingly,
there are food organisations that are unaware there is a supply chain
science. There are actually over 190 U.S.-based universities that have
supply chain management programmes and some offer Bachelor’s
degrees, Master’s degrees and PhDs. The incredible monitoring and
transparency of the supply chain is a critical piece of the food fraud
prevention puzzle.

Business managerial accounting

It makes sense that the discipline of business would be involved in
business processes. What is novel is the definition of how the decision
sciences apply to food safety, food fraud, and food defence
management. An emerging concept is Enterprise Risk Management
(ERM), which is now a regulatory requirement for the financial and
insurance industry. The general ERM concepts are being implemented
across all industries including the food industry. We find that we are
spending more of our time researching how companies achieve ‘risk
mindfulness’ and then studying how companies assess and manage
those risks. We have been conducting research on managerial
accounting practices and ERM. To participate in our most recent
survey please see15.

www.newfoodmagazine.com 19 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

FOOD FRAUD
food supply chain, not only as consumers of products but as producers
of information. Social media has become a major influence on the food
industry and the role of the consumer is as important as ever. A
presentation at the GFSI China Focus Day noted that the number one
factor in a Chinese consumer selecting a food retailer was ‘No Fake
Food’! We have an MSU Health Risk Communication Center that not only
studies how consumers can be made aware of health risks but also how
they participate in sharing information about health concerns. It’s
estimated that a company has 20 minutes before a foodborne illness
concern goes viral. Some of the recent food fraud issues to become
global headlines included expired date codes (date code tampering) and
fox meat in donkey meat (in a small region in rural, northern China).
Scope of food fraud: ‘The What’
To start reviewing food fraud prevention we should step back and review
the base concepts. The overall concept is ‘food protection’, which
includes food safety, food fraud, and food defence. ‘Food quality’ is
often included in that continuum as well. Food safety (an unintentional
act with a human health threat) and food defence (an intentional act
with intent for a human health threat or either economic harm or
terror) are pretty well defined. The food safety and food defence
programmes are very defined and thorough. To be clear, in a food fraud
incident such as the horsemeat adulteration of 2013, the food safety and
food defence systems did not fail at their defined tasks; but the food
protection system did fail. Food fraud happens to fall outside the scope
of food safety and food defence (see Figure 1, page 21).
The types of food fraud include7:
 Adulteration (including substitution, concealment, dilution)
 Theft (including shoplifting and cargo theft)
 Tampering (including date code tampering and unauthorised
refilling; also could be considered product-related mislabelling)
 Unauthorised production over-runs (including excess or post-
contract production)
Food businesses need to adopt
a wholly new model for tackling
fraud, says NSF International
Speaking to New Food, NSF’s David Edwards explained that prevention of
food fraud requires a holistic approach that embraces company culture and
instils heightened levels of awareness across all company functions. NSF’s
seven-step approach sets out an integrated process from horizon scanning
and product risk rating through to employee training and developing trusted
supply chain relationships.
“At NSF we believe that interdisciplinary training which enables a
harmonised approach to tackling the fraud challenge across different
company functions is very important,” said Mr Edwards. “Too often there is
a gulf between the food safety remit of the technical team and the pricing
value policies of procurement. We have developed fraud awareness training
programmes in partnership with a major UK university that bring together
the technical and buying teams so they develop a mutual understanding of
the issues and can build their priorities jointly. The programmes are being
piloted currently with a leading food group, ready for launch in January
2015, and will help participants prepare for compliance with the new Issue 7
of the BRC Global Standard for Food Safety, which is almost certainly going
to provide a much greater focus on product traceability and authenticity.”
www.nsf.org
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
© papillondream / Shutterstock.com
 Diversion (including smuggling, parallel trade, and illegal
grey market)
 Simulation (illegal knock-offs)
 Counterfeiting (intellectual property rights violations of trademark,
trade dress, patent, or copyright).
This food fraud scope is consistent with UK Food Standards Agency,
European Commission and Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI)
definitions, which all explicitly note concepts such as ‘stolen goods’.
Stolen goods are genuine, ‘authentic’ product so there would be no
‘adulterant’ to define it as non-confirming. This is the challenge when
applying traditional food safety or even food defence countermeasures –
there is no adulterant. Of course an authenticity test could not identify
the fraudulent product. To review the scopes:
 The European Commission’s Food Fraud referendum states:
“Considers that official controls should focus not only on food safety
issues, but also on preventing fraud and the risk of consumers
being misled8”
 The UK Food Standards Agency states: “Food fraud is committed
when food is deliberately placed on the market, for financial gain,
with the intention of deceiving the consumer… Food fraud may also
involve the sale of meat from animals that have been stolen and/or
illegally slaughtered, as well as wild game animals like deer that may
have been poached9”
 GFSI states: “Food Fraud, including the subcategory of economically
motivated adulteration, is of growing concern. It is deception of
consumers using food products, ingredients and packaging
for economic gain and includes substitution, unapproved
enhancements, misbranding, counterfeiting, stolen goods
or others10.”
Food fraud is more than adulteration
The broad ‘food fraud’ term is often used when the project focus is only
on adulteration. This creates confusion. The MSU’s previous work with
the International Standards Organization’s Technical Committee 247 on
Fraud Countermeasures and Controls provided insight on the
importance of being very precise in the use of terms or phrases. This is
especially important at the start of an initiative or activity. During
research we found four working definitions of ‘food quality’. Each of the
four users would think they were precisely defining the term and all four
would be mistaken. A food manufacturer defined quality as ‘consistent
20 www.newfoodmagazine.com
 FOOD FRAUD

processing and attributes’; a food standards manager cited ‘adherence

to a specification’; a public health professional cited ‘no danger to
human health’; and a consumer stated ‘premium product’. All are right
and all are wrong. The key is clearly defining the term and the scope of
the project.

Economically motivated adulteration (EMA)

To review, the definition of EMA is usually based on the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) definition [my emphasis added]: “For
purposes of this public meeting [on EMA], FDA proposes a working
definition of EMA as the fraudulent, intentional substitution or addition of
a substance in a product for the purpose of increasing the apparent value
of the product or reducing the cost of its production, i.e. for economic
gain.” The term EMA has been used widely but it is not defined in a U.S.
law or regulation. It has only been defined in an official notice for that
EMA meeting. EMA is also not mentioned in the U.S. Food Safety
Modernization Act (FSMA). EMA is mentioned in the FMSA’s draft
rulemaking, where the reference is for a request for comments.
Focus on prevention: ‘The What’
With the scope of food fraud covering a wide range of acts beyond just
the presence or absence of a substance, the most efficient
countermeasure is prevention. The challenge of prevention is that it
requires a holistic, all-encompassing supply chain wide approach. All of
the supply chain partners must work together to achieve this goal.
In an article entitled ‘Food fraud and NIRS’, Rob Frankhuizen and
Saskia van Ruth stated: “Rather than looking at specific incidents, a
system analysis approach would be the preferred approach to prevent
Figure 1
fraud in the future. For instance, by studying why putting melamine in
products was perceived as a good fraud opportunity and how it could
have been prevented16.”
While system-wide prevention seems like an incredibly complex and
difficult proposition, the concept is rooted in tried-and-true concepts
such as quality management. Examples include the widely adopted
business programme of Six Sigma and the foundation of food safety in
HACCP. Beyond the industry initiatives, prevention has become a key
focus for public health and criminology. The focus on food fraud
prevention is critical since we will not test our way to safety, we will not
arrest our way to safety.
The goal is crime prevention, not just crime reduction or the
reduction of the impact of an adverse event. The fraud opportunity is
complex because the systems are complex. Over time, the ‘bad guys’
have found opportunities and adapted their work processes to slip
through the gaps. They are trying to make money and will continually
switch to the lowest risk and highest reward ‘fraud opportunity’, whether
that is adulteration, counterfeiting, stolen goods, or some other hybrid

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FOOD FRAUD
activity. As the countermeasures and market conditions change, the
type of fraud will evolve. These creative criminals are the reason
we see so many different variations of food fraud. Fortunately, there is a
science that studies both the ingenuity of the criminals as well as the
‘place’ of crime. Criminology provides a great method in situational
crime prevention.
The foundation of Situational Crime Prevention is assessing and
modifying the ‘place’ of crime. Using the concepts from the Crime
Triangle – applied to product fraud – this includes the victim, fraudster,
and guardian and hurdle gaps (see Figure 2). While detection is the most
complex and important specific function its success can only be judged
by the impact on prevention. We detect a specific fraud act or adulterant,
deter a specific type of criminal or act, and we prevent the crime from
being conducted in the first place.
Figure 2
Enterprise risk management: ‘The How’
Whether a company, or country, there are limited resources. Whether
explicit or implicit, the governing bodies – be it a company’s board of
directors or a country’s parliament – make resource allocation decisions.
As Six Sigma grew out of quality management innovations, ERM has
grown out of business decision science innovations. Many of those
concepts are rooted in the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of
the Treadway Commission (COSO) managerial accounting principles
and used by government agencies. COSO is an organisation formed by
the leading financial and managerial accounting associations that are
‘dedicated to providing thought leadership through the development
of frameworks and guidance on enterprise risk management, internal
control and fraud deterrence 11’. A foundation of COSO-based
ERM principles are first achieving risk mindfulness and then imple-
menting programmes “so that risk levels are managed within
defined tolerance thresholds without being over-controlled or forgoing
desirable opportunities12”.
A key value of ERM is that the business decision-making criteria for
resource allocation are clearly defined. What’s the response to an
assessment? Does an agency start a working group or create a centre?
Does a company conduct a few horsemeat tests or hire a team? With
food fraud rising on the agency, industry, and consumer radars, these are
decisions that will need assessments and data. Covering all types of food
fraud and providing ERM type analysis will be the needs of future
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
Food Fraud Vulnerability Assessments. Even a public health agency such
as the FDA is focused on human health outcomes but must compete
for resources.
Summary
This article diverted from the usual discussions on food fraud incidents
and test methods to find adulterants. The discussion around food fraud
has shifted from the ‘what’ is the scope to the ‘how’ to implement.
The food fraud prevention actions are moving ahead more quickly
and confidently, based on a firm theoretical foundation. We are
proud and honoured to be working with so many groups and so many
outstanding colleagues.
About the Authors
John Spink PhD is an Assistant Professor at Michigan State
University. In 2013 he led the creation, and became Director of,
the Food Fraud Initiative – an interdisciplinary group focused
on a holistic approach to food fraud prevention. John is
appointed in the College of Veterinary Medicine (Food Safety)
and is closely connected to the College of Agriculture and
Natural Resources (Food Science and Human Nutrition). He is
also an Adjunct Professor in the College of Human Medicine Science at the
School of Criminal Justice. Among other roles, John has held leadership
positions at the International Standards Organization and the Global Food Safety
Initiative, and has been a frequent U.S, agency presenter for the FDA, FBI,
European Commission and FERA, among others. For further information visit
www.foodfraud.msu.edu or email spinkj@msu.edu.
Douglas C. Moyer PhD is an Assistant Professor with the
Program in Public Health at the Michigan State University
College of Human Medicine. He develops and teaches online
graduate-level classes including the ‘Introduction to
Pharmaceutical Counterfeiting and the Public Health Threat’.
Douglas is also a researcher for the Food Fraud Initiative. His
grand research includes developing training exercises for food
safety professionals. Before his return to academia, Douglas worked for the Ford
Motor Company for 25 years, the last 10 as Food Customer Service Division’s
Global Packaging Engineering Manager. He is also the Founder and Owner of
Pack Edge LLC, a packaging management consulting firm.
References
1. FFI, F.F.I. Home Page. 2014 [cited 2014 September 1]; Available from: www.FoodFraud.msu.edu.
2. Merriam-Webster, The Merriam-Webster Dictionary -- New Edition. 2004.
3. Beirne, P. and J.W. Messerschmidt, Criminology (4th edn). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury, 2005.
4. Lanier, M. and S. Henry, Essential criminology. Second ed. 2004, Philadelphia: Westview.
5. Hess, K., Introduction to Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice. 9th ed. 2009, New York:
Wadsworth/ Cenegage Learning.
6. Spink, J., Annual Survey Study of Product Counterfeiting by Michigan Residents Utilizing the
MSU State of the State Survey: Implications for Food Fraud, in Food Fraud Initiative. 2014,
Michigan State University.
7. Spink, J. and D.C. Moyer, Defining the Public Health Threat of Food Fraud. Journal of Food
Science, 2011. 76(9): p. R157-162.
8. European Parliament, E.E., Report on the food crisis, fraud in the food chain and the control
thereof, (2013/2091(INI), R.E.d. Lang, Editor. 2013, Committee on the Environment, Public
Health and Food Safety, European Parliament.
9. Food Standards Agency, U.F. Food Fraud, Home Page. 2014 [cited 2014 September 5];
Available from: http://www.food.gov.uk/enforcement/enforcework/foodfraud/
#.U9v623rD-M8.
10. GFSI, G.F.S.I., Food Fraud: An Industry Perspective. 2014.
11. Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, C. Home Page. 2014
[cited 2014 September 5]; Available from: http://coso.org/.
12. Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, C., Risk Assessment in
Practice. 2012, Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, COSO.
13. www.online.foodsafety.msu.edu
14. www.FoodFraud.msu.edu
15. https://broad.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_3TPkQ8UYXVBDZ1H
16. New Food, Volume 17, Issue 1 (March 2014)
22 www.newfoodmagazine.com
 Beverage Processing
SUPPLEMENT

25 The use of fruit juices as

natural colouring agents
David Berryman, Founder, David Berryman Limited

30 Improving the non-biological

stability of beer
Paul Hughes, Director, Yasigiworld Ltd

36 BrauBeviale 2014
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www.newfoodmagazine.com 23 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

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■ David Berryman Founder, David Berryman Limited

The use of fruit juices as

natural colouring agents
It’s fairly well established that we eat with our eyes. Before we even attempt to taste food, our brains need the
comfort that what is about to be consumed has passed a visual test. As omnivorous creatures, the range of colours
which we recognise as attractive is vast. What is regarded as a ‘good’ colour for fruit may not be a good colour for
meat or fish, but we have learned by association to edit incoming visual data.

It is probably not surprising, therefore, that the colours sector of the As an ingredient producer, not a pigment manufacturer,
modern food industry has become very important. Colour producing David Berryman Limited is a customer of the colour companies.
companies are high-tech and sophisticated. And in the 21st century, This article aims to provide an overview of our experiences using our
their Holy Grail is naturalness. most basic of ingredients – red fruit juices – to enhance or change the

www.newfoodmagazine.com 25 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

Figure 1: Cyanidin is perhaps the most common anthocyanin (red pigment) in

red fruits, as shown in the profiles for aronia, raspberry, elderberry, sour and
sweet cherry, where Cyanidin predominates Figure 2: Aronia anthocyanins

colour of our recipes. We will examine which red fruit juices are the most The basic model for the anthocyanins is one of three phenolic
popular; the colours in the juices; whether there is a connection between groups as illustrated in Figure 1. The shape of this basic molecule
taste and colour; and juices in water, yoghurt and soya bases. is changed depending on which radicals have been added. This is
illustrated in Figures 2-8, where the most common anthocyanins are
We examined the following concentrated fruit juices: listed, each of which has its own distinctive colour.
 Aronia (Chokeberry) (Aronia melanocarpa)
 Blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum)
 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus)
 Red Grape (Vitis vinifera)
 Sour cherry (Prunus cerasus)
 Elderberry (Sambucus niger)
 Raspberry (Rubus idaeus)
 Strawberry (Fragaria ananassa)

The colours in the juices – variations on a theme

The pigments in red juices have been investigated in depth for many
years. The colour of our chosen fruits and their juices is determined by a
group of compounds probably best described as ‘short chain
polyphenols’ – anthocyanins.
Figure 3: Raspberry anthocyanins
As one might anticipate in the orderly maelstrom which exists in all
living cells, the colour of fruit is quite complex. It would be so convenient
if one could say that each of the fruits had its own particular anthocyanin.
Then it would be a simple exercise to ascribe the distinguishing colours
which the fruits exhibit to a single pigment. But the fruits we collect from
trees today are the result of many millions of years of evolution. Whilst it
is true that a single anthocyanin may predominate in any one particular
juice, the final colour is decided by a whole range of red molecules.
Just as with an artist’s pallet, the colour we see is the result of subtle
mixing of molecules.

Figure 4: Elderberry anthocyanins

© Yellowj / Shutterstock.com

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 26 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

Figure 5: Sour cherry anthocyanins Figure 6: Sweet cherry anthogyanins. As with sour cherry, cyanidins are in the
majority but the presence of Peonidin gives this juice a different hue

Indeed, the particular hue we see can also be illustrated as a are cyanidins with pelargonidin, delphinidin and peonidin being
‘fingerprint’ when analysed by gas liquid chromatography, which is a very variations on this basic model.
neat way of demonstrating why the fruits have such an array of shades
from red to blue to black. The balance between
Cyanidins are the most common and Whilst it is true that a single anthocyanin taste and colour
may predominate in any one particular
dominating anthocyanins in red juices. The Anthocyanins are a direct product of photo-
juice, the final colour is decided by a whole
huge range of colours which we see is a range of red molecules synthesis, the process used by plants to harness
reflection, to a large extent, of the different types energy from sunlight. In fact, these red pigments
of cyanidins in various red fruits. In some cases, such as sweet cherry and are produced from flavonoids, which are usually yellow in colour and,
blackcurrant, the presence of other anthocyanins can be regarded as a unlike anthocyanins, have a distinctive flavour. So flavonoids are the
distinguishing marker for that particular juice. precursors of anthocyanins. Flavonoids have a flavour whereas
In the juices which are under discussion the main anthocyanins anthocyanins generally have no taste.
BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT
Figure 7: Blackcurrant anthocyanins. The presence of Delphinidins in
blackcurrant makes this anthocyanin an important marker and is a reason for
the particular blackcurrant pigment
Consequently, the molecules responsible for the flavour of the juice
and the colour of the juice are often found alongside each other in the
fruit. It means that if a manufacturer of recipes wishes to use a juice to
colour an ingredient, then the effect of the taste must also be taken
into account.
However, this is not always the case. The reason for fruits having
bright colours such as red as part of their make-up is to attract birds and
other animals. It is their way of spreading seeds around the countryside.
Consequently, for many red fruits, the pigments are only skin deep, as
shown in Figure 9 (page 29). It is legend, of course, that in ancient Rome,
a decadent master would ask his slave to “peel him a grape”. It was a way
Figure 8: Strawberry anthocyanins. Pelargonidin dominates the anthocyanin
spectrum for strawberry giving this juice its very distinctive scarlet colour
of by-passing the skin which is rich in anthocyanins, but has little taste, to
get to the succulent flesh which is crammed with flavonoids, which are
full of flavour.
It is no accident that probably the first use of anthocyanins as a
natural colourant was in Italy when red grape skins, from the wine
industry, not the whole fruit, were used in the confectionary industry.
Using juices in ingredients
Although David Berryman Limited now regards itself as an
ingredients manufacturer and supplier, the company’s origins are
as a fruit juice company. Consequently, many of its recipes are fruit
 BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

based and we use fruit juices for both colour

and flavour, sometimes together and some-
times separately.
We conducted a very straightforward
demonstration of how juices behave in
different circumstances and made five per cent
juice recipes with water, soya milk and yoghurt.
As we would have anticipated, each juice
changed colour as a reaction to such things as
pH or presence of proteins. Anthocyanins, just
as with litmus indicator, can change from
bright red to blue depending on the pH. The
colours are demonstrated in Figure 10).
So we can see that the best juices to use as
colouring agents are blackcurrant, elderberry
and aronia. However the taste of blackcurrant
is very strong and so generally elderberry and
aronia would be used in cases where fruit
Figure 10: The colour of different flavoured juices as a reaction to pH and/or presence of proteins
flavour was not required. Raspberry, strawberry,
sour cherry and blackberry would not make particularly good pigments About the Author
and in addition their flavours are quite distinctive. David Berryman began his career in pharmaceutical research
Our R&D department produces several thousand recipes a year and founded David Berryman Limited (DBL) 27 years ago.
In 1997, the company launched the first Fruit Juice Factory
using the various characteristics of red juices which can form the basis of dedicated to blending in the UK. Innovation has been the
many fruit compounds and preparations. key driving force of DBL and during that time and new
developments each year have radically changed the face of the
company. DBL has become a leading innovator in the food
industry, now producing over 3,000 new recipes each year in, for example, the
dairy, ice cream, bakery, confectionery and the soft drinks sectors.

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www.newfoodmagazine.com 29 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

 © Valentyn Volkov / Shutterstock.com
BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

■ Paul Hughes Director, Yasigiworld Ltd

Improving the non-

biological stability of beer
Since the medieval period, brewers have been concerned with improving the stability of beers. Pre-Industrial
Revolution, much of the need was to ensure that relatively small batches were sufficiently acceptable to the domestic
setting or to the consuming public, most of which would be consumed local to the area of production. As early as
1576, Reynolde Scot, in the second edition of his slim volume on hop growing1, clearly understood the benefit of hops
to beer stabilisation (also highlighting the savings in malted barley required at the same time).

The use of hops for flavouring and stabilising beer did not become
ubiquitous in the UK until well into the 19th century, but where used
they imparted a significant increase in the biological stability of
beer, specifically by working synergistically with the ethanol and
carbon dioxide present and the acid pH values to inhibit microbial
growth. Today we know that compounds derived from hops specific-
ally inhibit Gram-positive bacteria, a potentially useful property,
but limited to some extent in applications beyond brewing because of
their associated bitter flavour. Now the ready availability of refrigeration
(both in process and all the way to point-of-sale), pasteurisation

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 30 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

technology, cleanliness of packaging materials and a good

understanding of most if not all of the microbial and fungal
challenges that can assault beer all contribute to keeping
biological compromises to beer at bay.
The focus on microbial stability prevailed until the early
20th century. By then beers with appreciable shelf-lives were
being produced routinely and reliably for some of the reasons
just given. However, increasing urbanisation and the increasing
centralisation of beer production into relatively fewer but larger
breweries implied that there was a requirement for more
complex distribution and logistics beyond serving the most
local of customers. Thus while the biological issues were well-
known and respected for the damage that they could wreak on
a beer and brewery in short-order, attention turned increasingly
to the prevention of haze formation in beer and subsequently to
its flavour deterioration and foam stability.
Early concerted research efforts recognised the deleterious
effects of molecular oxygen on beer stability and sought
to understand ‘beer oxidation’. De Clerck 2 attempted to
implement a simplification of the relative hydrogen (rH) score
to assess the reducing potential of beer. At the time there was
no clear separation of types of oxidative instability of beer, and
Figure 1: Generally accepted model for the structure of insoluble (permanent) beer haze12
efforts were focused on the robustness of beers, or not, to
oxidative damage. De Clerck though often referred to phenolic oxidation beer. Meanwhile in the USA Gray and Stone3 found that a method
so we can assume that the aim was to estimate the ability of a beer to correlating to the rH analysis, the so-called ITT (indicator time test) was
withstand polyphenol oxidation, a precursor to haze development in an excellent indicator of flavour changes and haze development.

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BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

© Valentyn Volkov / Shutterstock.com

By the time we reach the 1970s the beer stability
issue had changed substantially. The recognition that
protein-polyphenol aggregates were the main source
of beer haze (Figure 1, page 31 – for a review see4) led to
the development and implementation of palliatives for
the removal of haze-promoting proteins and poly-
phenols. Options for protein removal were identified
from the early 20th century, with an application of
tannic acid patented in 19175. This patent also implied
that the precipitates formed act as a more efficient filter
bed for the final beer, allowing for the removal of
potentially beer-spoiling bacteria.
From the mid-1950s, a number of workers had
13
demonstrated the effectiveness of materials such as Figure 2: Outline mechanism for the formation of the highly flavour-active lightstruck off-flavour
polyamide resins6 and polyvinylpyrrolidone7 for stabilising beer against preventing haze formation, by enzymically degrading rather than
haze formation by removal of haze-promoting tannins. By the 1960s removing the offending proteins, has been demonstrably successful.
silica gels had been shown to be effective in stabilising beer against haze A wide range of proteases have been pressed into service, including
formation by removing haze-active proteins. An alternative approach to bromelain, ficin, papain and even pig trypsin, whilst today there are
bespoke enzymes available, such as Brewers’ Clarex™
which have been designed to specifically cleave
proline-proline domains in haze-active proteins. The
solving of this most common source of beer haze
formation extended the shelf-life of beer further,
typically to the order of months, and it is reasonable to
assume that today the technology is available to allow
the brewer to effectively stabilise beer, at least against
the most common protein-polyphenol hazes.
So there was substantial progress in extending
beer shelf-life by development of technologies for
the management of biological contamination and
prevention of haze formation. An initial visual appraisal
of a beer would deem it stable weeks or months after
Figure 3: Simplified scheme for the formation of volatile aldehydes from lipid oxidation14 brewing, depending on whether it was in bottle/keg or

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 32 www.newfoodmagazine.com

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BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

cask. Nevertheless it had long been recog-

nised that beer flavour changed with time.
Since the late 19th century the deleterious
effects of light on beer became increasingly
apparent8,9, in particular in beer stored in clear
or green glass. This ‘lightstruck’ or ‘sunstruck’
character forms rapidly as light in the near-UV
and visible region initiates a free radical
degradation of the hop-derived bitter acids
(Figure 2, page 32) to give rise to 3-methyl-2-
butenethiol, a compound with an aqueous
flavour threshold of around 100pM. Whilst
there are solutions to this, such as complete
replacement of the hop bitter acids with
chemically-modified variants, it continues to
cause flavour problems today, and is
considered to be the most negative flavour Figure 4: Evolution of beer stability priorities over the past 100 years
change in packaged beer10.
Arguably the most insidious change in packaged beer is the relatively important to restrict oxygen ingress as much as possible as there is
gradual changes in beer flavour over a period of weeks and months and little option for its subsequent removal. Thus any water used for
therefore impinges mainly on beer in small-pack dilution should be de-aerated and air pick-up
i.e. canned and bottled. The volume of literature over the past 100 years or so the efforts of during filtration and packaging should be
that has burgeoned since the 1930s is a the brewer have shifted from a purely avoided as much as possible. Additionally,
microbiological focus to a contemporary
testament both to the complexity and apparent selecting filter aids that are low in iron have
focus on extending the shelf-life of beer to
intractability of the problem. Whilst beer flavour several months and beyond by been shown to be effective in retarding
changes can be induced by both oxidative and management of flavour deterioration beer flavour deterioration, at least based on
non-oxidative reactions, it is generally agreed analytical evidence11.
that controlling oxidative degradation is the highest priority. Today, dissolved oxygen levels in small-pack beer is commonly less
Today the main efforts focus on preventing molecular oxygen access than 50µg/l and some brewers use oxygen-scavenging caps to remove
to beer during production, especially when warm/hot, and ingress into
packaged beer. During the mashing process, where milled malted barley
is held at elevated temperatures to facilitate starch gelatinisation and
saccharification, any effort to control oxygen, for instance in the water
used for mashing and in quietly filling the mashing vessel, are considered
to be beneficial for final beer flavour stability. Oxygen present at this
stage of beer production has various fates, but the most influential is as a
substrate for the enzyme lipoxygenase. This ultimately leads to the
production of lipid oxidation products, some of which, like E-2-nonenal
and Z-3-hexenal, are significantly flavour-active (Figure 3, page 32).
In turn, lipoxygenase can be managed to some extent by the fractiona-
tion during milling to excise the malt acrospire and mashing these in at
higher temperatures to exploit the enzyme’s thermal lability.
Similarly, any entrainment of oxygen during the separation of
un-utilised grains from the extract (so-called ‘sweet wort’) is undesirable
because of the risk of further oxidative degradation, especially during the
subsequent wort boiling operation. During boiling a protein/tannin-rich
precipitate forms, which is separated from the bitter wort supernatant.
The brewer then needs to introduce oxygen to initiate fermentation
of the boiled extract. Most brewers will add oxygen (as is or as
air) to the extract after cooling to reduce the risk of
© Valentyn Volkov / Shutterstock.com

chemical oxidation, although there is an

optimal range of dissolved
oxygen for a given extract
and yeast strain. Post-
fermentation it is

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 34 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT

small amounts of headspace oxygen present during initial packaging and to bind up oxygen that
can diffuse along a concentration gradient through the crown seal and into the bottle. Alternatively
some crown seals act as an effective barrier, preventing oxygen entering the bottle.
These efforts to control oxygen have allowed brewers to appreciably extend beer
shelf-life. Nevertheless sensory assessment of beer as a function of beer ageing shows that
there is an inexorable time-dependent change in the flavour characteristics of a beer in small-pack,
even in the absence of oxygen. Consideration of the chemistry of beer offers some clues as to
why this is the case. Bitterness steadily decreases and there is a corresponding increase in beer
Time-Saving
sweetness, a shift in the flavour profile which is readily apparent after several months. Recent work
has shown that the so-called trans-iso-α-acids are lost preferentially which rationalises the
Photostability
observed decrease in sensory and analytical bitterness. Additionally the crown seals in the liners of
bottle caps have an affinity for the less polar components in beer, not least the hop-derived
aromas, effectively scalping the flavour of beer as it ages in the supply chain. Finally, it is not
Solutions for
possible to rule out the occurrence of disproportionation reactions, particularly between redox-
sensitive polyphenols and protein thiol/disulphide linkages. However to date this chemistry has
Consumer Goods
not been explored in detail. The success of today’s consumer goods such as
So over the past 100 years or so the efforts of the brewer have shifted from a purely drinks, foodstuffs, personal care, and household
microbiological focus to a contemporary focus on extending the shelf-life of beer to several months products is highly dependant upon their packaging.
and beyond by management of flavour deterioration (Figure 4, page 34). Whilst the threats of However, wherever there is light, there is a risk for
microbiological spoilage and haze formation have not disappeared the technology and practices photoinduced reactions that can impact colorants,
exist to make their occurrences rare. Whether beer flavour can ever be stabilised indefinitely vitamins, flavors, scents, or product homogeneity.
remains to be seen, but given the chemical complexity of beer composition it is perhaps
Atlas’ Accelerated Photostability
more feasible to focus on retarding flavour change rather than aiming for an indefinite period
Test Chambers Will Help You:
of flavour stability.
— Safely develop products
in a shorter period of time
About the Author
After graduating with a bachelor’s degree and PhD from London, Paul Hughes spent two — Confidently select the appropriate
years as a research scientist with the Health and Safety Executive before joining the Brewing and most economical packaging
Research Foundation in 1990. He spent nine years leading a range of underpinning and short-
for your product
term consultancy projects before moving to Heineken in the Netherlands as principal
scientist. In 2005 Paul took up the position of Professor of Brewing at Heriot-Watt University, — Determine the shelf-life
assuming the role of Director of the International Centre for Brewing and Distilling in 2006. In
for your product
2014, Paul established Yasigiworld Ltd, focusing on business solutions for the food and
beverage industries and indulging in the resurrection of important historical technological works. He is retained — Choose the right ingredients
by Heriot-Watt University on a consultancy basis until November 2014. He has co-authored books on beer
and materials for your product
quality and whisky production, as well as co-authoring over 60 papers and four patents.
to improve customer satisfaction

References
1. ‘A Perfite Platforme of a Hoppe Garden’, Henrie Denham, London, 1576

2. De Clerck, J., rH and its application in brewing, Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 1934, 40, 407 – 419.

3. Gray, P.P. and Stone, I., Oxidation in beers I. A simplified method for measurement, Wallerstein Laboratory Communications, 1
939, 2, 5 – 16.

4. Moll, M., Colloidal stability of beer, in: Brewing Science, Volume 3, ed. Pollock, J.R.A., Academic Press, 1987, pp 2 – 327.

5. Ash, C.S., Process for treating beer, US Patent 1,234,255, 1917.

6. Harris, G.H. and Ricketts, R.W., Studies on non-biological hazes of beers VII. The use of polyamide resins for removing the haze-
forming polyphenols from beer, Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 1959, 65, 256 – 259.

7. MacFarlane, W.D., Process for clarifying and stabilizing vegetable beverages, US Patent No. 2,688,550, 1954.

8. Lintner, C., Lehrbuch der Bierbrauerei, Friedrich Bieweg und Sohn, 1878, pp 490 – 491.

9. Templar, J., Arrigan, K. and Simpson, W.J., Formation, measurement and significance of lightstruck flavor in beer: A review,
Brewers' Digest, 1995, 70, 18-25.

10. Stephenson, W.H. and Bamforth, C.W., The impact of lightstruck and stale character in beers on their perceived quality: A
consumer study, Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 2002, 108, 406 – 409.

11. Uchida, M. and Ono, M., Improvement for oxidative flavor stability of beer – Role of OH-radical in beer oxidation, Journal of the
American Society of Brewing Chemists, 1998, 54, 198 – 204.

12. Siebert, K.J., Troukhanova, N.V. amd Lynn, P.Y., Nature of protein polyphenol interactions, J. Agric. Food Chem., 1996, 44, 80-85.

13. Kuroiwa, Y. and Hashimoto, N., Composition of sunstruck flavor substance and mechanism of its evolution, Proceedings of the
American Society of Brewing Chemists, 1961, 28 – 36.

14. Baxter, E.D. and Hughes, P.S., Maintenance of beer quality in: Beer: Quality, Safety and Nutritional Aspects, Royal Society of
Chemistry, Cambridge, 2001. pp. 74 – 97.

www.atlas–mts.com
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
www.atlas-mts.com
BEVERAGE PROCESSING
SUPPLEMENT SHOW PREVIEW

Small- and medium-sized enterprises and global beverage players from all over the world will meet at BrauBeviale –
the year’s most important capital goods exhibition for the beverage production industry. Taking place at Nürnberg
Messe in Germany on 11 – 13 November 2014, BrauBeviale will bring together 1,300 exhibitors to present their
extensive ranges of raw materials, technologies, logistics and marketing ideas for approximately 33,000 trade visitors.

Global beverage consumption rising
In 2008, almost 240 litres of beverages per capita were consumed.
By 2013 this figure had risen to 265 litres. The biggest growth drivers were
non-alcoholic drinks such as bottled water, hot tea and milk and milk
drinks. According to Canadean/GB, hot tea is the most popular non-
alcoholic drink in the world, followed by milk and milk drinks,
carbonated soft drinks, water, beer, coffee and then spirits.
With these figures in mind, non-alcoholic drinks are a target market
for new creations. Whereas packaged water is becoming increasingly
popular worldwide, the global consumption of carbonated soft drinks
has already reached a very high level. Since 2007, sales of these have
risen only in South and Central America and the Middle East. According
to Rabobank, Brazil will remain the growth driver over the next three
years with an estimated rise of three per cent per year. In the carbonated
soft drinks arena, Mexico leads with 165 litres per capita, followed by the
USA (145l) and Argentina (144l).
But it’s new creations that keep the markets moving. Whether
innovative non-alcoholic malt drinks, fruit juice drinks enriched
with beta-glucan, new ginger drinks creations or drinks coloured
pink with the help of the purple sweet potato, there are hardly any limits
to the imagination, and the consumer soon determines the success
or failure of a product.
Craft brewing
One of the key themes at BrauBeviale 2014 is the culture of craft brewing,
which is being pushed by honorary sponsor of the exhibition, the Private
Brauereien Bayern (Bavarian Association of Private Breweries), and the
European Beer Star Award, which has been present at the event since 2004.
World Beverage Innovation Award
The World Beverage Innovation Awards are now in their 11th year–
designed to celebrate excellence and innovation across every category

Endress+Hauser: Helping to achieve exact and flexible

beer flow measurement
Production optimisation, waste reduction and regulatory compliance all rely on unication enables full integration of processes: the first step into Industry 4.0.
accurate measurement data. Endress+Hauser offers the widest range of process Innovative instrumentation, services and solutions means 100 per cent pure
measuring instruments – designed to meet EHEDG hygienic standards – to ingredients in one safe and reliable package.
help improve yield and throughput while achieving consistent product
quality. Decades of experience working with beer and beverage manu- www.endress.com/food-beverage
facturers around the world, both large and small, means
you can trust Endress+Hauser to understand your
needs and challenges.
Endress+Hauser will be answering some of the
industry’s driving questions at BrauBeviale 2014 in
November. Visit us at Hall 6-407.
■ Inline quality controls ensure best practice brewing,
avoiding extract losses from brew house to filtration
■ Stable beer quality remains possible even when
changing raw materials or varying utility support
■ Opportunities exist to base process control on
sensors that are calibrated in line with trace-
able documentation
■ Monitoring energy consumption and making it
visible is the first step to achieving long lasting
savings. Scalable Energy Monitoring Solutions help
find the right approach for all company sizes.

As a leading company in hygienic sensor integration, Achieve exact and flexible

beer flow measurement in
Endress+Hauser would like to discuss how the sensor craft breweries with Promag H
sits in your system. Successful use of digital comm-

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 36 www.newfoodmagazine.com


of the global beverage industry. The awards feature 26 categories which
cover all aspects of beverage production. This international competition
attracts hundreds of entries from around the world and showcases the
best the world has to offer in beverage innovation.
Packaging innovation
BrauBeviale’s packaging exhibition is geared towards innovative
packaging. At the BrauBeviale Forum – which is supported by well-
known partners from the sector – presentations, panel discussions and
talks on beverage packaging design, packaging innovations and PET
recycling will encourage visitors to listen and join in discussions. 2014 will
also see the return of the German Packaging Award, which recognises the
most innovative packaging solutions.
For the first time at BrauBeviale 2014, the exhibition will also present
the PETnology concept ‘connecting comPETence’ with the PETarena
and Packaging Wall of Excellence, where companies can present their
diverse spectrum of PET products and services. The PETarena is also the
place to go for packaging developers. The event starts with the two-day
international PETnology Congress, which takes place immediately
before the exhibition.
European MicroBrew Symposium
Taking place before the exhibition, on 10 November 2014, and run
in cooperation with BrauBeviale, the MicroBrew Symposium
addresses professional brewers from brewpubs as well as from
small-scale breweries in Europe. Topics at the Symposium are
focused on technological and quality aspects of beer brewing on a
professional level.
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Helping the beverage industry
detect spoilage
For the past decade, German-based GEN-IAL GmbH, a leading company in
beverage spoilage qPCR detection, has been developing state-of-the-art real-
time PCR kits which are supplied internationally via R-Biopharm AG.
GEN-IAL GmbH will be launching several new solutions for very rapid
or maximal sensitive detection of spoilage bacteria and yeasts in beer and
other beverages as wine or fruit juices. “These new kits reflect our entire
experience as service laboratory and intensive collaborations with
breweries,” says Dr Jutta Schönling, Managing Director of GEN-IAL.
Along with a new filtration system without pre-enrichment, a new
invented polymer-based adsorption system allows the sampling of up to
30-litres and therefore significantly increases the sensitivity of subsequent
analysis. After pre-incubation and DNA preparation, several screening and
detection methods are used. A new panel of 24 screening parameters of
group specific and relevant species specific allows easy-to-use and rapid
detection in one step. “These new solutions will meet the need of lots of
breweries worldwide according to the development we noticed during the
last years,” said Dr Martin Mehl, Product Manager for International
Distribution at R-Biopharm.
Not only global acting giant breweries but also mid-sized and smaller
breweries are using the technology of rapid spoilage detection in laboratories
to enable fast and secured decisions and actions during the brewing process.
The breweries demands to shorten pre-incubation of beer ahead of analysis
and to screen and identify bacteria in one step resulted in new developments
as new filtration or adsorption and detection solutions.
Visit GEN-IAL at BrauBeviale 2014 at Hall 4, Stand 102.
www.gen-ial.de
Date: 11 – 13 November 2014  Location: Nürnberg, Germany
Website: www.braubeviale.de
Syncore ® SPE
NIRFlex N-500
Quality in your hands
CONTAMINANTS

© pogonici / Shutterstock.com
■ Sarah Howarth Scientific Committee Member, IFST

Contaminants: Definitions,
acceptability and EU
contaminant legislation
If we were to ask a lay person to provide a definition of food contaminants, we would expect something along the
lines of: a product which cannot be eaten or used; something which is harmful; a material which should not be
present; poisonous; and polluted. These definitions communicate a rather black and white belief that the food
concerned cannot be consumed. Are these lay consumers correct in their understanding? For example, if we find
traces of any substance defined as a ‘contaminant’ in a food, is it unacceptable? If this was correct then most foods
would be removed from the market!

Looking to the Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods1, we find the
following committee terms of reference: “To establish or endorse
permitted maximum levels or guidelines levels for contaminants and
naturally occurring toxicants in food and feed; (b) to prepare priority lists
of contaminants and naturally occurring toxicants for risk assessment
by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives; (c) to
consider methods of analysis and sampling for the determination of
contaminants and naturally occurring toxicants in food and feed; (d) to
consider and elaborate standards or codes of practice for related
subjects; and (e) to consider other matters assigned to it by the
Commission in relation to contaminants and naturally occurring
toxicants in food and feed.”
Within the EU we define contaminants in foods as follows 2:
“Contaminants are substances that have not been intentionally added to
food. These substances may be present in food as a result of the various
stages of its production, packaging, transport or holding. They also might
result from environmental contamination. Since contamination
generally has a negative impact on the quality of food and may imply a
risk to human health, the EU has taken measures to minimise
contaminants in foodstuffs.”
There is a useful factsheet that can be found on the EU website3.
The Codex and EU definitions give us hope; maybe our products can be
sold after all provided that the levels of any contaminants present do
not lead to the product endangering public health. So as our under-

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 38 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 CONTAMINANTS

standing broadens so does the complexity in determining the line

© Elena M. Tarasova / Shutterstock.com

between ‘safe’ and ‘unsafe’.

How do we determine the threshold

between safe and unsafe?
As we start to dig deeper into the subject we recognise that some
contaminants may be acceptable in foods at or below certain levels,
whilst other contaminants are not permitted. These are commonly
known as ‘zero tolerance’, meaning that any level detected above
the ‘limit of detection’ is unacceptable such is the case with non-
GM-approved events within the EU.
When determining the acceptable level of a contaminant we must
take into consideration both the level deemed safe to consume using
toxicological assessment and the lowest levels which can be achieved
Gluten in cereals and nuts are commonly found allergen sources
using best industry practice. In most cases
the lower of these two assessments public opinion, special interest groups
Common substances which can be beneficial at
defines the level of acceptability using and cultural expectations must also be
certain dosage levels can become toxic when
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achiev- consumed at higher levels, hence the importance of taken into account. Within the EU, the
able) principles. understanding typical consumption behaviours in a European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is
Toxicological risk assessment is based given population and its sub groups responsible for the scientific reviews on
on the route of exposure, duration and existing and emerging risks. The EFSA
frequency of intake, interaction in the body coupled with age, website provides a useful resource tool across many contaminants4.
weight, health and typical consumption patterns. Common substances
which can be beneficial at certain dosage levels can become toxic Within the EU which food contaminants are regulated?
when consumed at higher levels, hence the importance of under- EU Regulations set maximum levels for a range of food contaminants in
standing typical consumption behaviours in a given population and food. A summary is given in Table 1 (page 40).
its sub groups. Analytical method and sampling plans are often developed in
In addition to the scientific assessment external factors such as combination to support contaminant legislation with the aim of ensuring
CONTAMINANTS

analysis results are meaningful. For example, sampling and analysis resource to keep informed on external events which could trigger a food
plans for mycotoxins are set out in EU regulation No.178/2010, as safety review.
typically mycotoxins are not homogeneously distributed. Figure 1 provides a summary of the RASFF 2013 Annual Report
Physical contaminants are not currently regulated within the EU Review by hazard notification.
however must be included in HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Point) risk assessments. Typical physical hazards for assessment may
include: pests, glass, wood, stones, metal, bone, plastics and personal
effects. The size and the shape are important when assessing the
hazard severity for a given target group. Spherical shapes more readily

present a choking hazard, while sharp objects can damage internal
organs. Physical hazards presenting a low risk to the general public can
become a significant hazard to infants e.g. grapes can cause choking in
young children.
In addition to horizontal legislation, which impacts all foodstuffs, it is
essential to understand product and market sector legislation. In many
cases the level of acceptability for a given contaminant will differ across
sectors. For example, foods intended for infants and young children have
lower levels of acceptability to those intended for the general healthy
population group.
How does EU Regulation compare with non-EU countries?
Legislated permitted levels for contaminants in foods may vary outside
of the EU. A useful starting point is to review the CODEX Alimentarious
established with the aim of harmonising international standards5. In
addition to ensuring that CODEX standards are met products must
comply with the national regulations in the countries where products
will marketed.
In many cases differences and gaps exist between the EU
Regulations, CODEX Standards and national legislation. For example,
in the CODEX pesticide residues database6 standards are not estab-
lished for nuts (whole in shell). However within the EU pesticide
database7 Pesticide Maximum Residual Levels are set across a variety
of treenuts.
What are the most common contaminants found in food?
The European Commission produces a weekly summary of the most
significant food safety risks to public health across the EU known as
RASFF (Rapid Alert system for Safe Food and Feed)8. This is a useful
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/rasff/docs/040614_infographic.pdf
Figure 1: A summary of the RASFF 2013 Annual Report Review by
hazard notification
Where do allergens fit in the picture?
Allergenic foods are not categorised as contaminants, however they can
be harmful to health for those groups suffering from food allergies. Within
the EU we currently have a list of 14 allergens as a result of EFSA risk
assessment. These must be specifically labelled (EU regulation
No.1169/2011) to inform the consumer when allergenic foods
are present.
Within the UK one of the major reasons for product recall is
attributed to incorrect allergen labelling. In 2013, the FSA Incident
report highlighted that four allergens accounted for more than half of
allergen incidents in the UK: peanuts, sulphites, milk and gluten
containing cereals9.
Research studies are currently being commissioned by the FSA to
establish threshold levels on significant allergens with the aim of
reducing the large amount of foods which carry precautionary labelling
that cannot be consumed by a large part of the population10.
Gluten is one of the few allergens that have threshold levels
established. Within legislation the maximum permitted level which may
be present before a product may be labelled as ‘Gluten Free’ is defined.

Table 1: Maximum levels for food contaminants in food (as set by EU Regulations)
Europa Category Sub Category Legislation Contaminant
Animal Nutrition Undesirable substances in feed Directive 2002/32/EC Heavy metals; Dioxin; Mycotoxins; Pesticides;
Botanical impurities
Biotechnology GM Food and Feed Regulation EC 1829/2003 Genetically modified organisms
Chemical Safety Contaminants Regulation 315/93/EEC Patulin; Mycotoxins; Dioxins; Heavy Metals;
3-MCPD; Acrylamide; PAH
Residues Directive 96/23 Veterinary medicines
Pesticide residues EU 283/2013 MRL pesticides
Food Contact Materials EC 1935/2004 Materials in direct contact with food
Hormones in Meat Directive 2003/74/EC Hormones
Fraudulent practices Sudan dyes
Biological Safety TSEs/BSE Regulation 999/2001 Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
Microbiological Criteria Regulation EC 2073/2005 Ready to Eat Foods
Irradiation Directive 1999/2/EC : Irradiated foods
Directive 1999/3/EC
Source: EUROPE http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/foodlaw/index_en.htm

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 40 www.newfoodmagazine.com


Best practice for industry for
© Zoom Team / Shutterstock.com
managing contaminants in foods
It is essential to understand your entire supply
chain from farm to fork to ensure all
contaminants which may be present,
introduced, grow or survive are picked up
during the risk assessment. This information
must also be actively included in HACCP and
Policy Research Programmes.
A clear and accurate map of each process
step and their inter relationship is helpful as
the foundation. The mapping can also be
useful as a communication tool which can
be easily understood and shared with
stakeholders throughout the supply chain. As
Pesticide residues can be a risk in sunflower seeds, as they
in in many cases it is poor communication are highly attractive as a food source to insects
which leads to food safety incidents of the
entire supply chain.
Once the initial supply chain mapping has been completed
it is important to establish a process which will ensure any internal
and/or external changes are reviewed to assess their impact on the
risk assessment.
In the majority of cases there will be co-products streams and/or
rework generated which must also be assessed. In some cases
contaminants may be concentrated in co-product streams. Further
adding to the complexity of the task co-products may be destined for
different market sectors to that of the main stream food product. These
market sectors, in the majority of cases, will have different food safety,
regulatory and quality requirements.
Below is a summary of some tools which may be useful to support
effective communication with stakeholders and build a solid
understanding of the supply chain and ensure events impacting food
safety are flagged enabling them to be assessed and addressed in the
food safety programmes as appropriate:
 Training
 Supplier assessment and selection
 Vendor rating
 Supplier communication
 Specifications
 Contracts
 Developing a strong link with the customer and consumer
 Understanding the application and use of the finished product.
Conclusion
There is a growing need for continual risk assessment as our global
supply chain evolves and science advances to manage the risk of
contaminants in foods.
It is important to assess all potential hazards based on Codex HACCP
principles 11 throughout the supply chain combined with a sound
understanding of consumer behaviours i.e. not just focusing on
regulation which currently covers chemical and microbiological hazards
within the EU or making assumptions on how products should be stored
and handled in the home.
As analytical techniques develop we are able to discover new
hazards and detect current known hazards to lower levels. When analysis
www.newfoodmagazine.com
CONTAMINANTS
is carried out we must ensure appropriate sampling and analysis
techniques are applied for meaningful results.
We must also not forget the risk of economic adulteration which has
been with us throughout history; however in today’s global market place
the impact of such events have a greater magnitude.
We therefore need to develop and continually review our food safety
systems using a risk based scientific approach with stakeholder inputs
throughout the supply chain. Being sure to make good use of the broad
range of external resources and industry guides available, such as Codex,
EFSA, FSA and industry associations publications. As well as keeping a
watch on external events in the market place which may trigger
additional reviews to those planned as a result of internal changes.
About the Author
Sarah Howarth is an experienced food professional currently
working as an independent Food Safety specialist helping
companies to protect their brands and grow in a sustainable
way. She is also a Scientific Committee Member of IFST. Sarah’s
areas of expertise include food labelling compliance,
accredited food hygiene and HACCP training and food safety
and regulatory support. During her 25-year career, Sarah has
worked at Unilever, Cott Retail Brands, Yum Brands (formerly PepsiCo
Restaurants), and most recently Cargill, where she was Head of the Grains and
Oilseeds Europe Product Assurance Team. Since leaving Cargill, Sarah has
founded independent consultancy, Howarth Food Safety.
References
1. Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods (CCCF): www.codexalimentarius.org/
committees-and-task-forces/en/?provide=committeeDetail&idList=39
2. EU Definition of Contaminants in Foods: http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/
chemicalsafety/contaminants/index_en.htm
3. EU factsheet on Contaminants in Foods: http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/chemicalsafety/
contaminants/fs_contaminants_final_web_en.pdf
4. EFSA: www.efsa.europa.eu/en/panels/contam.htm
5. Codex Alimentarius: www.codexalimentarius.org
6. CODEX pesticide residues in food database: www.codexalimentarius.org/standards/
pesticide-mrls/
7. EU Pesticide Database: http://ec.europa.eu/sanco_pesticides/public/?event=homepage
8. EU RASFF system: http://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/rasff/index_en.htm
9. FSA 2013 Annual Report on incidents: www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/multimedia/
pdfs/publication/annual-report-incidents-2013.pdf
10. FSA Allergen Research into threshold levels: www.food.gov.uk/science/research/allergy-
research
11. EU HACCP guidance document: http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/hygienelegislation/
guidance_doc_haccp_en.pdf
41 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
 © Lightspring / Shutterstock.com
MICROBIOLOGY

■ François Bourdichon Corporate Food Safety, Microbiology and Hygiene Manager, Barry Callebaut

Microbiological criteria and

testing: Dos and don’ts
Following the food scandals of the late-1980s and early-1990s, and the increasing knowledge on foodborne and
waterborne pathogen, the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) was put in
place in 1995 to set the framework of all measures taken by a World Trade Organisation (WTO) member to protect
human, animal or plant life or health within its territory from certain risks, and which may affect international trade.

These measures that WTO members apply, are classified as sanitary
(relating to human or animal life or health) or phytosanitary (relating to
plant life or health). The SPS agreement requires WTO members to base
their SPS measures on a risk assessment, in order to achieve their
expected Appropriate Level of Protection (ALOP).
The microbiological safety of foods is managed by the effective
implementation of control measures that have been validated, where
appropriate, throughout the food chain to minimise contamination and
improve food safety. In order to validate the control measures in place
and to answer to the public health protection objectives, metrics are
defined on this risk-based approach. While microbiological criteria were
initially based on end product acceptance, new microbial risk
management metrics have been proposed by the International
Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Food (ICMSF) for the

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 MICROBIOLOGY

establishment of a more direct relationship with public health outcomes,
from the Food Safety Objectives (FSO) to the Process Criterion to answer
the new framework of the SPS agreement.
These metrics are meant to build a preventive approach, which is
expected to offer more advantages than sole reliance on microbiological
testing through acceptance sampling of individual lots of the final
product to be placed on the market. Microbiological criteria are however
still appropriate for verifying that food safety control systems are
implemented correctly, although they should not be the only measures
in place for risk management decision making4,11.
system following the outcome of sampling and testing for micro-
organisms, their toxins/metabolites or markers associated with
pathogenicity or other traits at a specified point of the food chain.”
A traditional metric within the ICMSF/Codex Risk
management Conceptual Approach
Three different types of criteria are classically used in the food industry:
Microbiological standard
A criterion is part of a law or regulation. It is mandatory and enforceable
by the regulatory agency having jurisdiction
(initial 1980s approach).

Microbiological guideline
Established by a regulatory authority, industry
trade associations or a company to indicate
what can be expected when best practices are
applied. Guidelines are usually advisory and
can be used to monitor the control over
a process.

Figure 1: Evolution of the conceptual approach of Microbiological Criterion in the Codex Alimentarius GuidelinesMicrobiological specification
A criterion used by buyers of foods or
A dedicated process of developing and expressing microbiological ingredients to determine their acceptability and to verify compliance of
criteria must be followed to prepare specifications that are technically products, i.e. to confirm the efficacy of the preventive measures
correct, consistent, and suited to the purpose for which they have been GMP/GHP and HACCP.
established10. This begins with the use of a standardised format which
includes identified parameters (sampling), established microbial limits Microbiological specifications are defined and used to verify
and definition of the analytical method. compliance of:

Microbiological criteria: The Codex Definition Finished products

Microbiological specifications were initially introduced at border Specifications are used to verify adherence to GMP/GHP and HACCP.
controls by national authorities for products with unknown history, i.e. They are used either for monitoring or release purposes, depending on
not considering the food safety practices along the process. the microorganism of concern.
With the introduction of HACCP in the mid-
1980s and the implementation of control With the introduction of HACCP Raw materials and ingredients
measures in rationalised food safety manage- in the mid-1980s and the implementation Specifications are used to express the require-
of control measures in rationalised food
ment systems, most of the microbiological safety management systems, most of the ments to a supplier and to decide on
specifications appeared outdated, sometimes microbiological specifications appeared acceptance or rejection of the purchased
even inappropriate. outdated, sometimes even inappropriate material. The mere establishment of micro-
A new hazard-based approach was biological specifications does not mean, as
therefore discussed and led to the second edition of establishment of frequently believed, that every single lot of ingredients (or of finished
microbiological criteria as defined by Codex in 1997, yet omitting the product) has to be analysed. The frequency of testing shall be based on
emerging risk based approach of the SPS agreement and newly the level of trust between supplier and customer, based on the historical
proposed microbial risk management metrics by the ICMSF and set of data. Reinforcing the sampling parameters (stringency of testing)
incorporated in the Codex Alimentarius documents on risk without implementation of new control measures does not make one
management3,8,9. food safer; it just raises the number of refused batches.
The updated 2013 concept of microbiological criteria takes into
consideration the science-based approach of risk management, Microbial Limits: m, M
decision where risk analysis has been performed to implement the most The knowledge of distribution of microorganisms in a food (their spatial
appropriate control measures possible and their means of distribution) is one essential parameter for informing food safety
validation/verification (Figure 1). management decision-making (for lot acceptance or for process control)
The new definition proposes the following set5: “A microbiological using the value of the data on prevalence and/or concentration.
criterion is a risk management metric which indicates the acceptability of In the absence of exact knowledge, generalising assumptions are
a food, or the performance of either a process or a food safety control often made as to the nature of the distributions. Three scenarios of

www.newfoodmagazine.com 43 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

MICROBIOLOGY

spatial distributions are commonly considered for initial contamination changed depending on the end user or consumer, for example, products
of a food product1: for infants will require more stringent sampling plans as products for
 Regular distribution (purely hypothetical) healthy adults.
 Uniform random distribution (most commonly considered) At international level, the choice of n is usually based on the
 One cluster distribution of a contaminant in a food batch 15 cases defined by ICMSF (Table 1). For stringent cases, n is high;
(for a specific process such as clumps of Salmonella spp. in low for lenient n is low.
moisture foods).
Operating characteristic curves
Microbiological limits m and M separate conforming from non- The combination of the different parameters (n, c, m and M) included in a
conforming analytical units. Since m and M are microbial levels, they are specification reflects only a probability of detection of a defective lot. In
expressed as Colony Forming Units. They are other words, it establishes the performance of a
usually expressed per gram, but in certain cases Microbiological testing of a finished sampling plan2.
per 10g or 25g (or mL). product can be misleading, and negative The statistical performance of a sampling
test results are not enough to ensure
These values reflect the implementation of food safety plan is usually illustrated by its Operating
GHP and HACCP. Lot variability should also be Characteristic Curve, which describes the
taken in consideration as proposed probability of density can vary during probability of acceptance as a function of the actual proportion of
the lifetime of one food process (this is valid for raw material, nonconforming analytical units or concentration of the microorganisms
intermediary and end product). in the food.
All those limits can be established by following the ICMSF The producer’s risk corresponds to the probability to reject a lot
Conceptual Approach (Figure 2), where the limit in the end product are having a proportion of defective items (generally low), fixed by the
based on the initial prevalence (H0), an eventual reduction step (ΣR) and sampling plan. The consumer’s risk corresponds to the probability to
potential increase (ΣI) during the process (ΣI= ΣG + ΣC – Growth in the accept a lot having a proportion of defective items (generally low), fixed
product and Contamination from the environment). by the sampling plan.
The established n and c values are therefore the outcome of a
benefit risk management decision between producer’s risk and
consumer’s risk, between fair trade practices and ensuring global public
health. As such, the number and size of analytical units should be those
Figure 2: The ICMSF Conceptual Equation stated in the sampling plan and should not be modified where the MC
has been established for regulatory compliance.
Sampling limits: n, c
‘n’ defines the number of samples which need to be analysed from a Retesting and subdividing: Why this is (very) bad practice
given batch and ‘c’ defines the number of samples allowed between m Retesting of production lots in which the presence of pathogens
and M. The selection of n and c depends on the desired stringency have been detected or which have exceeded the limits of the
(probability of rejection of analysed lot and power of discrimination) of detailed examination is, under microbiological (heterogeneity
the sampling plan. Expected stringency for same food product shall be of contamination) and regulatory (responsibility of the food

Table 1: The ICMSF 16 cases sampling plan stringency in relation to degree of risk and conditions of use (from ICMSF Book #8)
Conditions in which food is expected to be handled and
consumed after sampling in the usual course of events
Degree of concern relative to utility Conditions reduce Conditions cause no Conditions may
and health hazard degree of concern change in concern increase concern
Increase shelf life No change Reduce shelf life
Utility: General contamination, reduced Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
shelf life, incipient spoilage Three class n=5, c=3 Three class n=5, c=2 Three class n=5, c=1
Reduce hazard No change Increase hazard
Indicator: Low, indirect hazard Case 4 Case 5 Case 6
Three class n=5, c=3 Three class n=5, c=2 Three class n=5, c=1
Moderate hazard: Not usually life
threatening, usually no sequelae, normally of Case 7 Case 8 Case 9
short duration, symptoms self-limiting, can be Three class n=5, c=2 Three class n=5, c=1 Three class n=10, c=1
severe discomfort
Serious hazard:
Incapacitating but not usually life Case 10 Case 11 Case 12
threatening, sequelae are rare, Two class n=5, c=0 Two class n=10, c=0 Two class n=20, c=0
moderate duration
Sample size 25g Severe hazard: For the general
population or in foods targeted for
Case 13 Case 14 Case15
susceptible populations, causing
Two class n=15, c=0 Two class n=30, c=0 Two class n=60, c=0
life threatening or substantial
chronic sequelae or illness of
long duration

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 MICROBIOLOGY

Figure 3: Application of Microbial Criteria along the food process

business operator) considerations, completely irrelevant and
not acceptable.
It’s a definitive bad decision to challenge a positive product through
retesting. Unless the result proves to be invalid (resulting from a
laboratory error), retesting the product will most probably result with
a negative result, due to the low probability of detection (or one has a
very serious issue)7.
A positive will always be a positive; a negative will never be a
negative, but shall only help to conclude a reasonable acceptable level of
safety of one food product has been achieved.

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MICROBIOLOGY
Corrective actions
In situations of non-conformance with the microbiological specifications
(unsatisfactory results), actions to be applied should include corrective
actions related to the purpose of the testing. Based on a root cause
analysis, a re-evaluation of the efficacy of the food safety control system
and operational procedures to determine appropriate preventive
actions shall be taken.
In the event of a non-conformance with a microbiological criterion
for a foodborne pathogen, actions should include appropriate product
containment and disposition. This may include further processing,
diversion to an alternate use, withdrawal and/or recall, rework, rejection
or destruction of product.
Following this food safety incident, specific cleaning procedure,
extensive pathogen environment monitoring, more frequent sampling of
finished products, inspection and audits, suspension of operations
should be considered among different possibilities.
Conclusion
Routine microbiological testing can be useful for surveillance purposes
International Commission on
Microbiological Specifications
for Foods (ICMSF)
ICMSF was formed in 1962 through the action of the International
Committee on Food Microbiology and Hygiene (ICFMH), a committee of
the International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS).
ICMSF is a leading source for independent and impartial scientific concepts
to be adopted by governmental agencies and industry. Its activities are:
■ To assemble, correlate, and evaluate evidence about the microbiological
safety and quality of foods
■ To consider whether microbiological criteria would improve and assure
the microbiological safety of particular foods
■ To propose, where appropriate, such criteria
■ To recommend methods of sampling and examination.
www.icmsf.org
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
© Joerg Beuge / Shutterstock.com
and process verification, and sometimes helpful for lot acceptance
(Figure 3, page 45). However, microbiological testing of a finished
product can be misleading, and negative test results are not enough to
ensure food safety. Statistical limitations of microbiological testing are of
significant concern, especially when the rate of contamination is very
low. As the defect rate in the product becomes low, emphasis should
shift to improving the implementation of food safety management
strategies rather than relying on microbiological testing solely6.
About the Author
François Bourdichon is Corporate Food Safety, Microbiology
and Hygiene Manager for Barry Callebaut. Microbiological
specifications remain a key topic of discussion with both
suppliers and customers. François is also a member of New
Food’s editorial board.
References
1. Impact of Microbial Distributions on Food Safety. Bassett, 2010. ILSI Europe Report Series.
http://www.ilsi.org/Europe/Publications/Microbial%20Distribution%202010.pdf
2. General guidelines on sampling. CAC/GL 50-2004
3. Principles and guidelines for the conduct of microbiological risk management (MRM).
4.
CAC/GL 63-2007
Guidelines for the validation of food safety control measures. CAC/GL 69 – 2008
5. Principles and guidelines for the establishment and application of microbiological criteria
related to foods. CAC/GL 21 – 1997 (Revised 2013)
6. Microbial risk assessment guideline – pathogenic microorganisms with focus on food and
water. Interagency Microbiological Risk Assessment Guideline Workgroup, Environmental
Protection Agency and Food Safety and Inspection Service, July 2012.
7. Determination of operating characteristic, retesting, and testing amount probabilities
associated with testing for the presence of Salmonella in foods. McClure, F.D., Lee, J.K., 2011.
J. AOAC Int. 94(1):327-34.
8. Food safety objectives—role in microbiological food safety management. Stringer, M., 2005.
Food Control 16 775 – 94
9. Relating microbiological criteria to food safety objectives and performance objectives. Van
Schothorst, M., Zwietering, M.H., Ross, T., Buchanan, R.L., Cole, M.B., ICMSF, 2009. Food Control
20 967 – 79
10. What risk assessments can tell us about setting criteria. Whiting, R.C., 2011. Food Control
22 1525 – 28
11. Validation of control measures in a food chain using the FSO concept. Zwietering, M.H. ,
Stewart, C.M., Whiting, R.C., ICMSF, 2010. Food Control 21 1716 – 22
46 www.newfoodmagazine.com
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Hospital – a teaching affiliate of Harvard Medical School – she became
an Assistant Professor in the Department of Physiology at the
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www.newfoodmagazine.com 47 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

 © Brian A Jackson / Shutterstock.com
HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING

■ Vibeke Orlien ■ Francisco J. Barba ■ Roman Buckow ■ Netsanet Shiferaw Terefe

Head of Food Chemistry Assistant Professor Stream Leader, Research Scientist, CSIRO
Research Station, – Food Science and CSIRO Animal, Food and Health
University of Copenhagen Nutrition, University Sciences Division
of Valencia

Opportunities and
perspectives of high pressure
processing to produce healthy
food products and ingredients
High pressure processing (HPP) has emerged as a new, non-thermal, and additive-free preservation technology with
a wide range of applications in the food industry. The next stage is to identify the opportunities HPP presents for the
production of healthy and safe food products and ingredients. This article is a short survey describing the recent
findings in the applications of HPP to extract bioactive components from plant food materials, to reduce the
allergenicity of food products and to obtain healthier products with reduced salt and fat and improved fatty acid
composition. The studies so far indicate that HPP has significant potential for such applications and, thus, there is
considerable opportunity for the food industry to exploit these opportunities to bring the next generation of HPP
food products to the market.

It has been scientifically and commercially proven that HPP can produce
microbiologically safe and stable products with improved quality
characteristics such as enhanced flavour and colour retention1. Apart
from food preservation applications, more recent studies have focused
on the effects of HPP on health attributes and allergenic potential of
foodstuff to develop the next generation of convenience foods. HPP has
shown encouraging potential to manipulate the extractability,
allergenicity, and functionality of micronutrients and components in a
diverse variety of foods2-4.
Typically, HPP involves subjecting food to hydrostatic pressures of

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 HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING

300 to 700 MPa for periods of a few minutes. The efficacy of HPP is
governed by Le Chatelier’s principle stating that chemical reactions or
physical processes associated with a decrease in molecular volume are
favoured, whilst those accompanied with a volume increase
are inhibited. This means that covalent bonds are not broken by HPP and
therefore small, low molecular weight molecules in food, such as aroma
compounds and vitamins, are rarely affected. On the other hand,
macromolecules, such as proteins and starches, can change their native
structure during HPP, opening possibilities for structural modifications
that may lead to novel functionalities. HPP is characterised by three
processing parameters: pressure (P), temperature (T), and exposure

© Thy Le / Shutterstock.com

time (t). These three processing parameters allow great versatility in the
design of the process and the resulting impact on the food material.
The superiority of HPP over heat processes (where heat is often
transferred through slow conduction processes) is that pressure
is transmitted instantaneously and uniformly throughout the system,
independent of the size and geometry of the food product. This can
reduce processing time, processing energy, and the risk of over-
processing of food products.

Extraction of bioactive compounds

The interest in secondary metabolites recovery from plant food materials
and by-products is increasing due to their health and nutraceutical
benefits. Currently, many studies have focused on agricultural and
industrial wastes in the search for natural antioxidants. According to the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), approximately one third of
the edible parts of food produced for human consumption is lost or
wasted globally5. This amounts to about 1.3 billion tonnes per year and
accounts for both food processing wastes and by-products and food
waste at retail or consumer ends. Plant material waste and by-products

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING

© Image Point Fr / Shutterstock.com

are excellent sources of secondary metabolites such as carotenoids and higher yield of lycopene from tomato paste waste with HPP-assisted
phenolic compounds and can be used to obtain functional extracts (500 MPa / 25°C / 1 min) extraction in ethanol (75 per cent) compared to
rich in bioactive compounds for use in several applications 30 minutes of ethanol extraction at 25°C and ambient pressure.
(e.g. nutraceuticals, antimicrobials, colourants). The common conclusion in these studies and others is that HPP results in
There are various studies focusing on HPP-assisted extraction of comparable or better recoveries and is more time and solvent efficient
phenolic compounds from different plant food materials and compared to traditional extraction methods. HPP is able to enhance
by-products. For example, Jun et al.6 compared the effects of HPP mass transfer processes within plant cellular tissues, as the solubility of
(100-600 MPa / 20°C / 1-10 min) and conventional extraction methods plant metabolites and permeability of cytoplasmatic membranes can be
(heat reflux: 85ºC / 45 min; extraction at room affected high pressure3.
temperature; ultrasonic extraction: 50Hz HPP can produce microbiologically The bioavailability and bioaccessibility of
(frequency) / 250W (power) / 20-40ºC / 90 safe and stable products with improved nutrients is highly dependent on the structure
minutes) on the extraction of tea leaves using quality characteristics of the food matrix, and as HPP can enhance the
different solvents (acetone, methanol, ethanol extractability of, for example, carotenoids
and water). They obtained a marked increase (up to 30 per cent) in total and phenolic compounds, it may favour the bioaccessibility and
phenolic compounds (TPC) of the extracts after applying HPP. Seo et al.7 bioavailability of nutrients. However, there is no simple and direct
found that HPP assisted extraction (500 MPa / 60°C / 15 min) significantly correlation between process-induced matrix disruption and the
increased the extraction yield of TPC from raspberry fruits compared to extractability and bioavailability of nutrients. Indeed, studies, so far,
the conventional extraction, which involves the use of solvents and indicate that the impact of processing, in general and HPP in particular,
heating; especially higher concentrations of caffeic acid, catechin, and on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of nutrients is dependent on
ferulic acid were measured in the HPP extract (in water) than in the water the type of nutrient, the structure and composition of the food matrix
extract (extracted at 100ºC). Corrales et al.8 evaluated the effects of HPP and the processing technique employed.
on polyphenol extraction yield from grape by-products and found a
significant increase (the percentage increase depended on the type of Reduced allergenicity
polyphenol) in the total and individual anthocyanin content after HPP in Food allergies are increasing in developed countries and some evidence
comparison to other extraction methods. Xi9 obtained a 17 per cent indicates that they are also increasing in developing countries, although

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 HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING

these are less reported and investigated. The most frequently reported modified compounds or compounds with changed functionality.
food allergies are to bovine milk, eggs, apples, peanuts, shellfish, soy and A change in functionality can have a positive health impact by preserving
wheat. Most allergenic proteins, particularly plant allergens, appear to healthy lipids and avoiding unhealthy additives like salt and phosphates.
belong to a limited number of proteins with common characteristics that Various studies on how to utilise HPP for manufacturing healthy food
may render them allergenic. HPP can give rise to structural changes in products have been reported.
proteins and, therefore, has been used to alter conformation and Seafood contains healthy polyunsaturated lipids (PUFA) and is
allergenic potential of food proteins. Furthermore, HPP has shown a recommended in a healthy diet. However, seafood is also very sensitive
potential to reduce the allergy risks of some foods without eliminating towards various degradation reactions and processes resulting in a very
the allergenic proteins itself, but through extraction or release of short shelf-life of often less than seven days for fresh fish and shellfish.
membrane-bound allergens into the environment where they can be The hydrolysis of lipids by lipase enzymes results in free fatty acids (FFA),
removed or attacked by hydrolytic enzymes. HPP has been reported to and of special concern are the PUFAs, which are highly reactive and easily
reduce the allergenic potential and risk of a number of products, oxidise, resulting in a lower nutritional value of the fish. Storage of
primarily nuts, fruits and vegetables, dairy pressurised (150, 300 MPa / 20°C / 15 min)
products and seafood. HPP reduces the need for fat, salt, and Atlantic salmon at 4°C up to six days did not
Only a few studies have been conducted phosphate in meat products without change the levels of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs or the
using HPP to modify or reduce the allergenic risk altering and possibly improving quality saturated fatty acid contents compared to raw
of peanuts and almonds, but found no change stored fish15. Cruz-Romero et al.16 found that HPP
in allergenicity. Many studies reported reductions of extracted apple (at 260 (three min), 500 (five min), or 800 (five min) MPa/20°C) of oysters
allergens after HPP based on immunoreactivity assays, although some of did not change the fatty acid profile compared to untreated oysters. They
the reported reductions are not statistically significant. Scheibenzuber10 also reported that the n-3/n-6 ratios were numerically higher, though not
found important modifications in allergens and that 19 allergic patients statistically significant, in high pressure-treated oysters, which indicates
tolerated HPP apple without symptoms of oral allergy syndrome. increased availability of n-3 PUFAs, beneficial for human health. Milk is
Moreover, prick to prick tests showed a correlation between apple another important food product containing important nutraceuticals
allergen inactivation and applied pressure level. β-lactoglobulin like essential FFAs, but unfortunately milk is also subjected to lipolysis
(β-lg) is the major allergen in bovine milk and HPP (200-600 MPa / resulting in nutritional degradation. A superior nutritional beverage
20-68ºC / 10 min) of whey and skimmed milk significantly enhanced the combining milk and orange juice was subjected to HPP by Barba et al.17.
antigenicity response of β-lg by 14-fold possibly due to weakening of It was found that PUFA content did not change due to pressure, while
non-covalent bonds under pressure resulting in a better accessibility for
the antibodies11.
The increase in antigenicity may be associated with exposure of
epitopes of the native protein molecule, which become accessible for
antibodies after pressure-induced unfolding and aggregation. On the
other hand, the HPP-induced conformational changes of the milk
proteins can make enzymatic digestion easier, thereby enhancing the
antigenicity. Chicón et al.12 successfully applied proteolytic enzymes
(chymotrypsin and trypsin) during HP treatment (100 MPa / 20 min) of
β-lg solutions and found a decrease of allergenic potential. Again, this
reduction was explained by an increase of accessibility of potentially
immunogenic hydrophobic regions to the enzyme, thereby resulting in
an improved hydrolysis. Hence, HPP application during enzymatic
hydrolysis of whey proteins can be used to rapidly prepare
hypoallergenic foods possibly with increased sensory and nutritional
attributes. Similarly, HPP (450 MPa / 40°C / 55 min) was used to diffuse
one per cent saline containing papain protease into shrimp meat and
the increased enzyme activity successfully hydrolysed allergens in the
meat13. HPP treatment (300 MPa / 40°C / 15 min) resulted in a significant
decrease in the allergenicity of soybean sprout proteins, while the
nutritional value was largely retained14.

Preserving essential fatty acids and salt reduction

The promising application of HPP for the production of healthy
food products is not limited to improved extraction of bioactive
compounds or reducing allergenicity. The overall goal of HPP is to
increase the range of food products that are safe and healthy. From
a technological point of view this may mean to obtain minimally

www.newfoodmagazine.com 51 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

HIGH PRESSURE PROCESSING
monosaturated FFA increased and saturated FFA increased at
100 and 200 MPa but decreased at 300 and 400 MPa. For a vegetable
beverage (tomato, green pepper, green celery, cucumber, onion,
carrot, lemon, and 0.8 per cent virgin olive oil), HPP had no effect on the
three FFA groups17.
HPP has the potential to indirectly produce healthy foods by
reducing the needs for unhealthy additives. Salts are the most criticised
compounds in food and the concern of many European food regulatory
agencies. In most food products sensory characteristics such as texture,
juiciness, flavour, and taste as well as appearance, are the most
important qualities in relation to overall acceptability by consumers.
The manufacturing of, for example, meat products often involve the use
of salts and additives due to the beneficial textural and other
sensory properties. Hence, the critical concern in reducing salt and
other additives is the challenge to maintain sensory and functional
attributes. Sikes et al.18 investigated the effect of HPP and simple salt
reduction (NaCl concentrations of 0-2 per cent) on beef sausages.
They found that HPP of the low-salt sausages reduced cooking losses
and improved texture. Moreover, sensory panels reported a greater
acceptability in both appearance and texture of the sausages. Grossi
et al.19 found that with addition of carrot fibre or potato starch, it was
possible to lower the salt content to 1.2 per cent (and no phosphates) in
pressurised pork sausages. An important finding regarding the salt
reduction was that the use of starch or fibre had more impact on textural
properties than the level of salt and the water binding capacity was
improved. These studies among others show that HPP reduces the need
for fat, salt, and phosphate in meat products without altering and
possibly improving quality.
Conclusion
It is clear from the foregoing discussion that HPP has a significant
potential for improving the extraction yield of bioactive components
from plant materials for use as ingredients in food as well as
nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. The potential application of
HPP for reducing the allergenicity of certain food products and for the
References
1. Barba, F.J., Esteve, M.J., Frígola, A. (2012). High pressure treatment effect on physicochemical and
nutritional properties of fluid foods during storage: A review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food
Science and Food Safety, 11(3), 307 – 322.
2. Sanchez-Moreno, C., De Ancos, B., Plaza, L., Elez-Martinez, P., Cano, M.P. (2009). Nutritional
approaches and health-related properties of plant foods processed by high pressure and pulsed
electric fields. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 49(6), 552 – 576.
3. Xi, J. (2013). High-Pressure Processing as Emergent Technology for the Extraction of Bioactive
Ingredients From Plant Materials. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 53, 837–852.
4. Huang, H-W., Hsu, C-P., Yang, BB., Wang, C-Y. (2014). Potential utility of high-pressure processing
to address the risk of food allergen concerns. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food
Safety, 13, 78-90.
5. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., van Otterdijk, R., & Meybeck, A. (2011). Global food
losses and food waste. Extend, causes and prevention. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ ags/publications/
GFL_web.pdf
6. Jun X, Deji S, Zhao S, Lu B, Li Y, Zhang R. (2009). Characterization of polyphenols from green tea
leaves using a high hydrostatic pressure extraction. Int. J. Pharm. 382 (1–2): 139-143.
7. Seo YC, Choi WY, Kim JS, Yoon CS, Lim HW, Cho JS, Ahn JH, Lee HY. (2011). Effect of ultra high
pressure processing on immuno-modulatory activities of the fruits of Rubus coreanus Miquel.
Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 12: 207–215.
8. Corrales M, García AF, Butz P, Tauscher B. (2009). Extraction of anthocyanins from grape skins
assisted by high hydrostatic pressure. J Food Eng 90(4): 415-421.
9. Xi, J. (2006). Application of high hydrostatic pressure processing of food to extracting lycopene
from tomato paste waste. High Pressure Res. 26(1):33–41.
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
production of food products with reduced salt and fat content as well as
improved fatty acid composition has also been demonstrated. It is
believed that this knowledge will pave the way for the next generation of
HPP food products and ingredients.
About the Authors
Vibeke Orlien has an MSc in mathematics and chemistry and a
PhD degree in food chemistry. Since 2008, Vibeke has been
employed as an Associate Professor in Food Chemistry at the
Department of Food Science, Faculty of Life Sciences,
University of Copenhagen. From 2010 Vibeke has been Head
of the Food Chemistry Research Section at the Department of
Food Science. Her major research area is high pressure
processing of food and the effects on food components and their properties.
Francisco J. Barba holds a European PhD in Food Science and
Technology from the University of Valencia and also holds
degrees in Pharmacy and in Food and Technology. He is
Assistant Professor in Food Science and Nutrition Area, Faculty
of Pharmacy, University of Valencia. His research focus is on
non-conventional processing for preservation and/or extraction
of bioactive compounds from food. His major research areas
are the recovery of bioactive compounds by using non-conventional methods
and evaluating the effects of emerging technologies on nutritional and quality
parameters of liquid foods.
Roman Buckow holds an MSc and PhD in Food Process
Engineering from the Berlin Institute of Technology, Germany.
In 2006, Roman joined Food Science Australia (now CSIRO) to
complete his postdoctoral research fellowship. He soon
became a Research Group Leader and is currently a
Stream Leader focusing on the development of technology
platforms for improving agri-food product quality and value.
Roman’s research interests include sustainable and healthy food manufacture
through conventional and novel food processing technologies, including high
pressure processing.
Netsanet Shiferaw Terefe has a BSc in chemical engineering, a
Master’s degree in food engineering and a PhD in bioscience
engineering from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium.
She is currently a Research Scientist at CSIRO Animal, Food and
Health Sciences (CAFHs) working on emerging food process-
ing technologies such as high pressure, pulsed electric field
and ultrasonic processing and extraction and separation
technologies for value addition to food processing waste.
10. Scheibenzuber M. (2003). Molekulare and klinische Auswirkungen einer Hochdruckbehandlung
allergener Lebensmittel. PhD thesis, TU Muenchen.
11. Kleber N, Maier S, Hinrichs J. (2007). Antigenic response of bovine β-lactoglobulin influenced by
ultra-high pressure treatment and temperature. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol. 8: 39–45.
12. Chicón R, López-Fandiño R, Alonso E, Belloque J. (2008). Proteolytic pattern, antigenicity, and
serum immunoglobulin E binding of beta-lactoglobulin hydrolysates obtained by pepsin and
high-pressure treatments. J Dairy Sci. 91(3): 928-38.
13. Xie & Hu (2013). Patent; Preparing shrimp meat, by removing shrimp head, tail and intestinal line,
removing membrane on surface of meat, grinding and introducing meat in salt water, adding
papain powder, and maintaining mixture at certain temperature.
14. Penas E, Gomez R, Frias J, Baeza ML, Vidal-Valverde C. (2011). High hydrostatic pressure effects on
immunoreactivity and nutritional quality of soybean products. Food Chem., 125:423–9.
15. Yagiz Y, Kristinsson HG, Balaban MO, Welt BA, Ralata M, Marshall MR. (2009). Effect of high
pressure processing and cooking treatment on the quality of Atlantic salmon. Food Chem
116: 828-8356.
16. Cruz-Romero MC, Kerry JP, Kelly AL. (2008). Fatty acids, volatile compounds and colour changes
in high-pressure-treated oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 9: 54-61.
17. Barba FJ, Esteve MJ, Frigola A. (2012). Impact of high-pressure processing on vitamin E (α-, γ-, and
δ-tocopherol), vitamin D (cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol), and fatty acid profiles in liquid
foods. J Agric Food Chem 60: 3763-3768.
18. Sikes AL, Tobin AB, Tume RK. (2009). Use of high pressure to reduce cook loss and improve
texture of low-salt beef sausage batters. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 10:405-412.
19. Grossi A, Søltoft-Jensen J, Knudsen JC, Christensen M, Orlien V. (2012). Reduction of salt in pork
sausages by the addition of carrot fibre or potato starch and high pressure treatment. Meat Sci
92(4): 481-489.
52 www.newfoodmagazine.com
Show Preview

The food and beverage industry is going through a period of substantial growth. Sales in products with specific health
benefits and those renowned for their health properties are driving the upward trend in health and wellness. Today’s
consumers are seeking beneficial and functional foods that will provide solutions to their nutritional challenges and
to their overall health and wellness. With an expected real-term growth of seven per cent by 2017, the global health
and wellness industry is on its way to hitting a record high of $1 trillion. The Netherlands, home to this year’s Hi
Europe & Ni, is showing significant development and opportunity, with an 18 per cent increase in health and wellness
sales between 2008 and 2013. In addition, sales in the Benelux region reached €10 billion in 2013 and are expected to
reach €11 billion by 2018.

To capture these market trends, Hi Europe & Ni will provide a global
meeting place and environment for buyers and sellers in the worldwide
health and wellness ingredients industry. The show will take place
on 2 – 4 December 2014, in Amsterdam RAI, the Netherlands. It will
highlight ingredients and solutions for food and drink formulation and
reformulation, dietary supplements, nutraceuticals, organics,
and packaging and processing.
Hi Europe & Ni 2014 promises over 500 world-class health and
wellness suppliers in one location, all offering solutions for innovative
food and beverage applications over three days. The biennial show
attracts a global audience of over 8,000 attendees from the health and
natural ingredients industries.
In addition to adapting to the latest trends in the global food and
beverage industry, the show is about bringing in new business,
inspirations and new energy, while conveying innovative ideas and
suppliers to the market. Whether suppliers and visitors are seeking to
improve existing products or systems, get educated on market and
industry trends, or radically innovate through new technologies and new
business processes, Hi Europe & Ni is the place to be this December.
You can save €110 by pre-registering your attendance online at
www.hieurope.com.
Show highlights
Building on the success of the last edition of Hi Europe & Ni, the 2014
event promises even more innovation and learning opportunities. Just
some of the highlights over the three days are:
 The Hi Europe Conference – a three day onsite conference
divided into 16 modules to address the most important issues
faced by the health and wellness ingredients industry. With
each module featuring a line-up of top expert speakers, the
conference is the best chance for attendees to gain unparalleled
professional development.
 In addition to the conference are the free-to-attend seminar sessions
where key exhibitors will inform visitors about their latest innovations,
developments and food trends as well as presenting new product
applications, cutting-edge technology and practical insights.
 The New Product Zone which will showcase 25+ new products and
packaging displays; highlighting recent launches from exhibitors at
the forefront of innovation in the food and beverage industry
 A choice of show floor tours are available: Innovation Tours,
conducted by NutriMarketing, will guide attendees around the show
floor and highlight how key suppliers are responding to market
trends through innovation; while the Discovery Tours, produced in
conjunction with Leatherhead Food Research, offer visitors the
opportunity to follow a trend-specific tour around the show floor at
their own speed using a guided map.
 The 10-year Awards Showcase recognises food and beverage
companies that have excelled in their sector of the past decade and
honours them in an awards showcase at the event.
 The Exhibitor/buyer meet-up is a new feature which provides a
great matchmaking opportunity for visitors looking for new suppliers
or a particular product. Visitors are able to submit buying requests
which are then published on the show screens for potential suppliers
to get in touch with their offerings.
 Visitors to Hi Europe & Ni can now go mobile with the HiE mobile
phone app. The official app is free and allows visitors to navigate the
show floor, access the exhibitors list and plan their agenda.
 For a fee of €55, international visitors can take part in the Holland
Food Valley R&D Tour which will take them to three key institutions
in Holland for meetings, presentations and Q&A sessions, with a
networking lunch included.
Date: 2 – 4 December 2014  Location: Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Website: www.hieurope.com

www.newfoodmagazine.com 53 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

HEALTH & NUTRITION
Exploring new ways to
establish dialogue and
mutual learning
In the debate on food and health, the INPROFOOD project1, an EU-funded initiative, has explored new ways to
establish dialogue and mutual learning between the scientific community and society, developing practical
guidelines – in the form of a roadmap for action – for inclusive, sustainable research designs.
A key challenge was to develop a new research paradigm, where
stakeholder participation2 is actively sought and considered valuable to
make research more robust and adapted to food dilemmas and ethical
concerns. Opportunities and challenges to public participation in the
research and innovation process, as well as themes in food and health
identified by stakeholders as relevant, are highlighted here.
Food and health research in Europe
Unhealthy lifestyles, including poor diets, are evidently linked to the high
prevalence of obesity and chronic diseases including heart disease,
diabetes and cancer. It is therefore not a surprise that Europe has
prioritised food and health as a societal challenge, allocating substantial
financial resources to research programmes in this field. With its ‘Science
in Society’ programme and framework for ‘Responsible Research and
Innovation’ (RRI), the European Commission aims to actively get all
relevant stakeholders engaged in the research and innovation process,
ensuring that science does not operate in isolation, but serves society at
large. Together with researchers and the civil society, the industry is
regarded a key stakeholder that should be involved in the development
of research agendas from the very beginning.
Stakeholder engagement in food and health research
There are a variety of reasons why involving society in research and
innovation is crucial. These include ensuring that research is more
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
democratic and accountable, increasing the legitimacy of ‘Science in
Society’. Another reason is to improve the level of reflection of science
and, thus, the societal utility, adaptability and the robustness of
scientific knowledge. Finally, it is important to include the demand-side
and user-side into science and this could, in turn, lead to increased
global market success.
Although food and health may be of interest to a wide spectrum of
stakeholders, such as consumers, researchers, industry, local/national
policy makers and European bodies, it does not necessarily imply that
they are all actively and efficiently participating in the process of research
programming, or even aware of the opportunities to do so. A main
finding from the multiple events organised by INPROFOOD was that
there is indeed a wide interest of non-profit organisations, public entities
and business actors to come together and debate on research
programming for healthy and sustainable food.
Looking at the current situation, however, the investigation of the
INPROFOOD consortium into the current processes, structures and
actors involved in research programming revealed that in most countries
examined3, stakeholder engagement is not required. Specific processes
for research programming are not documented in great detail, and
national governments often set thematic priorities for research. There
are country differences; for instance in Italy, Greece and Scotland
research priorities are influenced strongly by the European Commission
and/or national governments, whereas in Austria, Germany, Slovakia,
54 www.newfoodmagazine.com

Spain and the UK there is a more responsive – researcher led – strategy
defining the research programmes. The Netherlands and Denmark use a
combination of both. Though, a responsive approach does not mean
there was broad stakeholder input.
The involvement of industry in research funding and agenda setting
is not uncommon, but depends on the country. The country analysis
showed that the private sector is to a greater or lesser extent involved in
food and health related research in the majority of the countries that
were included; either in the form of public-private partnerships, or
private sector organisations involved in the funding of the research.
Civil society actors and the public more generally, on the other hand, are
not often involved across the countries.
Challenges of stakeholder engagement in
research programming
While stakeholder engagement in research programming is essential as
per aforementioned reasons, it is also important to acknowledge some
of the barriers or shortcomings of the tools that are used to involve
stakeholders. Barriers include, for instance, ‘mistrust’ between stake-
holders related to the diversity and polarity of stakeholders’ interests,
and a lack of transparency. Furthermore, not all tools may be as effective
in their capacity to deliver their objectives, or efficient to do so in a
reasonable timeframe for reasonable resources.
One of INPROFOOD’s main activities was the organisation of 35
European Awareness Scenario Workshops in 13 countries, which
brought together a broad range of stakeholders to develop shared
visions of socially acceptable, trustworthy, and transparent conditions
for developing health related innovations in the food area. Participants
proposed topics for future research and made suggestions on how to
improve research programming with regard to the decision-making on
topics/areas/themes, project funding, quality criteria for funding,
exploitation of results, and project evaluation. The core values for
guiding these workshops were a high level of transparency (in the
recruitment, conduct, etc.), inclusiveness and reproducibility, to aim for
representative results.
Even though this was a very large, transnational stakeholder
involvement activity applying scenario workshops, with high
transparency, some of the shortcoming could not be eliminated,
including the recruitment of a representative group of stakeholders.
It is therefore essential to establish the purpose of stakeholder
involvement; if the goal is decision-making, there may be issues with
democratic legitimacy because the views expressed may not represent
the interest of a group as a whole. If the goal is opening up governance,
stakeholder involvement can contribute to it, if its weaknesses, in
particular in respect to transparency and accountability, are
closely scrutinised and tackled. Whatever the purpose, one should be
cautious with generalisations on the basis of the outcomes of one or a
few workshops.
European views on food and health research
A range of stakeholder engagement activities were conducted as part of
the INPROFOOD project: both the European Awareness Scenario
Workshops as well as the European Open Space Conference, where
around 70 representatives from different stakeholder groups came
together to discuss ‘how the future of research in food and health can be
www.newfoodmagazine.com
HEALTH & NUTRITION
shaped’, sought to identify topics of particular concern and relevant for
future research. PlayDecide games, a discussion game introducing policy
making in a format specifically designed to learn discussing and
exchanging experiences and knowledge, focused on adolescents; giving
them an opportunity to identify possible strategies for development and
change on a range of issues related to health policy.
Differences as well as similarities were found between stakeholder
categories across countries. There was, for instance, agreement on the
fact that ‘transparency’ is crucial for a fruitful cooperation and a
‘common vision’ among stakeholders is needed for a successful
project. Some of the main topics or themes mentioned by the
different stakeholder categories across countries were ‘focus on
consumer awareness’ and the ‘social relevance of research’ (civil
society organisations), ‘communication of science to the consumer’
and ‘transparency in cooperation’ (public sector), and ‘claims and
regulations’ and ‘organic and local food production’ (industry). Though
to be interpreted thoughtfully, the participatory methods conducted
within the INPROFOOD have shown promising results with some of the
food and health related challenges consistently surfacing across
the different countries, independent of region and setting.
A roadmap for the future
The broader picture emerging from the INPROFOOD project is that
stakeholder engagement in research programming is still in its infancy
and is not part of the institutional culture in many countries. The specific
outcomes from INPROFOOD show that stakeholders across Europe, call
for actions to improve stakeholder involvement, both in terms of
inclusiveness and legitimacy of such engagements. Rules and guiding
principles to safeguard against favouritism, closed clubs, lobbying and
conflict of interests should be set at all stages of research programming
and agreed upon by all stakeholders involved. Building on the insights
gained from the project’s activities, a roadmap for action to ensure
broader stakeholder engagement in research programming has been
developed was presented during the INPROFOOD final conference on
14 – 15 October 2014 in Copenhagen, Denmark. The roadmap for action
does not only promote public participation in food, nutrition and
research agenda-setting, but also proposes a set of structural
and organisational mechanisms to integrate a participatory dimension
in research programming and recommends a set of mechanisms to
enhance transparency, inclusiveness and accountability throughout
the process.
References
1. INPROFOOD towards inclusive research programming for sustainable food innovations
received funding support from the European Commission’s Seventh Framework Programme
(Grant agreement no. 289045) and involves 18 partners in 13 countries. This three year
project (2011-2014) had a €4 million budget and was coordinated by the University of
Hohenheim, Germany.
2. Stakeholder participation or engagement refers to the process by which an organisation
involves the people and organisations who may be affected by the decision it makes or can
influence the implementation of its decision.
3. The countries included in the analysis were Austria, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy,
the Netherlands, Portugal, Scotland, Slovakia, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
Further information:
For further information about INPROFOOD, contact Raymond Gemen, Nutrition
and Health Manager at EUFIC at: raymond.gemen@eufic.org, Klaus Hadwiger,
University of Hohenheim and INPROFOOD Coordinator at: klaus.hadwiger@uni-
hohenheim.de or visit: www.inprofood.eu
55 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
 © White78 / Shutterstock.com
LISTERIA

■ Reha A. Azizoglu, Lisa Gorski and Sophia Kathariou North Carolina State University

Listeria and produce:

a troublesome liaison
Human illness due to Listeria monocytogenes (listeriosis) has been mostly frequently attributed to highly processed,
cold-stored, ready-to-eat foods such as deli meats, seafood, soft cheeses and other dairy products. However, the first
outbreak of listeriosis to confirm foodborne transmission of L. monocytogenes (Maritime Provinces outbreak,
1977-1981) involved produce (coleslaw). In recent years increasing numbers of listeriosis outbreaks have involved
fresh produce, and contaminated produce continues to contribute to numerous recalls. Such trends highlight the
significance of prevention and control measures for Listeria on fresh produce.
With the increased emphasis on good nutrition and health-promoting At the same time, this microorganism has a pronounced environmental
eating habits, consumers are encouraged to consume more fresh lifestyle with a wide range of complex adaptations permitting it to persist
or minimally processed fruits and vegetables. While beneficial for outside of human or other vertebrate hosts. Its reservoirs in nature
health, the consumption of untreated produce is also a leading remain poorly understood and may include decaying plant material in
contributor to foodborne illness in industrialised nations. Contami- terrestrial and fresh water ecosystems and invertebrate hosts such as
nated produce has been implicated in nearly half of the foodborne protozoa, nematodes and insects. From such reservoirs it can spread to
outbreaks of illness in the United States and the European Union, food processing environments and produce packing sheds to become a
with leafy vegetables being associated with more foodborne illness post-harvest contaminant.
than any other fresh produce commodity. Produce-related out-
breaks and sporadic illness are most often attributed to Escherichia Some public health facts about L. monocytogenes:
coli and Salmonella, but an increasing number of high profile  It has the highest hospitalisation rate of all foodborne pathogens,
produce outbreaks and product recalls have occurred due to and a mean of ca. 16 per cent of listeriosis cases are fatal
Listeria monocytogenes. Fresh produce such as cantaloupe, leafy  It is the third major contributor to deaths due to foodborne disease
greens and sprouts represent challenging food matrices with in the United States, responsible for 19 per cent of such deaths
limited post-harvest mitigations to reduce L. monocytogenes  At high risk are the elderly, pregnant women and their foetuses,
adherence and growth, underscoring a need for new pathogen con- cancer patients and others with immunosuppressive conditions.
trol strategies. Recently, a number of countries (UK, Germany, Denmark, France)
have reported significant increases in invasive listeriosis, primarily
Epidemiological facts and trends among the elderly
Even though new species of Listeria continue to be recognised,  Between 2009 and 2011 there were 1,651 cases of listeriosis in the
L. monocytogenes is the only species in the genus Listeria with consistent United States with a case fatality rate of 21 per cent. Fifty-eight per
ability to cause human disease (listeriosis). Listeriosis is relatively cent of the cases were ≥65 years of age, and 14 per cent were
uncommon but is accompanied with severe symptoms (septicemia, pregnancy-associated. Most (>74 per cent) of the non-pregnant
meningitis, abortions and stillbirths) and continues to be accompanied patients under 65 were immunocompromised, primarily due
with a high fatality rate. L. monocytogenes is well known for remarkable, to immunosuppressive treatments or cancer1. Of the 12 investi-
highly specialised adaptations mediating its interactions with intestinal gated outbreaks in this period, several were due to soft cheeses but
epithelial cells, macrophages and other animal cell types and associated two were linked to fresh produce (pre-cut celery and whole
with its ability to function as a facultative intracellular pathogen. cantaloupe, respectively).

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 56 www.newfoodmagazine.com


Produce types of concern
L. monocytogenes has been isolated from various types of fresh produce
including leafy greens, salad mixes, cabbage, cantaloupe, mangos,
soybean sprouts, cut celery and radishes. Although fresh produce was
historically not commonly associated with listeriosis outbreaks, in 2011
a multistate listeriosis outbreak in the United States was attributed to
contaminated cantaloupe. With 147 cases and 33 deaths2, this remains
the largest listeriosis outbreak on record. It resulted in the greatest
number of fatalities due to foodborne disease outbreaks in the United
States over several decades. In addition, numerous packaged or
unpackaged fresh produce products have been and continue to be
recalled due to confirmed or possible presence of L. monocytogenes.
Such epidemiological and produce surveillance findings highlight the
importance of fresh produce as a food vehicle of L. monocytogenes.
Produce-related listeriosis outbreaks: What are the lessons?
Referring to the 2011 cantaloupe outbreak, not only did this outbreak
result in numerous cases and deaths but it also conveyed a number of
novel messages:
 A novel vehicle (whole cantaloupe) was implicated
 86 per cent of the victims were individuals over 60
 Multiple strains of two different serotypes (1/2a and 1/2b) and five
distinct genotypes were involved; only two of these genotypes were
closely related
 This was the first documented involvement of serotype 1/2b in a
common-source outbreak of invasive listeriosis.
The outbreak-associated subtypes of L. monocytogenes were isolated
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LISTERIA
from the equipment and environment at the packing facility. Inadequate
cleaning and sanitation of the equipment used at the packing shed was
linked to post-harvest contamination of the cantaloupes; the pathogen
was not isolated from field samples (produce or soil).
Referring to the 2010 celery outbreak, the L. monocytogenes
outbreak in Texas was traced back to pre-cut celery used in chicken salad
served at hospitals. Five of the 10 patients (all immunocompromised)
died. Extensive contamination of the processing environment with the
outbreak strain (of serotype 1/2a) was revealed during the outbreak
investigation. In this outbreak, PCR testing of the samples yielded fewer
positive results compared to culture-based isolation methods. This
incident signifies the importance of ensuring the absence of
L. monocytogenes in foods served to immunocompromised patients3.
These outbreaks reaffirm the impact of post-harvest steps in
produce contamination with Listeria and underline the importance of
taking necessary sanitation measures at the packing shed and
processing environment to prevent contamination of the produce.
Specific characteristics of L. monocytogenes, such as biofilm-forming
potential and tolerance against disinfectants, should be considered in
developing sanitation strategies.
The two outbreaks summarised above were chosen based on
their public health impact and specific messages they conveyed; in
addition, they were accompanied by extensive outbreak investiga-
tions that included bacteriological and genotypic confirmations.
However, they are by no means the only produce-related outbreaks
in recent times. In fact, produce-related outbreaks of listeriosis
appear to be increasing in incidence in the United States. In contrast
to previous outbreaks involving deli meats and dairy products,
LISTERIA
several of which were large, long-lasting and involved serotype 4b,
many of the recent listeriosis outbreaks involve new vehicles, including
produce; tend to be small (with the notable exception of the cantaloupe
outbreak) and of shorter duration; and implicated strains tend to
be of serotype 1/2a4.
Survival and growth on fresh produce
Key characteristics of L. monocytogenes for its potential to be a produce-
associated food safety hazard include ability to:
 Adhere to the produce
 Persist and grow even in the presence of complex microbial
communities on the surface of untreated produce (e.g. whole
cantaloupe or celery)
 Grow at refrigeration temperatures frequently employed during
transport, storage, display at retail and at the consumer’s home.
Adherence
Certain L. monocytogenes strains appear to be better able to
adhere to plant surfaces than others. Molecular traits underlying
adherence remain poorly understood, but flagella may be required
along with specific surface antigens, e.g. surface proteins mediating
binding to cellulose and biofilm formation; inactivation of relevant
genes resulted in impaired adherence on various produce (e.g. leafy
greens, cantaloupe).
Persistence and growth
At permissive temperature, for example 4-43°C, L. monocytogenes may
be able to grow immediately upon inoculation on certain types of fresh
produce (e.g. cantaloupe), without a lag phase 5. Strain-specific
differences in growth rate have been observed in some studies, but not
others. The impact of microbial community composition on Listeria
growth remains poorly understood, and limited data exist on microbial
cultures that may be useful as competitive exclusion agents for
biocontrol of the pathogen on produce. Listeria-specific phage
has shown promise in experimental studies. However, certain
L. monocytogenes strains exhibit resistance to phage, creating potential
for inadvertent selection for such strains following use of phage
as biocontrol.
Growth under refrigeration
L. monocytogenes can grow (albeit at reduced rate) at temperatures as
low as 1°C and was shown to grow at 5°C on several produce types
(endive, shredded cabbage, broccoli, lettuce), with ca. four log CFU
increase following incubation at 5°C for 15 days on cut cantaloupe,
honeydew and watermelon. These findings highlight that, depending on
time-temperature combinations and original contamination levels,
storage at refrigeration temperatures may not sufficiently reduce risk for
L. monocytogenes on fresh produce.
Prevention and control measures
Effective mitigation strategies to reduce or eliminate L. monocytogenes
on fresh produce require farm-to-fork food prevention and control
measures. Mitigations can be grouped into sub-categories based on
stages being targeted: pre-harvest, post-harvest (packing/processing),
transportation, retail and at the level of the consumer.
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
Pre-harvest prevention measures
Focus is needed on approaches to limit on-farm access of
L. monocytogenes to produce. In the field fresh produce can become
contaminated with L. monocytogenes through seed, soil, compost/
fertilisers, and water used for irrigation or for application of pesticides.
Regular testing of such possible vehicles can enable early detection of
L. monocytogenes so that relevant control measures can be taken.
Another potential on-farm route for contamination is wildlife,
suggesting the need for measures to minimise access of wildlife to
produce in the field.
Processing and packing
L. monocytogenes has remarkable capacity to survive in the food
processing and produce packing environment and equipment.
Equipment that is antiquated, hard-to-disassemble and to effectively
clean and sanitise provides harborage sites where Listeria can become
established and persist, sometimes for decades. Similar harborage sites
are created in hard-to-access environmental niches such as floor drains.
For these reasons, the processing/packing stage is associated with the
highest risk for contamination of fresh produce with Listeria.
As a prevention measure it is important to regularly test environ-
mental samples and equipment for Listeria, with the understanding that
the presence of Listeria spp. can serve as indicator for L. monocytogenes.
Positive samples will need to be followed by control measures
employing rigorous cleaning and sanitation or even the re-design of
facilities and the procurement of equipment that lends itself more readily
to effective cleaning and sanitation. Water used in the packing shed for
rinsing produce can serve as source for L. monocytogenes con-
tami nation, a risk which will be minimised by effective water
treatment/disinfection protocols and by regular testing to confirm
effectiveness of water disinfection schemes.
Transportation
Produce can become contaminated from environmental sources
(crates, truck); inappropriate stacking of pallets in trucks (e.g. raw
chicken pallets on top of pallets with fresh produce; and human or
animal (e.g. wildlife or pests) contact, especially during loading and
unloading. Risks will be minimised via procedures to prevent cross-
contamination and via adequate time-temperature schemes for
produce during transportation, in the entire continuum from loading at
the field or packing shed to the receiving end at retail or other point of
sale (e.g. farmer markets and other distribution points).
Retail
At retail, fresh produce are available in packaged or unpackaged
form. Unpackaged fresh produce can become contaminated by
L. monocytogenes and is therefore critical to take necessary measures
to prevent possible cross-contamination of the produce during
storage and display. Possible routes of contamination include
other food products (e.g. raw meat and poultry, deli meats), customers,
employees, water used for misting produce, surfaces and equip-
ment. Important control measures for retail include preventing
cross-contamination, employing proper cleaning/sanitation and
misting procedures, and time-temperature controls for storage
and display of fresh produce. In the retail environment, time-
58 www.newfoodmagazine.com
 LISTERIA

temperature controls lend themselves the most to consistent,
high-impact implementation.
Consumers
Following purchase, key control prevention and control measures under
consumer control include adequate time-temperature storage of
produce (including during transport from point of purchase to the
home); correct site for storage in refrigerators and coolers (e.g. to reduce
potential for contamination for other cold-stored products such as raw
meat or poultry); sanitising food contact surfaces between food
preparations; prevention of cross-contamination with high-risk products
(e.g. raw poultry) in the kitchen sink, on countertops, cutting boards etc.;
rinsing with potable water and draining excess water; if peeling or cutting
is needed, using adequately sanitised tools, utensils and containers with
minimal risk for cross-contamination.
For thick-skinned fresh produce such as cantaloupe and
watermelon, the surface of the produce should be dried after washing,
using a clean disposable or re-usable towel, to reduce water available for
pathogen growth on the surface. To further minimise risk for introduction
of pathogens from the surface into the flesh, the knife should be rinsed
with potable water following each incision through the exterior surface.
Such measures seem especially relevant after the 2011 outbreak
which involved whole cantaloupe, and would be especially advised
for consumers at high risk for illness, e.g. elders, people in immuno-
suppressed states and pregnant women.
Each stage clearly presents opportunities for prevention and control
of Listeria on fresh produce. However, the biology of the pathogen, with
extensively documented capacity for persistence in food processing
environments and equipment, suggests the especially critical impact of
the post-harvest packing and processing stage. Measures such as those
outlined above will need to be continuously implemented and improved
upon. Furthermore, for certain produce types field packing of produce
(i.e. produce packed directly at the field) may significantly reduce risks for
contamination with Listeria by bypassing exposure of the produce to
high-risk harborage sites.
References
1. CDC. 2013. Vital signs: Listeria illnesses, deaths, and outbreaks,United States, 2009-2011.
MMWR 62:448-452. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/wk/mm6222.pdf
2. McCollum, J. T., A. B. Cronquist, B. J. Silk, K. A. Jackson, K. A. O’Connor, S. Cosgrove, J. P.
Gossack, S. S. Parachini, N. S. Jain, P. Ettestad, M. Ibraheem, V. Cantu, M. Joshi, T. DuVernoy, N.
W. Jr. Fogg, J. R. Gorny, K. M. Mogen, C. Spires, P. Teitell, L. A. Joseph, C. L. Tarr, M. Imanishi, K.
P. Neil, R. V. Tauxe, and B. E. Mahon. 2013. Multistate outbreak of listeriosis associated with
cantaloupe. The New England Journal of Medicine 369(10):944-953. Available online at
http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMoa1215837
3. Gaul, L. K., N. H. Farag, T. Shim, M. A. Kingsley, B. J. Silk, and E. Hyytia-Trees. 2013. Hospital-
acquired listeriosis outbreak caused by contaminated diced celery—Texas, 2010. Clinical
Infectious Diseases. 56(1):20-26. Available online at http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/
content/56/1/20.full.pdf+html
4. Cartwright, E. J., K. A. Jackson, S. D. Johnson, L. M. Graves, B. J. Silk, and B. E. Mahon. 2013.
Listeriosis outbreaks and associated food vehicles, United States, 1998-2008. Emerging
Infectious Diseases. 19(1):1-9. Available online at http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/
19/1/pdfs/12-0393.pdf
5. Fang, T., Y. Liu, and L. Huang. 2013. Growth kinetics of Listeria monocytogenes and spoilage
microorganisms in fresh-cut cantaloupe. Food Microbiology 34(1):174-181. Available online at
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0740002012002717
Further reading
• Hofmann, A., D. Fischer, A. Hartmann, and M. Schmid. 2014. Colonization of plants by human
pathogenic bacteria in the course of organic vegetable production.
• Front Microbiol. 2014 May 5;5:191. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00191.
• Vivant, A. L., D. Garmyn, and P. Piveteau. 2013. Listeria monocytogenes, a down-to-earth
pathogen.Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2013 Nov 28;3:87. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00087.

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www.newfoodmagazine.com 59 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

 © hanabiyori / Shutterstock.com
EXTRUSION

■ Frank A. Manthey and Elena de la Peña North Dakota State University

Extrusion: Conversion of
semolina into pasta
Formation of gluten-based dough requires the presence of gluten proteins, gliadin and glutenin, moisture, and
energy. Gliadin and glutenin proteins are storage proteins that accumulate in wheat endosperm cells during grain
filling. Gliadins are a heterogenous group of single chain proteins that are responsible for dough cohesiveness.
Gliadin proteins can be separated using electrophoresis into four groups: α-gliadins, β-gliadins, γ-gliadins, and
ω-gliadins. α-Gliadins, β-gliadins, and γ-gliadins contain intrachain disulfide bonds, whereas ω-gliadins lack cysteine
residues, a sulfur containing amino acid, and so cannot form disulfide bonds.
Gliadins are considered to be non-aggregating, meaning that their
polymer chains do not interact to form large polymeric complexes.
Glutenins are a heterogenous group of multichain proteins that are
responsible for dough strength. Glutenin proteins can be classified into
two groups: the high molecular weight glutenin subunit and the low
molecular weight glutenin subunit. Glutenin proteins can form
large polymeric protein complexes as a result of entanglements of long
polymeric chains and their ability to form interchain disulfide bonds1.
Moisture is needed for dough formation. Gliadins and glutenins are
packed very tightly in the protein bodies found in endosperm cells.
As these proteins hydrate, they begin to expand, change their steric
A configuration, and expose reactive sites2. Thus, water acts as a plasticiser,
increasing the intermolecular space and flexibility of gliadin and glutenin
B proteins allowing them the possibility of interacting with each other
Figure 1: Compressed dough (A) at the end of the auger before passing
when the energy in the form of mixing/kneading is applied. Without
through the kneading plate (B) mixing/kneading, the collision of glutenins and gliadins with each other

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 60 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 EXTRUSION

15-20 minutes. While in the main mixer, the moisture penetrates the
C semolina particles, hydrating the storage proteins, gliadins and
glutenins, and wetting the starch granules. As these proteins hydrate
they expand, they become more flexible and expose potential reactive or
bonding sites necessary for gluten development. Little or no dough
formation occurs in the main mixer since there is not enough energy
D being applied to the hydrated semolina.

B
A
Figure 2: Loose hydrated semolina found at the beginning and middle
part of the auger (A); slightly compressed hydrated semolina (B);
more compressed semolina (C); and highly compressed hydrated semolina
at the end of the auger (D)

will not take place. Mixing energy allows gliadins and glutenins interact
with each other through disulfide bonds formed between their cysteine
residues. The result of the simultaneous occurrence of gliadins and
glutenins, moisture, and energy is the formation of a protein network
that surrounds starch granules and provides the mechanical strength of Figure 4: Screen plates adjacent to extrusion die
pasta products.
Most dry pasta manufacturers apply a vacuum (-63 to -80 kPa) either
Conversion of semolina into pasta at the mixer or just before the extrusion barrel. The vacuum promotes
A pasta press is composed of an ingredient (semolina) feeding system, an hydration by eliminating surface tension associated with air. It also
ingredient hydration system (typically associated with a pre-mixer), a prevents air from being trapped inside the developing dough. Air trapped
main mixer, and an extrusion barrel with an auger, extrusion head, and inside the extruded pasta will appear as a series of very fine bubbles
pasta die. Traditional pasta is made from semolina, the coarsely ground resulting in a hazy appearance. If dried at high or ultrahigh temperatures,
endosperm of durum wheat. Warm water (35 to these bubbles will act as focal points for stress
40°C) is sprayed onto the semolina in the pre- and could ultimately result in checking of the
There is evidence that the gluten network
mixer. Enough water is added to bring the in pasta dough is not fully developed even finished pasta.
moisture content of the semolina to 30-32 per after the extrusion; however, that does not The hydrated semolina is then directly
cent. A high speed pre-mixer is commonly used imply that the extruded product does not discharged onto the rotating auger located
to rapidly and evenly coat the semolina particles have a solid and homogeneous structure inside the extrusion barrel. Traditionally,
with water. The wetted semolina is discharged extrusion augers used in pasta processing have
into the main mixer. Most mixers contain two counter-rotating horizontal a length to diameter ratio between 6:1 and 9:1 and are configured with a
parallel shafts with paddles set so that they move the hydrating semolina constant root diameter and deep flights having a uniform pitch the entire
toward the extrusion barrel. The transit time in the main mixer is length of auger. The dough is conveyed in the channel between flights on
the auger; however, the flow of dough is not uniform in the channel.
Dough near the root of the auger moves much more slowly than the
material near the cylindrical barrel wall. Deep flights provide high
conveying capacity and allow high back pressure flow in the auger.
The extrusion auger is surrounded by a water jacketed barrel. Warm
water is rapidly circulated through the water jacket to dissipate excess
heat generated by friction between the developing dough and the inner
surface of the extrusion barrel. Friction is necessary for conveyance of the
hydrated material on the auger. Without friction, the auger would turn
and the hydrated mass of semolina would remain stationary relative to
the auger. To have proper conveyance of the dough, the friction
associated with the barrel must be greater than the friction associated
with the auger. Longitudinal grooves are machined along the inner
surface of the extrusion barrel to enhance the friction between the
Figure 3: Kneading plate
developing dough and the barrel. To reduce friction between

www.newfoodmagazine.com 61 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

EXTRUSION
the developing dough and the auger, the auger surface is made of
polished stainless or chrome-plated steel.
A pressure gradient is formed as the hydrated material moves along
the auger 3. This pressure gradient is initially formed due to the
compaction of the dough against the kneading plate that is located at
Figure 5: Extrusion die with cylindrical openings for spaghetti shape
Products and perspectives: Extrusion as an innovation driver
Extruder products rank among the pioneering opportunities for product
innovation in the food sector. New developments in snack products, breakfast
cereals, flat breads, sweets, pet food and other special products can be prepared
on a laboratory scale using this key technology.
Brabender® provides suitable instruments for experimental trials of potential
product lines with extrudates in a wide range of shapes, colours and flavours.
They are compact and can be put to versatile use in innovative food
laboratories. Modern foods can be developed under realistic process conditions
while production is not impacted, which saves money but is still consistently
quality oriented.
Laboratory extruder as sensible alternative
for practical applications
There are few procedures with as much potential for completely redesigning a
product matrix. In order to develop innovative food textures and structures, the
parameters of pressure, temperature, and shear can be varied during extrusion
without changing the final product. As experimenting on extruders during live
operations can lead to operational disruptions, laboratory extruders are a
sensible alternative for everyone involved in the development and testing of
new processes and products.
Four arguments speak in favour of practical product development with
laboratory extruders:
■ Get to know new processes, test textures and sensory characteristics before
trials have to be conducted on a production scale
■ Vary your application ideas in terms of raw materials, composition, machine
or product
■ Use less material to carry out your trials, and minimise product waste
■ Establish methods for measuring your quality from raw material to end
product in advance.
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
© clarkfang / Shutterstock.com
the end of the auger. The material that is being pressed against the
kneading plate is composed of many layers of highly compressed but not
homogenous dough (Figure 1, page 60). This supports observations of
other researchers that have indicated that almost no mixing/kneading
takes place in the channel of the extrusion auger4. Observation of the
Triple extrusion expertise from Brabender®
Thanks to the transfer of technology between plastics processing, the
pharmaceutical industry and the food sector, Brabender® can provide extrusion
expertise in three essential fields of application.
The use of Brabender® measuring extruder systems in food laboratories
provides reliable results for the fine tuning of optimal production conditions
and to providing constantly high product quality.
Quality Single- and twin-screw extruders or the modular expansion make it
possible to adapt the processing conditions to products and tasks in the
best possible way:
■ Control and analysis of raw materials
■ Product development and recipe optimisation
■ Testing of the extrusion properties of different materials
■ Research and optimisation of processing characteristics.
Entry-level single-screw extruders
The Brabender® KE 19 is a sturdy, directly driven standalone extruder for
laboratory and pilot plant stations. It is an autonomously operating single-
screw extruder that is ideal for laboratories and technical institutions. Based on
a broad selection of screws and tools, this machine suits best for:
■ Testing processing behaviour during recipe development and product
monitoring
■ Quality control during production and throughout processes
■ Optimisation of production conditions, full machine capacity utilisation,
and waste minimisation.
Twin-screw extruders for sophisticated applications
Because of its wide range of applications and maximum flexibility, Brabender®
twin-screw extruders are ideal for sophisticated, complex applications.
The screw and cylinder construction kits are designed in such a way that all
process stages (feeding, conveying, plasticising, dispersing, reacting,
degassing) can be carried out in the best possible way. The combination of
several work steps into one continuously operating extruder turns these twin-
screw extruders into modern inline compounders.
Brabender® and its modular device designs show a practicable way towards
practical implementation of extrusion technology in the food industry – one
step at a time. The laboratory professionals develop creative innovation
expertise, and companies safeguard their future with affordable investments.
62 www.newfoodmagazine.com
 EXTRUSION

hydrated semolina at different points along the length
of the auger suggests that as pressure increases, the
hydrated semolina transitions from a granular material
at the beginning of the auger into a highly-compacted
but not well developed dough at the end of the auger
(Figure 2, page 61). Sometimes a cut-flight is added at
the end of the auger to provide increased work or
mixing action before the dough passes through a
kneading plate3.
Significant dough development occurs when the
compressed dough goes through the kneading plate
(Figure 3, page 61). The kneading plate is a perforated
plate that is situated between the end of the auger and
the extrusion head. The dough is kneaded by the
shearing forces that occur as it passes through the holes
in the kneading plate. The kneading plate splits the
dough into streams that recombine on the other side of
the plate. After passing through the kneading plate, the gluten matrix is
In conclusion, pasta dough development within the extrusion
barrel seems to be limited to the compression forces that occur
toward the end of the extrusion auger. The majority of the dough
development takes place by the shearing forces generated as the
dough flows through a kneading plate, screens and the extrusion die
and by the compression forces generated at the end of auger and inside
the extrusion head.
About the Authors
Frank A. Manthey is a Professor in the Department of Plant
Sciences at North Dakota State University, USA, where he has
been the research leader for the Durum Wheat Quality/Pasta
Processing Laboratory since 1998.
Elena de la Peña is a PhD candidate in the Cereal Science
Graduate programme at North Dakota State University. She
is originally from Burgos, Spain. Her dissertation topic is
‘Manufacturing optimisation of non-traditional pasta products’.

much more continuous and starch granules are clearly aligned along the
direction of flow. Once the dough has entered the
extrusion head the pressure increases even more
due to flow restriction generated by the presence of
Innovative extrusion processes without limits. Bühler is the global technology
screens (Figure 4, page 61) that are adjacent to the
partner for companies producing breakfast cereals, snack foods, or food
die and by the die itself (Figure 5, page 62). These
ingredients on a commercial scale. With its extensive extrusion know-how
adjacent screens function to protect the die from
and its passion for customized solutions, Bühler is always in a position to
abrasive material and provide additional kneading
generate added value and success for any product idea. Bühler offers an
to the dough. A combination of compression and
integral range of products and services for all process stages – from correct
shearing forces work the dough at this stage.
raw material handling, cooking and shaping through extrusion to drying of the
Ultimately, the dough passes through the orifices in
extruded products. And this for all market segments – from breakfast cereals
the extrusion die. The characteristic of the orifice
and snack foods to modified flours and starches, texturized proteins, or vita-
determines the shape of the extruded pasta. At this
minized rice. In short: extrusion processes without limits.
stage the dough is as developed as it is going to get
by the extrusion process.
There is evidence that the gluten network in extrusion@buhlergroup.com, www.buhlergroup.com/extrusion

pasta dough is not fully developed even after the

extrusion; however, that does not imply that
the extruded product does not have a solid and
homogeneous structure. Matsuo et al5 concluded
that low moisture content of pasta dough is not
enough to fully hydrate the gluten proteins. This
lack of moisture prevents the formation of the type
of fully developed dough observed in bread baking.

References
1. Veraverbeke, WS, Delcour, JA (2002) Wheat protein composition
and properties of wheat glutenin in relation to breadmaking
functionality. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 42(3):179-208.
2. Bernardin, JE, Kasarda, DD (1973) Hydrated protein fibrils
from wheat endosperm. Cereal Chem. 50(5):529-36.
3. Abecassis, J, Abbou, R, Chaurand, M, Morel, M-H, Vernoux, P
(1994) Influence of extrusion conditions on extrusion speed,
temperature, and pressure in the extruder and on pasta
quality. Cereal Chem. 71(3):247-53.
4. Sarghini, F, Cavella, S, Torrieri, E, Masi, P (2005) Experimental
analysis of mass transport and mixing in a single screw
extruder for semolina dough. J Food Engineering 68:497-503.
5. Matsuo, RR, Dexter, JE, Dronzek, BL (1978) Scanning electron
microscopy study of spaghetti processing. Cereal Chem.
55(5):744-53.

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

Innovations for a better world.
VISCOSITY

© Berents / Shutterstock.com
■ Sarab Sahi Principal Research Officer, Baking and Cereal Processing, Campden BRI

Viscosity measurements
in food products and
manufacturing
Viscosity is an important property of fluid foods. It is defined as the internal friction of a liquid or its ability to resist
flow. The internal friction in a fluid can be easily demonstrated by observing a liquid that has been vigorously stirred
to create a vortex. Once the stirring has stopped the speed of the vortex is gradually reduced and rotation of the liquid
eventually stops. This happens as a result of the frictional force within the liquid and this force has to be overcome in
order for the liquid to flow.

People often use the expression ‘thin’ or ‘water-like’ for liquids that have
low viscosity and ‘thick as treacle’ for liquids with high viscosity. Viscosity
of a liquid is an important parameter as it can be used as an indicator of
quality by the consumer, in some instances a thicker liquid being thought
of as superior quality when compared to a thinner product.
Viscosity is also a characteristic of the texture of food. This means
that the viscosity of a product must be controlled and measured in
production so that each batch is consistent from day to day.
Liquid food systems can be highly shear-sensitive and the structure
can break down with the application of shear, as is the case during
mixing or when pumped through pipes. There are a number of
characteristic behaviours that can be observed.
Newtonian behaviour is displayed by simple liquids consisting of
small molecules that do not interact or form any connected structure.
However, it must be pointed out that long chain polymers at low
concentration can also show Newtonian behaviour. An easy way to

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 64 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 VISCOSITY

demonstrate Newtonian behaviour is to

double the shear stress during a viscosity test
and this should result in doubling of the shear
rate. If this is not observed then the liquid is
non-Newtonian.
The viscosity of some fluids is dependent
on the rate used to shear the material, a high
rate of shear making the fluid thinner
compared with the fluid that was sheared
more slowly. This is referred to as time
independent (steady state) flow and materials
showing this type of behaviour are called
pseudoplastic. Another type of viscous
behaviour exhibited by fluid foods and
polymer systems is thixtropy which is again
shear-thinning of the material with increasing
rates of shear, but is also dependent on the
duration of shear. Put in another way, Figure 1: : Effect of temperature on starch paste viscosity (temperature ramped from 20 to 80°C
at 10°C per minute and stirrer speed of 160rpm)
the material shows thinning behaviour with
time when it is sheared at a constant rate. In such liquids the time delay Viscosity is also dependent on concentration and the relationship is
needed for the viscosity to change suggests that a certain amount of time not usually linear. For example, a small increase in concentration of a
is needed to re-arrange or align the structural components that results in hydrocolloid may increase viscosity a little, but once a critical
decrease in the viscosity of the test material. concentration is exceeded the viscosity can
Generally speaking, fluids with larger, more Temperature has a major effect on increase exponentially. Typical rate of addition
viscosity; the viscosity decreasing
complex, molecules will have higher viscosities. significantly with increase in temperature of starch to achieve significant viscosity of a
This is particularly true for the long chain liquid would be in the region of four to five per
polymers that are found in foods such as proteins, starches, cent. Hydrocolloid systems, on the other hand, have greater water-
hydrocolloids or gums. Another striking property of these materials is
that they consist of numerous chemical groups (hydroxyl groups, anionic
groups etc.) along the length of the polymer chain that are water loving
or hydrophilic and hence can bind water molecules. The polymer chains
can also become entangled with one another, forming networks that are
able to trap and immobilise water. The viscosity of water is low as the
Food
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www.newfoodmagazine.com 65 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014

VISCOSITY

binding properties and can generate viscosities at lower concentrations, depends on the consistency of the material being tested. For less viscous,
for example 0.5 to one per cent. pourable liquids the concentric cylinder would be applicable, whereas
Temperature has a major effect on viscosity; the viscosity decreasing for more viscous products parallel plates or cone and plate geometry
significantly with increase in temperature. As the temperature increases would be more suited. For gelled systems, such as thick-set yoghurts,
the molecules in the liquid move about more, and therefore spend less some viscometers can be fitted with T-bar and a stand that continually
time in contact with each other, thus the internal friction of the liquid moves the probe into the sample cutting a helical shape into the sample.
decreases. This is demonstrated in Figure 1 (page 65), which shows the This avoids the potential problem of channels being created in such
change in viscosity of a pre-gelled starch solution as the temperature was samples when measured with a spindle rotating in a fixed position.
increased from 20 to 80°C. Because the viscosity of food is highly affected Capillary viscometers, also known as U-Tube or Ostwald, measure
by temperature the test conditions to measure viscosity should be tightly the time for a fluid to pass between two points of a capillary tube
controlled. To achieve accurate measure the sample temperature under the force of gravity. This type of viscometer is only suited to low
should be controlled within ±0.5°C and this can be achieved by placing viscosity Newtonian fluids. Capillary viscometers are highly sensitive to
the test sample in a thermostatically controlled water bath. temperature and so the capillary is usually immersed in a water bath.
There are numerous instruments available to the food industry to Based on the same principle, the Falling Sphere Viscometer measures
measure viscosity for quality control and thus ensure that products the time it takes for a sphere to fall through a fluid under gravity. These
made are of consistent quality. A very simple are just a few of the methods that can be used
instrument that is used in the food industry The quality of foods such as soups, sauces, with food systems and there are many more that
is the Bostwick consistometer, which determ- gravies, custards, flans, desserts, and can used to perform quality control checks or to
baked products, to name a few, depend
ines the consistency of a food by measuring the heavily on structure forming properties of characterise more complex viscous behaviour.
distance it flows under its own weight. Typical materials such as starch By far the most researched food in terms of
food products measured include tomato viscosity is chocolate. The flow behaviour
ketchup, tomato puree, pureed baby foods, jams, etc. Samples that stick of chocolates is important both during processing as well as for
to the instrument or are highly viscous and do not flow sufficiently in 30s organoleptic reasons. Chocolates have different flow properties
are not suitable for this instrument. The main drawback to this depending on application and products are made for enrobing and for
instrument is that factors other than viscosity, such as surface tension of making blocks. However, the flow behaviour is complex due to the fact
the material, can influence the results, but it is a useful method to provide that a number of ingredients, namely sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa
quick and easy quality control for a number of foods. particles and milk products, need to be finely dispersed. The viscosity
Rotational viscometers measure the torque required to turn a plays a crucial role as it affects texture, that is, how it flows in the mouth.
spindle in a sample of fluid at a known speed. These commonly-used The measurement of chocolate viscosity is highly specialised and
viscometers are capable of measuring Newtonian and non-Newtonian requires a specific type of viscometer for the measurement to be
fluids in a wide viscosity range. The spindle can be rotated at a fixed performed accurately. The flow properties are usually described by the
speed or at different speeds over time so that the viscosity can be Casson flow curve and for this it is necessary to make measurements at
measured over a range of shear rates. A number of different con- different rotational speeds so that shear stresses at different shear rates
figurations of measuring systems are available, such as concentric can be determined. The Casson method gives information about the
cylinders, parallel plates and cone and plate. Which one to choose yield stress and the plastic viscosity. Yield stress is defined as the shear
stress required to initiate flow of the chocolate
and hence gives information about potential
enrobing properties, whereas the plastic
viscosity relates to the shear stress required to
maintain constant flow. The latter thus relates
to the way chocolate will flow in a mould or
perhaps in the mouth. The viscosity test is
typically carried out at 40°C and temperature
control within a narrow range is important in
order to perform the test accurately.
Viscosity is also important in the
production of bakery products that are made
from dough and batter. Such systems typically
consist of a number of dispersed phases such
as flour, fat, water and air. Sufficient viscosity is
required to stop phase separation during
mixing, floor time and baking in the oven. For
Figure 2: Typical RVA trace obtained from a flour-water system and key parameters. The pasting temperature systems such as bread doughs, there is usually
is the temperature at which a significant increase in viscosity occurs. Peak 1 indicates the maximum increase
in viscosity after pasting. The ‘Breakdown’ shows the loss in viscosity as a result of granule breakdown.
sufficient viscosity to stop phase separation
The final viscosity is achieved at the end of the test. and to trap and retain air during bread

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 66 www.newfoodmagazine.com


Figure 3: The Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) technique
production. However, it is a different matter when it comes to batter
systems. Less viscous batter systems such as wafers batters and
batters typically used to make Yorkshire puddings can result in both loss
of air beaten into the batter during mixing as well as separation of solids.
This can be detrimental to end product quality. Cake batters also need to
be sufficiently viscous to prevent loss of gas bubbles that are
incorporated during mixing as these bubbles are recipients of the gas
produced by raising agents and steam, which cause expansion and help
to reduce batter density. If these gas bubbles are lost then the expansion
of the batter will be restricted as new bubbles cannot be created after the
mixing has stopped. As mentioned above, viscosity is also temperature
dependent, hence in the oven as the batter is heated it becomes thinner.
The likelihood of phase separation of the more dense components such
as starch granules is greater and such components can sink to the
bottom of the baking tin. The result would be a gummy layer at
the bottom and a fragile coarse open structure at the top. Fruit pieces,
if added to the recipe, can also sink to the bottom when the batter
becomes thinner as the temperature increases in the oven. The
separation of recipe components therefore needs to be avoided by
maintaining a certain level of viscosity up to point where the starch
gelatinisation occurs and the structure is set.
The quality of foods such as soups, sauces, gravies, custards, flans,
desserts, and baked products, to name a few, depend heavily on
structure forming properties of materials such as starch. After starch
material is cooked, the granules swell and become fragile and can break
down under shear and lose viscosity. This can have disastrous
consequences on the viscosity and hence on the characteristic eating
quality of the food. The effect of temperature on viscosity of starch based
foods can be investigated by techniques such as the Brabender
Amylograph and its derivative the Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) (Figure 3).
Both techniques are based on a rotational viscometer that continually
records the viscosity of a sample while the temperature is changed
in a controlled way. The resistance to flow of the test sample
is measured by a rotating paddle at a known speed. A typical trace from
an RVA test is given in Figure 2 (page 66) and shows how the viscosity
www.newfoodmagazine.com
VISCOSITY
increases rapidly to a peak after starch gelatinisation. The continued
heating and shearing of the flour batter damages the starch granules,
resulting in release of water initially absorbed by the granules when
the viscosity first increased, lowering the viscosity. A minimum in hot
viscosity is then achieved, which then begins to increase as the
temperature is gradually reduced. The starch is subjected to constant
shear throughout the test and this provides useful information about
stability during processing of food materials that rely on starch for their
physical characteristics and quality.
In summary, viscosity of foods is an important property which plays
a vital role during processing of batter and dough systems and for
textural properties of foods such as soups and sauces. A range of
techniques are available to measure viscosity from simple, quick-to-
perform tests to more comprehensive characterisation in the form of
flow curves. Materials such as chocolate which show complex viscous
behaviour require specially designed tests to obtain flow properties
relevant to end use.
About the Author
Sarab Sahi is a Principal Research Officer in the Baking and
Cereal Processing Department at Campden BRI. Sarab
graduated in Biochemistry, and studied for a PhD at Reading
University characterising the surface properties of food grade
sucrose esters then subsequently as a Research Fellow,
investigated protein/lipid interactions. His major activities
include technology of cereal processing and bakery science
with particular interest in the texture measurements and understanding of the
physical properties of ingredients and products. Sarab’s current research
interests include routes to achieving clean label products in the bakery area.
Rheology Lab
Viscosity Testing, Rheology Profiling
and Benchmarking for Food & Drink.
Giving you the data you need to measure and predict critical
qualities of your products and those of your competitors:
New Product Development:
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Process Design:
■ Plant specification for pumping, mixing and filling
■ Flow through heat exchangers
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Quality Control:
■ Batch testing and verification of modifiers
■ Outgoing batch to batch quality testing
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Just email lab@rheologylab.com or
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www.rheologylab.com
67 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
 chocolate & beyond
New flavors, new trends, new health requirements… The world of chocolate is rocking
like never before, bringing new and exciting challenges every day. Luckily there’s Barry Callebaut
to count on; as an innovative player we have been reformulating chocolate since 1990.
We make sure that chocolate is – and will always be – a delicious sensation,
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Would you like to bring in our expertise to optimize your chocolate recipe?
Call us. Challenge us.

www.Barry-callebaut.com
© Svetlana Lukienko / Shutterstock.com

CHOCOLATE PROCESSING

■ Siegfried Bolenz Professor of Food Technology, Neubrandenburg University of Applied Sciences

Chocolate mass – an
overview on current and
alternative processing
technologies
A lot of time has passed since the first refiner conches were built to make chocolate. At that stage all necessary
processing steps were done in the same machine, which sometimes took a week to get the final product. This paper
is not intended to summarise all the technical developments since then as such information is available in textbooks1.
Instead it aims to briefly introduce the different systems for chocolate mass production offered by various companies
in order to give readers an overview on what is currently available on the market.

Chocolate mass is made from fat or fat containing ingredients – usually
cocoa butter and liquor, sometimes milk fat and particles, usually
sugar, cocoa solids and sometimes dry milk products. Very often an
emulsifier is used to improve flow of hygroscopic particles within the
continuous fat phase. During production several incidents occur:
 Reduction of large particle sizes by grinding
 Covering each individual particle by fat/emulsifier to reduce particle
interaction during flow
 Removal of water contained in raw materials, as it would form
undesired sticky layers on hygroscopic particles
 Removal of undesired volatile off-flavours contained mainly in cocoa
particles and developed during cocoa fermentation
 Flavour development.
The two latter points could also be combined as they are difficult to
distinguish.

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CHOCOLATE PROCESSING

Coming from the old refiner conches,

where all this happened simultaneously and
was hard to control, the majority of later
technologies perform the grinding step
separately. Only few mill types are able to
handle chocolate preparations, as it is initially
a very sticky mass, which can transform to a
sticky powder during milling, when specific
surface of particles increases. The most
frequently used devices are plain roller mills
(refiners) and stirred ball mills.
Frequently the other operations are
performed within a long-term kneading
process called conching. Very long conching
times are still recommended and associated Figure 1: Flow curves of two chocolates with an identical recipe, but produced on roll refiner
with good quality, although the devices require (wider PSD) and ball mill (narrower PSD), showing the different impacts on flow behaviour at low shear (left)
versus high shear (right)
high capital investment. One of the major
progresses established in the last 30 years was to move cocoa flavour If cocoa butter is replaced by another fat, the product is usually
treatment out of the conch into the upstream cocoa processing. Thin called compound and not chocolate. Technologically most compounds
film evaporators were developed in order to remove undesired volatiles are close to chocolate mass and similar equipment can be used to make
and water; if this is not done elsewhere those devices are also able to it. The largest difference is rather an economical one, as very expensive
debacterise cocoa liquor. Unfortunately the very popular Petzomat is not cocoa butter is replaced by relatively inexpensive alternative fats.
built any more, but alternatives from other companies are available. After some initial information on chocolate mass properties the
Nowadays chocolate producers can strongly reduce conching times if systems available on the market will be introduced. For that purpose
they insist on using pre-treated cocoa liquor of high flavour quality. information was obtained from various manufacturers, followed by
Untreated cocoa is also still used, which then requires extra conching, questions and discussions on aspects such as:
like in former times.  Is it possible to produce dark, milk and white mass using identical
Similar principles are followed for milk chocolates by developing equipment or even on the same production line?
milk powder pre-treatment procedures. For example it was proposed to  What are the main advantages of the process for larger and also for
dry skimmed milk powder to below one per cent water and to coat it with smaller chocolate producers and what is the minimum size of an
fat, which allows us to perform a very short liquefaction process instead industrial production line?
of classical conching2.  How much energy does the process require?
Crumb is an ingredient made by drying milk together with sugar and  What is the approximate capital investment necessary for a
cocoa liquor. Originally this was done for preservation of the milk, but production line?
nowadays it is performed in order to create the strong caramel flavour
preferred in some countries. For downstream mass production the same Of course not all questions could be answered. In particular the last
technologies can be used, as with other chocolate types. point, as process equipment is usually designed individually by machine
manufacturers for their clients. So in practice,
chocolate makers will always have to
negotiate individually with suppliers. This
paper will provide an introduction to the
possibilities on the market.

Chocolate mass properties

Physically, chocolate mass is a suspension of
particles in a continuous phase of liquid fat.
Downstream when producing final products
© Bühler AG

for the consumer, fat crystallisation is initiated

and the mass is forced into the desired
shape and solidifies. These steps are not
considered here, although many properties of
the final product can be predicted by
measurable properties of the still liquid
chocolate mass. Therefore flow properties are
Figure 2: Process layout of Bühler MicroFactoryTM ; a small scale line for dosing, refining and conching of
chocolate mass
usually measured at a temperature of 40°C,

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 70 www.newfoodmagazine.com


which is close to the temperature that chocolate melts in our mouths.
So texture sensations like a smooth melt or a sticky behaviour are
usually correlated to flow properties.
As chocolate mass is a non-Newtonian fluid we have to measure its
shear stress at different shear rates, which results in a flow curve. Shear yield values4. An example is shown in Figure 1 (page 70).
stress divided by shear rate results in the
apparent viscosity; if we again plot this versus
the shear rate we get a viscosity curve.
Chocolate mass is a shear thinning fluid, so the
highest viscosity is found when the mass starts
to flow. Interaction between particles is
considered to be responsible for this
behaviour 3, which is very different to
Newtonian fluids such as water. So one
important part of the flow curve is at very low
shear. The yield value defines the shear stress,
when the mass starts to move. As a minimum
shear rate is necessary for the measurement,
usually the yield value has to be extrapolated
from the flow curve according to model
equations, like the ones developed by Casson Figure 3: Process layout of BSA Schneider’s CHOCompact® compact production line consisting of mixer,
refiner and conch
and Windhab1. Yield values or measurements
at low shear stress also have a great practical importance, as many
industrial operations are carried out with masses flowing slowly, for
example the equal distribution of still liquid mass in a mould.
Figure 4: Process layout of continuous HCC conch consisting of feed hopper (1), pasting column (2) with fan (3),
intermediate tank with stirrers and wall scrapers (5) and air outlet (16), weighing station (6,7) homogenizer (8),
dosing units for cocoa butter and lecithin (11,12,13,17)
On the other hand side some processing is done under high shear,
e.g. when pumping or spraying masses. This is best described by the
other end of the flow curve. So usually it is extrapolated to infinite shear,
the result is then called Casson or Windhab infinite viscosity. Naturally,
fat content, emulsifiers and ingredient properties have the largest
influence on viscosity. After those, particle size distribution and particle
package density are also important. Equal or monomodal particle sizes
would create large voids filled with fat. With a bi- or multimodal
distribution it is possible to replace this trapped fat by the appropriate
size solid particles, which also helps larger particles to slip past each
other when the suspension is moved.
The grinding process largely influences particle size distribution and
www.newfoodmagazine.com
CHOCOLATE PROCESSING
the resulting flow properties. Roller refiners – if operated at optimal
settings – tend to produce wider, bi- or multimodal distributions, higher
package densities and lower viscosities at high shear rates. In contrast,
ball mills result in narrower distributions, less specific surface and lower
© BSA Schneider GmbH
Physically measurable properties of chocolate masses, like flow
attributes or hardness, are correlated to sensory perceptions such as
snap, hardness, melting and the like. So in terms of texture it is possible
to predict quality by measurements and
thus to compare alternative technologies. This
is much more difficult in terms of flavour.
Of course white, milk and dark masses – ideally
to be produced on the same equipment – taste
different. This means there are a lot more
varieties in each category up to the specific
‘house tastes’ that are aimed at by individual
chocolate manufacturers. So at the end of the
day it is generally impossible to define the
flavour for high quality and to compare and
© Petzholdt-Heidenauer
identify equipment to achieve it. If considering
processing alternatives it will always be
necessary to adapt recipes and technology to
each other in order to get the desired result.
Roller refining and conching
This technology is used by the majority of
chocolate producers in Europe. A typical line consists of mixer, 2-roll-
refiner, 5-roll-refiner and conch. In the mixer the largest part of the recipe
is blended, although some fat is left out, as otherwise the mix would be
too fluid for the refiners. The 2-roll-refiner crushes sugar crystals to sizes
below 100µm. Alternatively, sugar can be ground separately by a sugar
mill, which was common practice some decades ago. Although
sometimes this set-up can still be found, most companies nowadays
prefer the 2-roll-refiner due to the danger of dust explosions in sugar
mills. The following 5-roll-refiner is a sophisticated machine, not very
easy to operate, but essential for final product quality. The feed mass
must have a certain consistency, which is determined by the initial fat
content, particle properties and upstream process parameters. Here the
71 New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
CHOCOLATE PROCESSING

particles are ground to their final size, usually

below 30µm in order to avoid a sandy texture
in the mouth in the final product. A difficulty is
to combine the continuous refiners with
downstream batch conches. Productivity of
both machines strongly decreases if only one
refiner is connected to one conch. Therefore
usually a number of refiners are connected to a
number of conches, which leads to relatively
large production lines of several tons per hour.
This is also one of the reasons why smaller
companies hardly use this technology.
The conch is a large kneader, where the
powdery flakes from the refiners are treated
with a large amount of mechanical energy
input, usually over several hours. This is where

most of the transformations described in the
introduction of this article takes place. During
the process the remaining fat and emulsifier Figure 5: Process layout of Bühler SmartChoc™ Plus, a small scale line combining a ball mill with ‘light conching’
are added. Conches are built in various forms
and can be equipped with one, two or three mixing shafts. More detailed
descriptions of the process can be found in .1
Swiss company Bühler is market leader in this technology and looks
back to a long experience in building and installing complete production
lines8. In order to also meet the needs of smaller producers, recently the
MicroFactory™ line was launched with a capacity of 300-600 kg/h,
where the 2+5-roll-refiners are replaced by two three-rollers, see
Figure 2 (page 70).
Since the Dutch company DuyvisWiener joined with F.B.Lehmann
and Thouet, they are also in a position to supply complete lines
consisting of refiners and Thouet-conches. Interesting for smaller
companies is the F.B.Lehmann 5-roll-refiner with integrated ‘micro’-2-
roller9. Nevertheless also here one refiner would need several hours to fill station the recipe is completed by liquid components. The wall scraper
a large 6-t-conch, which can only be solved by always having one
machine idle or by using at least two smaller conches. For very small
scale or test production the company also builds a pilot scale 5RR with
50cm rolls and 3-rollers.
Another solution for smaller companies or for niche products is
offered by BSA-Schneider, an established conch builder, who since
recently also builds refiners. Their CHOCompact system combines a
small 5-roll-refiner with a conch10 (see Figure 3, page 71). Only one
machine is operating at the time, so the conch has to wait for the refiner
and vice versa. There are several other companies building refiners, e.g.
Carle&Montanari-OPM11, HDM-Petzholdt-Heidenauer12 and conches such
as Thouet13 and Lipp Mischtechnik14.
Continuous conching
Petzholdt-Heidenauer, now part of the Probat group, carries forward the
long experience on continuous conching dating back to the 1970s. The
solution currently offered is based on using conventional 5-roll-refiners.
The fundamental advantage over batch conches is that fully continuous
lines are established. On the other hand side a minimum throughput of
1,250kg/h is required over a longer time, so the process is not suitable for
frequent recipe change or smaller companies.
The process is shown in Figure 4 (page 71). Refiner flakes are
© Bühler AG
transferred into the feed hopper, its filling level controls speed of
the feed screw and compensates supply variations. While some
cocoa butter is added, the screw feeds the pasting columns. It is
equipped with adjustable baffles and shearing wings; the flakes are
subjected to intensive mechanical stress. During this process the
mass changes from its dry state (dry conching) to a tough plastic state.
Cleaned conditioned air is supplied by fan. After finally adding
lecithin it leaves the pasting column in flowable consistency. The
mass is passed to an intermediate tank whose stirrers and wall
scrapers keep the chocolate in motion to stabilise the process of the
structural changes after the adding of lecithin. Process air, loaded
with volatile and undesired flavour is separated. In the weighing
of the vessel prepares already a pre-mixture. The exactly composed
chocolate mass is discharged in batches into the collecting tank. There it
is further mixed and cooled. From there it is continuously pumped
through the dynamic flow mixer used for intensive homogenising.
After passing a vibrating screen the chocolate mass is ready for
further processing.
According to Petzholdt-Heidenauer, advantages are:
 Specific energy density in a continuous conche is much higher than
in any kind of batch conch, because high energy input is related to
small conching space, where ‘nearly 100 per cent of the particles are
under treatment at the same time’
 High efficiency rate of the energy employed to effect the
structural changes
 High specific surface of the processed chocolate mass as a
precondition for intensive exchange reactions with the supplied
ambient air
 High degree of precise and equal mechanical stress on all particles of
the chocolate.
The device holds 450 to 500kg, which results in residence times of 15-20
minutes in the conch and 4-5 minutes in the column. Energy density is up

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 CHOCOLATE PROCESSING

to 1200 kW/t and energy input 70 to 90 kWh/t. The

© Shaiith / Shutterstock.com
modular structure allows us to extend the plant
step by step.
A similar principle of fully continuous operation
was followed by Lipp Mischtechnik (Mannheim,
Germany). Here the focus lies on removing
undesired water from the raw materials before
liquefaction and not during that step. This is
possible through pre-drying refiner flakes5 or milk
powder6. Downstream, the liquefaction can be
done in a very rapid batch process or continuously
using a high-speed in-line mixer14.

Macintyre system
This very unique machine resurrects the traditional
method of conching and grinding at the same time,
as we know it from the Lindt longitudinal conch1. It
consists of a double-jacket cylinder with serrated
internal surface. Spring-loaded scrapers break the
particles during rotation; volatile water and flavours
are removed by ventilation and heating.
There has been some discussion about the
optimisation of flow properties and flavour in those
machines and it has also been tried to combine it with other systems, e.g.
refiners1. It is also known, that operation is relatively noisy. An advantage
is that batch sizes between 45kg and 5t are possible, which means a lot of
flexibility for smaller companies.
© Lipp Mischtechnik GmbH
Ball milling
An alternative method to produce chocolate is using a ball mill where the
mass is milled and sheared at the same time. Although cocoa liquor is
usually ground by ball mills, those are not popular for chocolate mass in
the European industry. Nevertheless those systems are commonly used
worldwide. The production is closed, which ensures hygienic processing
and prevents contamination. Industrial-scale ball mills work
continuously. Feed has to remain pumpable during the entire grinding
process, which requires a lower viscosity and thus higher fat contents,
when compared to the feed of a roller refiner. Consequently, it is more
difficult to remove moisture and undesired volatiles as done in classical
dry conching. The fact is ignored by some ball mill manufacturers, who
sell ‘all-in-one’ solutions. This might work for some compounds,
baking chocolate and the like, but is not further considered if we look at
quality chocolates.
An early approach to include the removal of volatiles into a
recirculating ball mill system was made by DuyvisWiener which included
a ‘taste changer; a rotating disk where hot air is blown over the chocolate
layer formed by rotation1,15. These devices are still sold for small scale
applications. F.B.Lehmann, now part of DuyvisWiener, has a long
experience in building thin film evaporators and horizontal ball mills for
cocoa processing and had also offered systems for chocolate mass
production. This is continued after the merger and further processing
alternatives have been designed using devices from both subsidiaries.
So for larger continuous lines, thin film flavour treatment can be
combined either with horizontal or vertical ball mills15. Together with the

traditional refining conching solutions (see above) the company now can
offer a large variety of processing alternatives to their clients.
Recently, Bühler seems to have followed a similar strategy.
For compounds the company offers a ball mill solution called
Figure 6: Principal plant set-up of the Eco2choc® process based on the ‘coarse
SmartChoc™ with a horizontal ball mill and a shear mixer. After adding a
conching’ concept single-shaft conch for flavour treatment (light conching) the system for

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CHOCOLATE PROCESSING
small scale production (60-300g/h) is now called SmartChoc™ Plus and
allows manufacturing a variety of chocolate and compound masses16
(Figure 5, page 72).
Another system is offered by Netzsch17; it comes in variations for
smaller companies (batch size 25-300 kg/h, called ChocoEasy) and also
for larger production (batch size 750-6000kg, then called Rumba). After
pre-grinding sugar by an impact mill the raw materials are mixed in a
conch, where hot air is applied for flavour treatment during dry conching.
After that the mass is liquefied by adding cocoa butter and then
ground by circulation through a horizontal ball mill. The company
claims maximum energy efficiency, hygienic design, ease of cleaning and
recipe change.
After building highly reputed conches, batch and in-line mixers for a
long time, Lipp Mischtechnik has now developed a complete chocolate
line called Eco2choc® (Figure 6, page 73). It is based on the ‘coarse
conching’ processing concept. Development and optimisation are
described in7; research has also shown that milk chocolate of good flow
properties and taste can be produced. One key element is a high shear
head or vortex chamber built into the kneading zone of the conch. It
intensifies mass and energy transfer, but also reduces particle size of
crystal sugar to approximately 300µm – thus no pre-grinding device is
necessary. Coarse conching time can be short if just drying is needed, e.g.
for white chocolate or milk chocolate with small quantities or high
quality cocoa mass. If a stronger treatment is necessary, e.g. for flavour
development of dark chocolate, this can be achieved by increasing
energy input and time. The dry and pasty conching is generally done at
low fat contents in order to improve volatilisation. Fat and other
ingredients are added then and grinding can be performed from a buffer
mixer by two vertical ball mills with an intermediate cooler. The latter
helps to keep temperature of sensitive products below the desired level,
e.g. when recipes contain lactose and glass transition during milling
must be avoided. The process can be downsized for small production
scale, then it consists of a conch with vortex chamber, a ball mill and a
pump for circulation.
Discussion
One of the first things a chocolate producer has to consider are the
influences of recipe, ingredients and particles on chocolate mass
properties as discussed above. First of all, if raw material cost is less
important, e.g. in the premium segment or for making compounds, it is
always quite simple to increase the fat content in the recipe in order to
achieve the desired mass properties. Also the taste can be largely
influenced by choosing the right ingredients. In those cases, processing
technology becomes less important and most of the systems on the
market will be able to produce the desired quality.
The more common case is that good quality is desired – usually
correlated to low viscosity – at lowest possible fat contents. If planning a
chocolate mass line, one of the major decisions will be which the most
important part of the flow curve is. If low shear downstream applications
like moulding are in the focus, low yield values are important; here ball
milling could be an advantage. On contrary, if the mass has to move fast,
for example, if pumped or sprayed infinite viscosity is more important
and roller refiners might be preferential.
Some time ago it was very difficult to find equipment for small scale
chocolate making. This has changed; now there are a number of ball
New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014
mill-based systems on the market and also smaller scale roll refiners
have been developed. Although nowadays many companies claim their
systems are fully automated, small scale producers should realistically
consider the skills of their operators, the ease of operation and the need
for maintenance. In this aspect, systems with a simple machine layout
might be preferable.
For medium- and large-scale producers there are a wide range of
technical options. The varying needs of chocolate producers and the
various advantages and disadvantages of the systems on the market
make it impossible to give a general recommendation. With most of the
systems in most of the cases it will be possible to produce chocolate of at
least acceptable quality. Fine-tuning and final choice has to be made in
every single case; it is always both recipe and process that influences final
quality and there is no ‘out-of-the-box’ solution. So the best possible
advice might be:
 Think carefully about your needs in terms of product properties,
taste, flow properties, economy and flexibility
 Then pre-select a number of possible systems/suppliers
 Then run enough tests on their machines with your own recipe in
order to make a qualified final decision.
About the Author
Prof. Dr. Siegfried Bolenz studied food engineering in
Stuttgart-Hohenheim and started his career 1989 in a fruit juice
company while studying for his PhD. From 1992-1997 he
worked with Kraft-Jacobs-Suchard (now Mondeléz) in R&D on
various dairy, food and chocolate process development
projects. Since 1997 he has been professor of food technology
at the Neubrandenburg University of Applied Sciences, where
he teaches dairy, confectionery and beverage technology, product and process
development. One research focus is chocolate processing, where he cooperates
with various companies and has published a number of papers and patents.
For further information visit: www.hs-nb.de/ppages/bolenz-siegfried.
References
1. Beckett ST (2009) Industrial chocolate manufacture and use. Wiley, Chichester
2. Bolenz S, Kutschke E, Lipp E (2008) Using extra dry milk ingredients for accelerated conching
of milk chocolate. Eur Food Res Technol 227: 1677–1685
3. Windhab EJ (1995) Rheology in food processing. (Chapter 5 in Physico-chemical Aspects of
Food Processing ISBN 0751402400). Chapman & Hall, London, pp 80–115
4. Bolenz S, Manske A (2013) Impact of fat content during grinding on particle size distribution
and flow properties of milk chocolate. Eur Food Res Technol 236: 863–872
5. Bolenz S, Kutschke E, Lipp E, Senkpiehl A (2007) Pre-dried Refiner Flakes Allow Very Short or
Even Continuous Conching of Milk Chocolate, Eur Food Res Technol 226:153–160
6. Bolenz S, Kutschke E, Lipp E (2008) Using extra dry milk ingredients for accelerated conching
of milk chocolate. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 227: 1677-1685
7. Bolenz S, Manske A, Langer M (2014): Improvement of process parameters and evaluation of
milk chocolates made by the new coarse conching process , Eur Food Res Technol
238: 863–874
8. www.buhlergroup.com/europe/en/industry-solutions/processed-
food/chocolate/chocolate-mass.html
9. www.fblehmann.com/chocolate-processing/refining/5-roll-refiner
10. www.chocompact.com/
11. www.cm-opm.com/en/applications/cocoa-chocolate/a4_1
12. www.petzholdt-heidenauer.de/chocolate.htm
13. www.thouet.com/chocolate-processing
14. www.lippmischtechnik.de/en/produkte/conchier-maschinen/
15. www.duyviswiener.com/chocolate-processing
16. www.buhlergroup.com/europe/en/about-buehler/events/interpack-2014/interpack-2014-
exhibits-at-a-glance.htm
17. www.netzsch-grinding.com/en/confectionery-division/home.html
74 www.newfoodmagazine.com
 Chocolate and beyond
Barry Callebaut is ready for a sugar-reduced future
Lots of things have already been said about sugar. But did you catch up on the
most important fact: that it’s perfectly possible to live in a world without added
sugar? Or in a world with less sugar? In this world, chocolate and cocoa products
can be as tasty and delicious as ever, rest assured.

Facts and figures sugar-free, calorie-reduced, protein enriched,

There’s no use denying it: figures do not lie. Acticoa™, and many other varieties of chocolate and
According to recent data from the World Health chocolate applications. Sounds complicated?
Organization (WHO), one in four people are It needn’t be!
overweight today and one in 10 will be obese in
2015. More than 347 million people suffer from
diabetes worldwide. Alarmed by these shouting
numbers, there is a need to reduce sugar in our
diets. Pressure groups are arising around the
world, governments are imposing sugar taxes,
and the WHO has made new guidelines for
daily sugar intake.

To help you navigate this vast chocolate

landscape, all possibilities are grouped into four
clear and distinct consumer choices: rational,
recommended, parental and emotional choices.
These profiles are covering all possible eating
behaviors, food choices and related chocolate
and cocoa products.

Taste the future

Barry Callebaut is fully aware of all available facts
and figures, and has a long tradition of in-depth and
innovating research. Since 1990, Barry Callebaut has
monitored new trends, technologies and health
requirements. Continuously seeking new solutions
and sensations, Barry Callebaut reformulates
chocolate in a responsible way, without
compromising on good taste.
Chocolate answers
As a result of extensive research, the window has
1. Balanced chocolate is the solution for those
been cast wide open upon a whole range of
who make a rational choice. It’s chocolate
possibilities: sugar-reduced, without added sugar,
for the consumer that wants to take care of
their body and chooses the light-in-sugar or
light-in-calories option.
2. Kid’s chocolate is chocolate for the consumers
of the future. Children can be raised with the
taste of sugar-reduced products, so why not
shape their taste buds while we can. Kid’s
chocolate is the result of a parental choice,
made by parents who want their children to
develop healthy eating habits.
3. Functional chocolate is the translation of a
recommended choice, for people that have
been advised to watch what they eat (due to
intolerances and so on).
4. Of course there will always be the classic
chocolate for special moments of pleasure; a
pure emotional choice for pure indulgence, as
part of a balanced diet and a healthy lifestyle.
Chocolate moments
And just like there is a special kind of chocolate for
everybody, there is also chocolate for every
moment. Breakfast, snack at 10am, lunch, energy
refill at 4pm, dinner, evening treat… chocolate
comes in all possible applications, including
cereals, biscuits, bakery goods, ice cream, dairy
drinks, and so on.
Barry Callebaut’s goal is to make chocolate,
and all possible chocolate applications, enjoyable
for everyone in each of those moments, without
fear and without feeling guilty.

For more information see: www.barry-callebaut.com

 In a nutshell
Doug Baldwin, Vice President of the Food and Industrial
Products Division at Wenger Manufacturing Inc., discusses
recent developments in low-shear extrusion

Recognised as a world leader with nearly 80 years of experience in providing technologies for extruded grains and
cereals, Wenger Manufacturing continues to explore possibilities and bring new innovations to the industry.
Recent developments have expanded the role extrusion can play in replacing traditional cereal processing methods.

“Extrusion processing can offer numerous advantages over conventional
methods for preparing cooked, ready-to-eat food products,” says
Doug Baldwin, Vice President of the Food and Industrial Products
Division at Wenger Manufacturing. Examples of those benefits include
processing time, consistency, reduced energy and labour requirements,
and improved food safety.
Focusing on the extrusion of cooked cereal grains and the new
opportunities available with recent technical developments, Baldwin
explains that some of these products, such as highly expanded snacks,
cereals, infant cereals and porridges are perfectly suited to the
high-shear extrusion processing typically associated with most single-
screw and some twin-screw processes. Other products, such as extruded
breakfast cereal flakes, require processing with much lower levels of
mechanical energy, in order to avoid the destruction of starches that
occur in high-shear environments.
Baldwin reveals that gelatinisation of starch granules occur as a
function of moisture, heat, time or chemical modification. “Traditional
extrusion cooking of cereal grains results in mechanical damage to the
starch granules, giving varying levels of cold water soluble starch and
depressed final viscosities. In some final products, this starch damage
results in undesirable characteristics, such as the shortened bowl life of
flaked cereals,” he says.
“Mechanical energy is dissipated into the extruder in the form
of heat caused by shear or friction generated by pumping or
conveying inefficiencies. On one end of the spectrum we have the
traditional small, single-screw extruder intended for use in expanded
snack products, typically operated in a relatively ‘dry’ state, relying
primarily on this mechanical energy (i.e. friction) to carry out the
gelatinisation of the starch prior to exiting the extruder die orifice.
This same methodology can be employed for other cooked cereals –
such as infant foods, which are intended to be instantly hydrated in water
or milk for consumption, without any further cooking required.
In a ‘medium’ shear environment, the extrudate would typically be
processed at a higher moisture content, and would rely on a mix of
thermal and mechanical energy to achieve the desired level of cook.
Water would typically be injected into the extruder barrel to facilitate
textural development, viscosity development and to enhance
conductive heat transfer.”
Until recently, the potential of a true ‘low’ shear extrusion process
has been limited by the extruder technology available, but Baldwin
explains that this requirement has been addressed through the recent
development of the Wenger Thermal Twin extruder system: “Previous
technology would typically operate with a thermal to mechanical energy
ratio of 3:1. New screw, barrel and steam injection components of this
revolutionary extrusion process allows the utilisation of greater amounts
of thermal energy, providing significantly increased ratios – up to 30:1 for
some applications.
“Due to its more ‘natural’ cooking process, compared to high-
shear cook, Thermal Twin technology promises the ability to produce
non-conventional products not previously possible through known
extrusion processes.”
With process flexibility designed into the Thermal Twin cooking
system, the specific mechanical energy inputs can be lowered
dramatically when extrusion cooking cereal grains. These materials can
still be completely cooked, but since the primary energy source is
thermal energy, the amount of starch damage is greatly reduced.
Additionally, the starch gelatinisation levels of the thermally extruded
and cooked materials can be controlled from 50 to 95 per cent by varying
the level of direct steam injection.
“An integral part of the Thermal Twin processing package is the new
High Intensity Preconditioner (HIP),” says Baldwin. “Thanks to two
independently driven shafts, which offer both speed and rotational
direction control, the Wenger HIP allows a wide range of capacities,
mixing intensities and retention times. All of which are tools at the
disposal of the processor to precisely influence the operating parameters
required to meet the desired final product characteristics.
“Extrusion processing has always allowed for a wide range of
ingredients to be processed into desirable final products. The Thermal
Twin extrusion process extends this range of product possibilities even
further. One example of this is the development of extruded masa flours
for tortilla production, providing a continuous, cost-effective and
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional processing.”
The Thermal Twin cooking extruder and the process for extrusion
cooking of cereal grains having limited cold-water viscosity are patent
pending. For additional information regarding this process, contact
Wenger Manufacturing at: info@wenger.com

New Food, Volume 17, Issue 5, 2014 76 www.newfoodmagazine.com

 Excellent firms don’t believe in excellence
- only in constant improvement and constant change.
—Tom Peters

Is it time to shift production to a more favorable continuous process?

You can get higher levels of thermal energy than ever thought
possible – for a more gentle cooking process compared to high-shear
cook. With Wenger’s Thermal Twin Screw Extruder, products high
in corn or rice content are processed without the stickiness typically
encountered in conventional extrusion systems. The Thermal Twin
design allows ingredients to be fully cooked without damage to the
starch or protein matrix.

Contact us now for details on the revolutionary Thermal Twin Screw

Extruder Series to learn how it can transform your process and your
bottom line.

Turning ideas into opportunities.

PROGRESSIVE FOOD PROCESSING

Imagine the possibilities

wenger.com

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