Hydrofoil

A hydrofoil is a lifting surface, or foil, that operates in water.

They are similar in appearance and purpose to aerofoils used by
aeroplanes. Boats that use hydrofoil technology are also simply
termed hydrofoils. As a hydrofoil craft gains speed, the
hydrofoils lift the boat's hull out of the water, decreasing drag and
allowing greater speeds.

Contents The US Navy's XCH-4, with

hydrofoils clearly lifting the hull out of
Description
the water
Hydrodynamic mechanics
Foil configurations
History
Prototypes
First passenger boats
Military usage
Sailing and sports
Modern passenger boats
Current operation
Discontinued operations
Disadvantages
See also
References
External links

Description
The hydrofoil usually consists of a wing like structure mounted on struts below the hull, or across the
keels of a catamaran in a variety of boats (see illustration). As a hydrofoil-equipped watercraft increases
in speed, the hydrofoil elements below the hull(s) develop enough lift to raise the hull out of the water,
which greatly reduces hull drag. This provides a corresponding increase in speed and fuel efficiency.

Wider adoption of hydrofoils is prevented by the increased complexity of building and maintaining them.
Hydrofoils are generally prohibitively more expensive than conventional watercraft above the certain
displacement, so most hydrofoil craft are relatively small, and are mainly used as high-speed passenger
ferries, where the relatively high passenger fees can offset the high cost of the craft itself. However, the
design is simple enough that there are many human-powered hydrofoil designs. Amateur experimentation
and development of the concept is popular.[1]
Hydrodynamic mechanics
Since air and water are
governed by similar fluid
equations—albeit with
different levels of viscosity,
density, and compressibility
—the hydrofoil and airfoil
(both types of foil) create lift
in identical ways. The foil
shape moves smoothly
through the water, deflecting
the flow downward, which,
following the Euler
equations, exerts an upward
force on the foil. This turning
of the water creates higher
pressure on the bottom of the
foil and reduced pressure on
the top. This pressure
difference is accompanied by
a velocity difference, via
Bernoulli's principle, so the
resulting flow field about the The two types of hydrofoils: surface-piercing and fully submerged
foil has a higher average
velocity on one side than the
other.

When used as a lifting element on a hydrofoil boat, this upward force lifts the body of the vessel,
decreasing drag and increasing speed. The lifting force eventually balances with the weight of the craft,
reaching a point where the hydrofoil no longer lifts out of the water but remains in equilibrium. Since
wave resistance and other impeding forces such as various types of drag (physics) on the hull are
eliminated as the hull lifts clear, turbulence and drag act increasingly on the much smaller surface area of
the hydrofoil, and decreasingly on the hull, creating a marked increase in speed.[2]

Foil configurations
Early hydrofoils used V-shaped foils. Hydrofoils of this type are known as "surface-piercing" since
portions of the V-shape hydrofoils rise above the water surface when foilborne. Some modern hydrofoils
use fully submerged inverted T-shape foils. Fully submerged hydrofoils are less subject to the effects of
wave action, and, therefore, more stable at sea and more comfortable for crew and passengers. This type
of configuration, however, is not self-stabilizing. The angle of attack on the hydrofoils must be adjusted
continuously to changing conditions, a control process performed by sensors, a computer, and active
surfaces.

History
Prototypes
The first evidence of a hydrofoil on a vessel appears on a British
patent granted in 1869 to Emmanuel Denis Farcot, a Parisian. He
claimed that "adapting to the sides and bottom of the vessel a
series or inclined planes or wedge formed pieces, which as the
vessel is driven forward will have the effect of lifting it in the
water and reducing the draught."[3]. Italian inventor Enrico
Forlanini began work on hydrofoils in 1898 and used a "ladder" Forlanini's hydrofoil over Lake
foil system. Forlanini obtained patents in Britain and the United Maggiore, 1906
States for his ideas and designs.[4][5]

Between 1899 and 1901, British boat designer John Thornycroft worked on a series of models with a
stepped hull and single bow foil. In 1909 his company built the full scale 22-foot (6.7 m) long boat,
Miranda III. Driven by a 60 hp (45 kW) engine, it rode on a bowfoil and flat stern. The subsequent
Miranda IV was credited with a speed of 35 kn (65 km/h; 40 mph).[6]

A March 1906 Scientific American article by American hydrofoil

pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of
hydrofoils. Alexander Graham Bell considered the invention of
the hydroplane (now regarded as a distinct type, but also
employing lift) a very significant achievement, and after reading
the article began to sketch concepts of what is now called a
hydrofoil boat. With his chief engineer Casey Baldwin, Bell
began hydrofoil experiments in the summer of 1908. Baldwin
studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and
Alexander Graham Bell's HD-4 on a
began testing models based on those designs, which led to the
test run, c.1919
development of hydrofoil watercraft. During Bell's world tour of
1910–1911, Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy, where
they rode in his hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying.

On returning to Bell's large laboratory at his Beinn Bhreagh estate near Baddeck, Nova Scotia, they
experimented with a number of designs, culminating in Bell's HD-4. Using Renault engines, a top speed
of 87 km/h (47 kn; 54 mph) was achieved, accelerating rapidly, taking waves without difficulty, steering
well and showing good stability. Bell's report to the United States Navy permitted him to obtain two
260 kW (350 hp) engines. On 9 September 1919 the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of 114 km/h
(62 kn; 71 mph), which stood for two decades.[7] A full-scale replica of the HD-4 is viewable at the
Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site museum in Baddeck, Nova Scotia.

In the early 1950s an English couple built the White Hawk, a jet-powered hydrofoil water craft, in an
attempt to beat the absolute water speed record.[8] However, in tests, White Hawk could barely top the
record breaking speed of the 1919 HD-4. The designers had faced an engineering phenomenon that limits
the top speed of even modern hydrofoils: cavitation disturbs the lift created by the foils as they move
through the water at speed above 60 kn (110 km/h; 69 mph), bending the lifting foil.[9]

First passenger boats

German engineer Hanns von Schertel worked on hydrofoils prior
to and during World War II in Germany. After the war, the
Russians captured Schertel's team. As Germany was not
authorized to build fast boats, Schertel went to Switzerland,
where he established the Supramar company. In 1952, Supramar
launched the first commercial hydrofoil, PT10 "Freccia d'Oro"
(Golden Arrow), in Lake Maggiore, between Switzerland and
Italy. The PT10 is of surface-piercing type, it can carry 32
passengers and travel at 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph). In 1968, the
Bahraini born banker Hussain Najadi acquired the Supramar AG
and expanded its operations into Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore,
the UK, Norway and the US. General Dynamics of the United
States became its licensee, and the Pentagon awarded its first
R&D naval research project in the field of supercavitation.
Hitachi Shipbuilding of Osaka, Japan, was another licensee of
Supramar, as well as many leading ship owners and shipyards in
the OECD countries.
A schematic illustration of self-
From 1952 to 1971, Supramar designed many models of stabilizing systems for fully
hydrofoils: PT20, PT50, PT75, PT100 and PT150. All are of submerged hydrofoils. Its computer
gathers data for the boom position
surface-piercing type, except the PT150 combining a surface-
and current water level to determine
piercing foil forward with a fully submerged foil in the aft the required flap position.
location. Over 200 of Supramar's design were built, most of them
by Rodriquez in Sicily, Italy.

During the same period the Soviet Union experimented extensively with hydrofoils, constructing
hydrofoil river boats and ferries with streamlined designs during the cold war period and into the 1980s.
Such vessels include the Raketa (1957) type, followed by the larger Meteor type and the smaller Voskhod
type. One of the most successful Soviet designer/inventor in this area was Rostislav Alexeyev, who some
consider the 'father' of the modern hydrofoil due to his 1950s era high speed hydrofoil designs. Later,
circa 1970s, Alexeyev combined his hydrofoil experience with the surface effect principle to create the
Ekranoplan.

In 1961, SRI International issued a study on "The Economic Feasibility of Passenger Hydrofoil Craft in
US Domestic and Foreign Commerce".[10] Commercial use of hydrofoils in the US first appeared in 1961
when two commuter vessels were commissioned by Harry Gale Nye, Jr.'s North American Hydrofoils to
service the route from Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey to the financial district of Lower Manhattan.[11]

Military usage
A 17-ton German craft VS-6 Hydrofoil was designed and constructed in 1940, completed in 1941 for use
as a mine layer, it was tested in the Baltic Sea, producing speeds of 47 knots. Tested against a standard E-
boat over the next three years it performed well but was not brought into production. Being faster it could
carry a higher payload and was capable of travelling over minefields but was prone to damage and
noisier.[12]
In Canada during World War II, Baldwin worked on an
experimental smoke laying hydrofoil (later called the Comox
Torpedo) that was later superseded by other smoke-laying
technology and an experimental target-towing hydrofoil. The
forward two foil assemblies of what is believed to be the latter
hydrofoil were salvaged in the mid-1960s from a derelict hulk in
Baddeck, Nova Scotia by Colin MacGregor Stevens. These were
donated to the Maritime Museum in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The
A Project 206M "Shtorm" (NATO:
Canadian Armed Forces built and tested a number of hydrofoils Turya class) patrol fast attack craft
(e.g., Baddeck and two vessels named Bras d'Or), which hydrofoil of the Cuban Navy.
culminated in the high-speed anti-submarine hydrofoil HMCS
Bras d'Or in the late 1960s. However, the program was cancelled
in the early 1970s due to a shift away from anti-submarine
warfare by the Canadian military. The Bras d'Or was a surface-
piercing type that performed well during her trials, reaching a
maximum speed of 63 knots (117 km/h).

The USSR introduced several hydrofoil-based fast attack craft

into their navy, principally:

Sarancha class missile boat, a unique vessel built in the Aerial port beam view of the Italian
1970s Sparviero class hydrofoil-missile
Turya class torpedo boat, introduced in 1972 and still in NIBBIO P-421 underway.
service
Matka class missile boat, introduced in the 1980s and
still in service
Muravey class patrol boat, introduced in the 1980s and
still in service
The US Navy began experiments with hydrofoils in the mid-
1950s by funding a sailing vessel that used hydrofoils to reach
speeds in the 30 mph range.[13] The XCH-4 (officially,
Experimental Craft, Hydrofoil No. 4), designed by William P.
Carl, exceeded speeds of 65 mph (56 kn; 105 km/h) and was
mistaken for a seaplane due to its shape.[14] The US Navy USS Aquila, a military hydrofoil. The
implemented a small number of combat hydrofoils, such as the T-shaped foils are visible just below
Pegasus class, from 1977 through 1993. These hydrofoils were the water.
fast and well armed.[15]

The Italian Navy has used six hydrofoils of the Sparviero class since the late 1970s. These were armed
with a 76 mm gun and two missiles, and were capable of speeds up to 50 knots (93 km/h). Three similar
boats were built for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force.

Sailing and sports

The French experimental sail powered hydrofoil Hydroptère is the result of a research project that
involves advanced engineering skills and technologies. In September 2009, the Hydroptère set new
sailcraft world speed records in the 500 m category, with a speed of 51.36 knots (95.12 km/h) and in the
1 nautical mile (1852 m) category with a speed of 50.17 knots (92.91 km/h).[16][17]
Another trimaran sailboat is the Windrider Rave.[18] The Rave is
a commercially available 17-foot (5.2 m), two person, hydrofoil
trimaran, capable of reaching speeds of 40 kn (74 km/h). The
boat was designed by Jim Brown.

The Moth dinghy has evolved into some radical foil

configurations.

Hobie Sailboats produced a production foiling trimaran, the HMCS Bras d'Or, a military concept
Hobie Trifoiler, the fastest production sailboat. Trifoilers have hydrofoil.
clocked speeds upward of thirty knots.

A new kayak design, called Flyak, has hydrofoils that lift the kayak enough to significantly reduce drag,
allowing speeds of up to 27 km/h (17 mph). Some surfers have developed surfboards with hydrofoils
called foilboards, specifically aimed at surfing big waves further out to sea.[19]

Quadrofoil Q2 is a two-seater, four-foiled hydrofoil electrical

leisure watercraft. Its initial design was set in 2012 and it has
been available commercially since the end of 2016. Powered by a
5.2-kWh lithium-ion battery pack and propelled by a 5.5 kW
motor, it reaches the top speed of 40 km/h and has 80 km of
range.[20][21][22]

The Manta5 Hydrofoiler XE-1 is a Hydrofoil E-bike, designed Quadrofoil is an electric hydrofoil
designed for leisure.
and built in New Zealand. Initially designed in secret by Guy
Howard-Willis in 2011, it has since been available commercially
for pre-order in New Zealand since late 2017[23] Propelled by a 400 watt motor, it can reach speeds
exceeding 14 km/h with a weight of 22 kg. A single charge of the battery lasts an hour for a rider
weighing 85kg.[24]

Modern passenger boats

Soviet-built Voskhods are one of the most successful passenger
hydrofoil designs. Manufactured in Russia and Ukraine, they are
in service in more than 20 countries. The most recent model,
Voskhod-2M FFF, also known as Eurofoil, was built in Feodosiya
for the Dutch public transport operator Connexxion.[27]

The Boeing 929 is widely used in Asia for passenger services Ukrainian-built Voskhod on the North
Sea Canal, the Netherlands
between the many islands of Japan, between Hong Kong and
Macau and on the Korean peninsula.

Current operation
Current operators of hydrofoils include:

TurboJET service, which speeds passengers across the Pearl River Delta between Hong
Kong and Macau in less than an hour, with an average speed of 45 knots (83 km/h), mainly
using Boeing's Jetfoil. Also services Shenzhen, Guangzhou and Kowloon. Operated by
Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited.
Voskhod and Polesye service between Tulcea and
Sulina on the Danube.
Meteor and Polesye service in Poland between
Szczecin and Świnoujście.
Cometa service between Nizhneangarsk and Irkutsk on
the Lake Baikal.
Cometa service between Vladivostok and Slavyanka.
Polesye service between Mozyr and Turov on the
Pripyat River (Belarus).
Meteor service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and TurboJET's Urzela JetFoil on West
the Peterhof Palace, a summer palace of Russian tsars. Lamma Channel, Hong Kong

Meteor service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and

the Kronstadt, a strongly fortified Russian seaport town,
located on Kotlin Island, near the head of the Gulf of
Finland. It lies thirty kilometers west of Saint
Petersburg. Since 2012 replaced by a catamaran
Mercury.
Meteor, Raketa and Voskhod hydrofoil types operate all
over Volga, Don and Kama Rivers in Russia. Also the
Lena River and Amur River.
Meteor hydrofoils are operated by a number of tour
operators in Croatia, mostly for packaged tours, but TurboJET's Barca Foilcat
there are also some scheduled services to islands in
Adriatic.
Hydrofoils are regularly operated on the three major
Italian lakes by branches of the Ministry of Infrastructure
and Transport: Navigazione Lago Maggiore services
routes on Lake Maggiore between Locarno and Arona,
Navigazione Lago di Como services routes on Lake
Como, and Navigazione Lago di Garda services routes
on Lake Garda. Three units of the Rodriquez RHS150
type operate on each lake, for a total of nine hydrofoils.
Navigazione Lago di Como still operates the last Flying Poseidon (built 1982[25]) had
Rodriquez RHS70 in active service in Italy. just berthed at Rhodes from Fethiye
Former Russian hydrofoils are used in southern Italy for when the sister Kometas hydrofoil[26]
connection with islands of Lazio and Campania. SNAV from Bodrum also arrived from
has five RHS200, RHS160 and RHS150 used in the Turkey in 2011.
connections between Naples and the islands of Capri
and Ischia.
A regular hydrofoil service runs from Istanbul to Yalova.
Hellenic Seaways operate their Flying Dolphins service
over many routes in the Aegean, between the
Cyclades, Saronic Gulf islands such as Aegina and
Poros, and Athens.
Meteor (2), Polesye (4) and Voskhod (3) hydrofoil types
operate in Hungary. MAHART PassNave Ltd. operates
scheduled hydrofoil liners between Budapest, Bratislava
and Vienna, inland liners between Budapest and the Hydrofoil high-speed boat docking in
Danube Bend, and theme cruises to Komárom, Solt, St. Petersburg, Russia from a run to
Kalocsa and Mohács. Peterhof Palace.
 "Kometa" Flying Dolphin services are currently operated
by Joy Cruises between Corfu and Paxos. They run
from Corfu Port to Gaios using two hydrofoils: Ilida and
Ilida II. The company operates also an international
service from Corfu to Saranda (Albania) using the
hydrofoil Ilida Dolphin of the same type.
"Kometa" type hydrofoils (registered in Albania) are
operated by Ionian Cruises and Finikas Lines between
Passenger hydrofoil "Flying Dolphin
Saranda and Corfu.
Zeus" moving at high speed near
Russian hydrofoils of the Kometa type operated on the Piraeus, Greece.
Bulgarian Black Sea Coast connecting Varna, Nesebar,
Burgas, Sozopol, Primorsko, and Tsarevo, and Raketa
and Meteor models served the Bulgarian Danube ports
between Rousse and Vidin. Both services were discontinued in the 1990s. In 2011 the
service reopened between Varna, Nesebar, Burgas and Sozopol, operated by Bulgarian
Hydrofoils Ltd.
Vietnamese Greenline Company operates hourly shuttle service between Ho Chi Minh city,
Vung Tau and Con Dao island. Hydrofoil lines using the Russian-built Meteor type also
connect Hai Phong, Ha Long and Mong Cai in North Vietnam, Phan Thiet and Phu Quy
Island and between Rach Gia and Phu Quoc Island in the South.
The service between Busan, South Korea and Fukuoka, Japan is operated by two
companies. Japanese JR Kyūshū Jet Ferry operates Beetle five times a day. Korean
Miraejet operates Kobee three to four times a day. All of their fleets are Boeing 929.
As of February 2008, all of the commercial lines in Japan use Boeing 929. The routes
include:
Sado Kisen operates the route between Sado and Niigata.
Tōkai Kisen operates Seven Islands, running between Tokyo and Izu Islands, via
Tateyama or Yokosuka. The destinations include Izu Ōshima, Toshima, Niijima,
Shikinejima, and Kōzushima. The same ship also links Atami and Izu Ōshima.
Kyūshū Yūsen operates the route between Fukuoka, Iki, and the two ports of Tsushima.
Kyūshū Shōsen operates the route between Nagasaki and the two of Gotō Islands,
namely Fukuejima and Nakadōrijima.
Kagoshima Shōsen and Cosmo Line operate the various routes between Kagoshima
and Tanegashima or Yakushima.
In 2012, Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department (AFCD) in Hong Kong leased
a 12-meter HAWC (Hydrofoil Assisted Water Craft), a catamaran, to patrol the Geo Park, a
UNESCO Sanctioned Marine Park in the Sai Kung areas off Hong Kong.
In July 2018, the new generation Kometa 120M boat has started operation on the busy
Sevastopol-Yalta route in Crimea, with the plans to add two more and possible other routes
in 2019.

Discontinued operations
Until 31 December 2013, Fast Flying Ferries operated by Connexxion provided a regular
public transport service over the North Sea Canal between Amsterdam Central Station and
Velsen-Zuid in the Netherlands, using Voskhod 2M hydrofoils. It was stopped due to a new
speed limit.
Between 1981 and 1990, "Transmediterranea" used to operate a service of hydrofoils
connecting Ceuta and Algeciras in the Strait of Gibraltar. The crossing took half an hour, in
comparison to the hour and a half of conventional ferries. Due to the common extreme
winds and storms that take place in winter in the Strait of Gibraltar, the service was replaced
 in 1990 by catamarans, which were also able to carry cars. At the peak of the year, in
summer, there was a service every half an hour in each direction. This high-speed
connection had a big impact on the development of Ceuta, facilitating one-day business
trips to mainland Spain.
Between 1964 and 1991 the Sydney hydrofoils operated on Sydney Harbour between
Circular Quay and Manly.
During 70s and 80s there were frequent services between Belgrade and Tekija in Đerdap
gorge. The distance 0f 220 km (120 nmi; 140 mi) was covered in 3 hours and 30 minutes
downstream and 4 hours upstream.[28]
Between 1980 and 1981, B+I Line operated a Boeing 929 jetfoil, named Cú Na Mara
(Hound of the Sea), between Liverpool and Dublin. The service was not successful and was
discontinued at the end of the 1981 season.[29]
See also the history of Condor Ferries, which operated six hydrofoil ferries over a 29-year period
between the Channel Islands, south coast of England and Saint-Malo.

Following the independence of Estonia in the 1990s, the regular ferry service between
Helsinki and Tallinn was augmented by Soviet built hydrofoils during the summer season in
periods of good weather. The higher speed service competed with the traditional ro-ro
ferries but allowed easy day trips for pedestrian travellers. They were ultimately replaced
with high-speed catamarans that could also carry vehicles and have better seaworthiness;
however, the latter ceased operations as the operator filed for bankruptcy in May 2018.[30]

Disadvantages
Hydrofoils had their peak in popularity in the 1960s and 70s. Since then there has been a steady decline
in their use and popularity for leisure, military and commercial passenger transport use. There are a
number of reasons for this:

Hydrofoils are sensitive to impacts with floating objects and marine animals. On hitting
something, a hydrofoil boat may fall off the foils, which often creates a perception of
increased danger. However, hydrofoils operating in Hong Kong, reportedly some of the most
littered waters, operate relatively trouble free. The Hong Kong Marine department maintains
online records of all accidents in its waters.[31]
Hydrofoils have sharp edges that reside in the water while in operation. These edges can
fatally injure marine animals (e.g., whales).
Hydrofoils are expensive to build. A vessel like the Boeing Jetfoil currently costs about three
times the price of an equivalent catamaran passenger ferry. The increased costs are not
always economically justifiable by consumers. Simpler designs such as those of Russian
design and those by Rodriquez in Italy are more competitive in price and are still being
produced today for operation on ferry routes.
It is a very conservative industry. Hydrofoils are still considered exotic by many commercial
operators of high-speed craft and many will not risk trying such exotic vessels when they
have no experience in operating them. Those that do have found benefit in their
operation.[10]
They are technically complex and require high maintenance, which has put an end to most
military hydrofoil projects. The US Navy, for example, developed some of the most
technically advanced hydrofoils, but could not make the complex propulsion systems and
ride control reliable. This eventually led to the suspension of their hydrofoil projects. Most
other Navy developments met the same fate. The Russian Navy still operates very large
hydrofoils and have been successful—largely because they opted for simpler systems that
might not have the same performance as the US designs but are more robust and reliable.
 In Hong Kong, increasing maintenance cost of keeping the aging Jetfoils running, and sharp
decrease of passenger demand after the opening of Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge is
resulting in these vessels slowly being phased out.

See also
Boeing hydrofoils
Disco Volante (ship)
Flyak – a hydrofoil kayak
Foilboard
The Hydrofoil Mystery – historical fiction
Hydroplane, a different application of lift to the hull itself
Planing (sailing)
Raketa (hydrofoil)
Riverboat
Sailing hydrofoil
Sit-down hydrofoil
Supercavitation
Trampofoil – a one-person human-powered hydrofoil
Voskhod (hydrofoil)
LISA Akoya – amphibious plane with hydrofoil assisted takeoff

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External links
Limitations of hydrofoils (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/hydrofoil-limits.
htm)
The International Hydrofoil Society (http://foils.org)
Fast CC Hydrofoil design by Prof. KG Hoppe, inventor of HYSUCAT technology patented by
University of Stellenbosch, S.A. (http://www.hysucraft.com)
Hydrofoil Assisted Water Craft employing HYSUCAT and HYSUWAC patents in their
projects and vessels currently in operation (http://www.hawctech.com)
Hysucat Design, South African originators of Hydrofoil Supported Catamaran technology (ht
tp://www.hysucat.co.za)
Swiss experimental hydrofoils (http://www.hydrofoils.ch)
HyRaii - Hydrofoil Sailboat, Student Project ETH Zurich (https://web.archive.org/web/20100
605014428/http://hyraii.ethz.ch/)

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