Contributions to Asian Studies

sp o n so r e d b y TheCanadian Association forSouth Asian Studies

C O N T R I B U T I O N S TO
AS I AN S T U D I E S
General Editor: K. Iskwaran

VOLUME5

LEIDEN
E. J . B R I L L
1974

Copyrighted material
A semi-annual publication sponsored by the Canadian Association forSouth Asian Studies

E D IT O R C O -E D IT O R
K. Ishwaran Bardweil Smith
York University Carleton College
Toronto, Canada Northfield, Minnesota
U.S.A.
ASSISTANT E D IT O R E D IT O R IA L ASSISTANT
K. Raghavendra Rao M inda A. Bojin
ADVISORY C O M M IT T E E
Aziz Ahmad Islamic Studies Toronto M andelbaum,D. Anthropology Berkeley
Basham, A. L. History Canberra Myrdal, G unnar Economics Stockholm
Eisenstadt,S.N. Sociology Jerusalem Philip, C. H. O riental and
Hsu, F. L. K. Anthropology Evanston African St. London
Kidd, J . R. O .I.S.E. Toronto Seal, Anil History Cambridge
Lam bert, R.D. South Asia
Regional St. Philadelphia
E X EC U TIV E C O U N C IL O F CASAS
Lele, Jayant President Q ueen’s Choudhary,N.K. M ember Toronto
Heinrich, Vice-President Calgary Mavalwala, J . Member Toronto
Albert
Chaudhry, Secretary/ Royal Dwivedi, O .P. Member Guelph
M.D. Treasurer M ilitary
College Wakil, P.A. Member Saskatche­
wan
K urian, George Member Calgary Ishwaran, K. Ex-Officio
Member York
O FFIC E BEARERS (1971-73)
Dobell, W. M. London, O ntario C utt, J . Canberra, Australia
Harris, Leslie St. Johns, Newfoundland Hamilton, R.E. Paris, France
Contributions to Asian Studies, a publication sponsored by the Canadian Association for South
Asian Studies, is published twice a year. Articles in the CAS represent neither the views of the
Association nor those of the editors.
Editorial: M anuscripts and communications to the editor should be addressed to: K.
Ishwaran, Departm ent of Sociology and Anthropology, York University, 4700 Keele Street,
Toronto, O ntario M3J 1P3.
Annual Membership Dues o f the Association, beginning every calendar year are $ 6.00. Institutional
membership, including Contributions to Asian Studies, S 50.00 annually. Application for member­
ship and payment of dues should be made in the nam e of the Canadian Association for South
Asian Studies and mailed to Dr. M. D. Chaudhry, D epartm ent of Political and Economic
Science, Royal M ilitary College, Kingston, O ntario K7L 2W3.
Newsletter: CASAS also publishes periodically newsletters which are now edited by Parvez
A. Wakil, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, and Dr. M. Fayyaz, Q ueen’s University,
Kingston, Ontario. A ll correspondence relating to the newsletter should be addressed to them.
Subscription and Alt Other Business Correspondence should be addressed to the publisher:
E. J . Brill, Leiden, T he Netherlands
Since the size of each volume varies, the price of each volume is not determined in advance.
Members of CASAS are allowed a 10% discount.
ISBN 90 04 03967 8
Ctpyrigh 1974 by E. J . Brill, Leiden, Netherlands
All rights reserved. No part o f this book may be reproduced or translated in any form, by print, photoprint,
microfilm, microfiche or any other means without written permission from the publisher
PRINTED IN TH E NETHERLANDS
 Contents
A. I N D I A A N D P H I L I P P I N E S :
C U L T U R E , R E L I G I O N AND R E I N C A R N A T I O N

Equal in the Eyes of God: A South Indian Devotional Group in its

Hierarchical S e t t i n g ............................. ......................................................... 1
G e o ffr ey Bu r k h a r t
Culture in Curing in Filipino Peasant Society ..................................... 15
Pqnn V. H a rt
The Notion of Cyclical Time in H i n d u i s m ............................................. 26
A r v in p S h a r m a
T he Investigation of Cases of the Reincarnation Type in India . . . . 36
I a n S t e v e n s o n , J a m u n a P r a s a d , L. P . M e h r o t r a , K. S . R a w a t

B. I N D I A , I N D O N E S I A A N D N E P A L :
P O L I T I C S AND E D U C A T I O N

Social Conditions Leading to Military Dominance: the Case of Indonesia 50

R euven K a h a n e
Education and Land in Nepal: Complementary R e f o r m s ..................... 78
H o r a c e B. R eed
Egalitarian and Technocratic Goals in Educational Growth: The View
from M y s o r e ...................................................................... ............................ 87
G lynn W ood
 The Notion of Cyclical Time in
Hinduism
ARVIND SHARMA

Harvard Divinity School, Cambridge, U .S.A.

I t IS a widely, almost universally, held view that the notion of time in

Hinduism is cyclical1 as opposed to the notion of time in the Semitic religions
(Judaism, Christianity and Islam) wherein it is linear.2

1 The wide, almost universal spread of the view that the H indu notion of time is cyclical is
attested to by the fact that it is prevalent among scholars of Comparative Religion, H indu
religion, History and Economics alike. For its prevalence among Comparative Religionists
see Mircea Eliade, The Myth o f the Eternal Return (New York: Pantheon Books, 1954), p.
112-118; Toga: Immortality and Freedom (Pantheon Books, 1958), p. 123-4 and Patterns in
Comparative Religion (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1968), p. 182; Huston Smith, The
Religions of Man (New York: H arper and Row, 1958), p. 352, etc.; R. C. Zaehncr,
Hinduism (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 5-6, 81, 137; Jam es Hastings,
Encyclopedia o f Religion and Ethics (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908), p. 210; R. N.
Bellah, ed., Religion and Progress in Modem Asia (New York: The Free Press, 1965), p. 174-5,
182-3, etc. For its prevalence among Indologists sec A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was
India (New York: H awthorn Books Inc., 1963), p. 323-4, and “Hinduism” in R. C.
Zaehncr, ed., The Concise Encyclopedia o f Living Faiths (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1959),
p. 229; W. Norman Brown, Man in the Universe (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1966), Ch. 3; H. Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization (New York:
Pantheon Books, 1946), p. 20-22 and Philosophies o f India (New York: Pantheon Books,
1953), p. 106; Ainslee T . Embree, ed., The Hindu Tradition (New York: The M odem
Library, 1966), p. 220; Rene Guenon, “Some Remarks on the Doctrinc of Cosmic Cycles,”
Journal o f the Indian Society o f Oriental Art (1937, Vol. 5, p. 21-28; R. Shamasastry, The
World Cycle, Ibid., (1943), Vol. 11, p. 115-125, etc. The cyclical descriptions of time are
reiterated by Monier Monicr-Williams, Hinduism (London: Society for Promoting Chris­
tian Knowledge, 1877), p. 21—22; J . M urray Mitchell, Hinduism Past and Present (London:
T he Religious Tract Society, 1885), p. 121; Robert A. Hume, An Interpretation o f India's
Religious History (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1911), p. 27; J . N. Farquhar, A
Primer o f Hinduism (Oxford University Press, 1912), p. 46; The Crown o f Hinduism (Oxford
University Press, 1913), p. 139-40, etc. For the prevalence of the view that the Hindu
notion of time is cyclical among historians sec Arnold J . Toynbee, A Study o f History, Vol. 4
(Oxford University Press, 1946), p. 28-29; Christopher Dawson, The Dynamics of World
History (London: Sheed and W ard, 1957), p. 398-9; Patrick Gardner, Theories of History
(New York: The Free Press, 1965), p. 19; and for its prevalence among economists sec K.
W. K app, Hindu Culture, Economic Development and Economic Planning in India (London: Asia
Publishing House, 1963), p. 41-42.
2 For more on the cyclical and linear notions of time see C. A. Patrides, The Phoenix and the
 T his view th a t the H indu notion of time is cyclical is based on the H indu
theory of Tugas, manvantaras and kalpas. This system is found in several versions,
o f which the following may be regarded as a standard description (Basham 1956:
320-1):
... the cosmos passes through cycles within cycles for all eternity. The basic cycle is the
kalpa, a “day of Brahma,” or 4,320 million earthly years. His night is of equal length. 360
such days and nights constitute a “year of Brahma” and his life is 100 such years long ...
In each cosmic day the god creates the universe and again absorbs it. During the cosmic
night he sleeps and the whole universe is gathered up into his body, where it remains as a
potentiality. Within each kalpa are fourteen manvantaras or secondary cycles, each lasting
306,720,000 years, with long intervals between them ...
Each m anvantara contains seventy-one Mahayugas or aeons, of which a thousand form
the kalpa. Each mahayuga is in turn divided into four Tugas or ages, called Krta, Tretd,
Dvipara and Kali. Their lengths are respectively 4,800 ; 3,600; 2,400 and 1,200 “years of
the gods," each of which equals 360 human years. Each yuga represents a progressive
decline in piety, morality, strength, stature, longevity and happiness.

This has led scholars to conclude th at the H indu notion of time is cyclical
an d such is the prevailing view on the H indu notion of tim e in the world of
m odern scholarship.

II

How correct, however, is it to say th a t the H indu notion of time is cyclical?

T h e accuracy of this statem ent could be tested by reviewing the references to
the notion of tim e in the literature of Hinduism. T he literature o f Hinduism
represents an enormous corpus which is usually grouped in the two broad
categories of S R U T I and S M R T I (Theodore de Bary 1958:217). O ne could
th en check Sruti and Smrti literature for references to the H indu notion of
tim e. References to the notion of tim e in Sruti literature m ay now be examined
in the light of the prevailing view th a t the Hindu notion of tim e is cyclical.
Sruti literature is coextensive with the Vedas (1958:217), and Vedic litera­
ture as contained in the four Vedas has been divided into the three tiers of
(1) the Sam hitas (2) the Brahm anas (3) the Aranyakas and Upanisads (Win-
ternitz 1927:53).
In R gV eda Sam hita the closest one comes to having a cyclical description of
tim e is w here the year is com pared to a wheel (Rg Veda 1.164.2). It is possible to see
in the imagery of the circular movement of the wheel intimations o f the cyclical
notion of time (Brown 1966:71). Similarly, R. C. Zaehncr refers to the fact th at
in one of the hymns Visnu “ ‘sets the 360 days and nights in motion like a self-
revolving wheel.’ This perhaps is a faint adum bration of the doctrine of samsdra,

Ladder (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964), p. 1-2, passim. For an elaboration
of the cyclical aspect see R. N. Bellah, op. cit., p. 38—41; Arnold J . Toynbee, A Study of
History, Vol. X (Oxford University Press, 1955), p. 280 under the heading “Cyclic move­
ments”.
For the contrast between Indie and Semitic approaches to time see A. J . Toynbee, An
Historian's Approach to Religion (Oxford University Press, 1956), p. 7-12.
 the endless flux of m atter in ever-recurring cyclic tim e” (Zaehner 1966:34).
T he interpretation of these lines as confirming or anticipating a cyclical notion
of time in H induism presents several difficulties. This com parison of the move­
m ent of the year with the wheel could be poetry rath er th an philosophy - a
reference, and poetic a t that, to the calendrical recurrence of the year rath e r
than to a cyclical notion of time. Similarly, if later Indie religious literatu re
contained an almost exclusive association of the wheel w ith tim e one would feel
more confident of concurring w ith the views expressed above. But the use of the
word Cakravartin (M onier-W illiams 1964:381), where connotation of the wheel
is spatial rather than tem poral, the use of the expression D harm acakra (1969:
511) and other uses of the cakra-im age (Bhagavadgita I I I . 16) preclude such an
assum ption.1 M oreover, one must distinguish clearly between the doctrine o f
samara and th a t of the^ugar, etc. T here are two different and distinct cycles - the
karmic cycle of the individual soul and the kalpa cycle of the cosmos. R. C.
Zaehner fails to make this distinction. Finally, the view th a t the H indu notion
of tim e is cyclical is based prim arily on the theory o f the^ugaj and there is no
evidence to show th a t this theory was current in the Sam hita period. T o con­
clude on the basis o f the references cited above th a t it was would be to beg the
question.
T he A itareya B rahm ana next claims attention. In a famous verse (Aitareya
Brahman VII . 15) the words K rta, T reta, D vapara and K ali are m entioned
collectively. Since these words occur in the theory of th e yugas it has led some
scholars to conclude th a t the theory of the four yugas was now current. Such a
view presents several problems. M ax M uller takes these terms to refer to the
Yugas (M uller 1859:412). In doing so he followed Sayana (M uller 1873:Pre-
face), the Indian Vedic exegcte who flourished in the 14th century A.D. in the
early days of the V ijayanagar Em pire (R. C. M ajum dar 1967:371) by when
the doctrine of the four Yugas had become widespread. T hus the danger of
reading back a later fact cannot be easily discounted. As a m atter of fact the
four words - K rta, T reta, D vapara and K ali - refer to the throw s of the dice
(K ane 1946:886-90). G am bling has been known from very ancient times in
India (Rg Veda X .34). A. B. K eith thus rejects M ax M uller’s interpretation.2
In his view “the ages are not V edic.” 3
T urning to the Brahm anas as a whole one observes t hat there are references
to Yugas in other Brahm anas. “ Four ages - Pusya, D vapara, K harva and
K rta - are m entioned in the later SadvimSa B rahm ana and the D vapara in the

1 For a spiritual rather than a cyclical significance of the wheel in Hinduism and Buddhism
see C. A. F. Rhys Davids, “Buddhist Wheel and Way”, Journal of the Indian Society of
Oriental Art, Vol. 8 (1940), p. 6-17.
2 A. B. Keith, Rg Veda Brahmanas (Harvard University Press, 1920), p. 302. Also see A. A.
Macdonell, A. B. Keith, Vedic Index o f Aames and Subjects, Vol. II (London: John Murray,
1912), p. 193.
3 A. B. Keith, op. cit., p. 302, fn. 6. P. V. Kane feels that Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali -
which “originally ... were names of certain throws of dice in gambling” “from the 4th
century B.C. (if not earlier)*’ came to designate the ages of man. Vide History o f
Dharmasastra, Vol. V, Part I, op. cit., p. 587.
 G opatha B rahm ana” (M acdonell, K eith 1912:193). But there is no reference
to the appearance of any ages in cycles which is the crux of the theory of the
yugas. Thus, for example, K rta Yuga is a conceptual term denoting a utopian
age, not a chronological term indicating a division of cyclical time. Similarly,
references in the A ranyakas do not indicate a belief in the cyclical notion of
time.
Now the Upanisads. M ircea Eliade (Eliade 1958:123) reads a reference to
the four Yugas in the M andukya U panisad (1.2). In interpreting the expression
“catuspat” therein as referring to the four Yugas M ircea Eliade has followed
H einrich Z im m er,1 who claims to follow Sankara. According to him the four
Yugas “are, as Sankara pictures it, like the four feet of a cow” (Zim m er 1953:
123). But the expression used by S ankara is “catu?pat karsapanavat na gauri-
veti,” th a t is to say, the four parts are to be understood like the four parts of a
coin and not like the four feet o f a cow (N ikhilananda 1936:13). Zim m er seems
to have misread Sankara.
Thus, there seems to be no unequivocal reference to the cyclical notion of
tim e in the Sruti. T he word Y uga occurs (Rg Veda 1 .139.8). W ords like K rta,
T reta, D vapara and K ali (Aitereya Brahmana V II . 15 etc.) occur. But the word
Y uga does not m ean an age o f the theory of four Yugas (K ane 1946:886-8),
and the words K rta, T reta, D vapara and K ali m ean throws o f dice (1946:
886-8). T he word K ali Yuga does not occur a t all.2 W ords like K fta Y uga
occur (Sadvim^a B rahm ana V .6) but are not a part of any scheme of cosmic
cycles. H ence the cyclic notion of time cannot be said to have been prevalent in
V edic times. As a m atter of fact, one can even go further and say th a t the con­
cept of tim e in the Vedas in general comes closer to being thcistic rath er than
cyclical. M aurice Bloomfield even sees it as headed in the “direction of mono­
theism .” 3
It is thus clear th a t the evidence for the existence of a cyclical notion of time
in the Sruti is slight in the extrem e and to th a t extent it is not entirely correct to
say th a t the H indu notion of tim e is cyclical, since this statem ent does not hold
for the Sruti.

1 He cites what “Zimmer so cogently taw " ( Toga, op. cil., p. 123).
2 The word Kali occurs in the Rg Veda (V III 66.15 etc.) but not as a throw of dice. The
word Yuga occurs (III 26.3 etc.) but not in the sense of an “aeon” of the theory of four
Yugas. The word Kaliyuga does not occur at all in the Rg Veda. Later on Kali is used in
the sense of a throw of dice but this writer has yet to come across the word Kaliyuga in the
Vedas.
3 “The most transcendental of these personifications is that of Time - namely, Prajapati,
‘lord of creatures’, at first an abstraction is readily associated with the generative power of
nature. Now this generative power is revealed particularly in the cycle of the year. By
easy association PrajSpati is next boldly identified with the year: 'Prajapati reflected: ‘This
verily I have created as my counterpart, namely, the year. Therefore, they say, ‘Prajapati
is the year’ for as counterpart of himself he did create the year.’ Thus the prose Brahmana
texts naively, yet closely, reason. And out of some such reasoning ‘Time’ itself emerges as a
monotheistic conception, in whose praise the Atharveda sings two hymns” (Maurice
Bloomfield, The Religion o f the Veda; New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1908, p. 245. The
two hymns: 19.53 and 54).
 The other comprehensive category of sacred literature in Hinduism is
Smrti. Smrti literature encompasses a vast mass of writings.1 Prominent in this
category are the two Hindu epics - the Ramayana and the M ahabharata, the
eighteen Puranas and the Manu Smrti. Does this corpus contain references to
the cyclical notion of time?
Unlike the Sruti, Smrti literature is replete with references to the cyclical
notion of time. It contains references to the theory of the Yugas which are clear,
explicit, direct and unequivocal.2 Thus, at first glance it appears that whereas
the association of the cyclical notion of time with Sruti is rather tenuous, such a
notion has a firm grip on Smrti literature. Let us now sec how firm this grip is.
Take the Ramayana. The epic glorifies Rama. The reign of king Rama or
Ramarajya has been described in idyllic terms.3 As a matter of fact Rama is the
ideal ruler of Hindu mythology and his reign was the ideal reign. This belief in
Ramarajya has a strong hold on the Hindu mind. Mahatma Gandhi freely
used the expression.4 There exists in India even today a political party which
calls itself the Ramarajya Parisad (Weiner 1957:168). And yet Rama did not
flourish in the K rta Yuga which is the best period according to the theory of the
four Yugas!5 It is clear, therefore, that the theory of the decline of Dharm a
through the four ages is subject to certain exceptions. The rule of Rama con­
stitutes one such exception.®
Similarly, while it is true that in several passages of the M ahabharata the
Yuga theory is outlined, yet the epic provides striking pieces of evidence to the
contrary. To see this clearly the basic issue may first be clearly stated. If the
theory of the decline of Dharma through the four Yugas applies then Dharma
must decline inexorably through the ages and the kings accordingly become
more and more evil with the passage of time and the condition of the people
deteriorate. If this theory does not apply then it is possible for the kings to
be good and by suitable policies to improve the lot of the people. An excellent
king might even usher in a golden age.7 The issue thus is: is the king the maker

1 On the comprehensiveness of Smrti literature see P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, Vol.

V, Part II, op. cit., p. 1261-1262, 1277 ctc.
2 See Mahabharata, Vanaparva Chapter 149, 188; Santiparva Chapter 69 etc.; Vijnupu-
rana 1.3; 6.3; Vayu Purina Chapters 21, 22, 57, 58, 100 etc.; Manu Smrti I 61-74, 79-86
etc.
3 Yuddhakanda 128. 96-104 etc.
4 Sec Harijan, 2-1-37; 1-6-47; Hindi Navajivan, 4-7-1929 etc.
5 M. Wintemitz says that according to the Puranas “Rama appears in the Krtayuga” (op.
cit., p. 505). This is incorrect. “According to the unanimous belief of the Hindus,Rama
came long before Kr?na, the former at the end of the Treta, the latter at the end of the
Dvapara Yuga” (James Hastings, ed. The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII, p.
194; also see P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, Vol. V, Part I, op. cit., p. 55). Moreover,
the Ramayana credits Rama with making people as happy as in Krtayuga, vide Balakanda
1.94.
6 The life of Krjna provides another such exception. The presence of Kr?na on the earth is
said to have delayed the onset of Kaliyuga, vide Vi$nupurana I V.24 108-113 etc.
7 As P. V. Kane remarks “four Yugas arc not watertight specific periods of time but the

Copyrighted material
o f th e age o r th e age th e m aker o f th e king. A ccording to th e th e o ry o f th e
four Y ugas q u ite obviously the age is th e m aker o f th e king. Y et Bhism a says
in th e S an tip a rv a o f th e M a h a b h a ra ta : “ W h eth er it is th e king th a t m akes th e
age o r th e age th a t m akes th e king is a question a b o u t w hich you should n ot
e n te rta in an y d o u b t. T h e tru th is th a t th e king m akes the ag e” (M oore 1967:
250). T h is sta te m e n t clearly flies in th e face o f th e theo ry o f th e four Y ugas on
w h ich th e thesis th a t th e notion o f tim e in H induism is cyclical p rim arily rests.
W h en one tu rn s to th e m ost celeb rated section o f th e M a h a b h a ra ta , th e
B h ag avadgita, one finds th e th eo ry o f th e four Y ugas fu rth e r u n d erm in ed .
K rsn a u n d ercu ts it theologically ju s t as Bhism a u n d erc u t it politically. I t is
tru e th a t th e B hag av ad g ita contains hints o f th e Y uga th e o ry 1 b u t th e fam ous
A v ata ra verses2 have th e effect o f seriously lim iting th e o p era tio n o f th e theory
o f th e four Y ugas. In the fam ous verses, w herein th e d o ctrin e o f A v a ta ra finds
an early articu la tio n , L ord K rsn a outlines the circum stances in w hich H e in ­
carn ates himself. I t is prim arily to establish D h arm a , to p ro tec t th e good an d
to destroy th e w icked. N ow we know th a t in K aliy u g a dharma declines p rec ip ­
itately , evil-doers m ultip ly a n d th e good a re all th e m ore in need o f p ro tectio n .
H en ce th e stage is set for increasingly fre q u en t divine in terv en tio n w hich has
th e effect o f n eg a tin g th e Y uga th e o ry .3 I t m ay be recalled h ere th a t R a m a did

ruler can create conditions of K rta age in w hat is popularly held to be K ali” (vide
History o f Dharmasastra, Vol. V, Part II, op. cit., Index p. 267-8).
1 T h e Bhagavadgita does not contain any direct reference specifically to the theory of the
four Yugas. W hat it does contain is (1) a m ention of K jla Yuga (X V III. 13) and (2) of the
day and night of Brahm a (V III 17.19). O ne m ight add th at A rjuna’s misgivings about
V arnasankara in C hapter I seem to echo fears which find a prom inent place in Puranic
descriptions of the debased Kali age. O n the other hand, other Yugas, ap art from K rta
find no m ention. T h e verse from the G ita cited by A nand Sw arup G upta (2.28) contains
no m ention of the names of the Yugas or the theory of the Yugas (‘T he Puranic T heory of
the Yugas and Kalpas - a Study’, Purana, Ju ly 1969, p. 304). I t m ay be argued that V III
17.19 implies the Yuga theory (vide Eliot Deutsch, The Bhagavad Gita, New York: Holt,
R inehart and W inston, 1968, p. 147). It m ust be realised, however, th at “in its final form,
the H indu system of world-cycles is clearly an impcrfect synthesis of m ore than one inde­
pendent doctrine” (A. L. Basham, op. cit., p. 321). T he presence of one com ponent of the
items of synthesis in a text need not autom atically imply the whole system.
2 See M am Srnrti I 81-86; also see M ah ab h arata V anaparva, Ch. 188, 190; MatsyapurSna
144 32-47 etc.
3 T he exact expression used in the verse (IV .8) is “yuge yuge.” It is capable of two inter­
pretations, a general one and a specific one. I f the use of the word Yuga is not taken to
autom atically imply the whole system of kalpa, m anvantaras and yugas then the verse
has the m eaning th at “ I come into being age after age” (R. C. Z aehner, The Bhagavad
Gita; O xford: C larendon Press, 1969, p. 184). T his general interpretation is the more
usual one and in line with Sankara’s (vide Sankarabhasya on IV .8), which is followed by
Swami N ikhilananda, The Bhagavad Gita, New York: Ram akrishna-V ivekananda Center,
1944, p. 126. Also see W. D. P. Hill, The Bhagavadgita, Oxford University Press, 1928, p.
138; S. R adhakrishna), The Bhagavadgita, London: Allen and U nw in L td., 1948, p. 155
etc.). If, however, the use of the word Yuga is taken to apply specifically to the four Yugas
(a possibility hinted at by Eliot Deutsch, op. cit., p. 147, 150) then the verse has the more
restricted m eaning of Kr?na incarnating Him self in each of the four Yugas or perhaps each
of seventy-one M aha Yugas.

Copyrighted material
not flourish in the K fta Y uga or the golden age of the four Yuga theory. H is
golden rule occurred in the Silver age. This clearly contradicts the inevitable
character of the general decline of dharm a from the apogee of the K rtayuga
to the nadir of the K aliyuga. T he verses of the G ita help resolve this co n tra­
diction theologically by pointing out the possibility of the suspension of th e
four Y uga theory through an incarnation or avatara. R am a was an avatara,
like Krsna. It is clear, therefore, that the A vatara doctrine provides a kind o f a
deus ex m achina which at least tem porarily annuls the consequences of the
Y uga theory.
O ne of the sources cited in support of the theory of the four Yugas was
M anu Sm rti (1.61-74; 79-86). In the same Sm rti, however, one finds an o th er
verse which has the drastic effect of virtually destroying the theory (X I. 301).
T h e substance of the verse, com m ented on by M edhatithi (K ane 1946:696,
1093 fn. a), is epitomized in the aphoristic conclusion th a t the king is the m aker
of the age: raja hi yugam uchyate. T h a t is to say, the nature of the prevailing
age depends on the nature of the king or more generally, on the nature of polit­
ical arrangem ents prevailing in a society.
N or is it fully consistent with the spirit of Sm rti literature to hear pessimistic
undertones in the cyclical motion of the wheel of tim e in Hinduism . T h e K ali
age may be inferior in dharma b u t it is superior in other respects. Its superiority
lies in this th at the same spiritual m erit can be acquired w ith less effort in
relation to the previous ages (Visnu P urana V I. 2-36). T h e outlook is not
entirely bleak and dismal, as seems to be the conclusion generally draw n from
the theory of the four Yugas (Brown 1966: C hapter III). T he use of the legal
fiction of K ali-vargya1 is a case in point.2 Similarly, ancient inscriptions are
full of references to kings who “ushered in the K rta Y uga”, as it w ere,3 thereby

Both the general and the more specific interpretations, however, imply the fact that
divine intervention can neutralise the evil implications of a Yuga.
T he relationship between the cyclical notion of time and divine omnipotence in the
different religions is of great potential interest to Comparative Religionists. For instance,
when Christianity spread over the Roman Empire it supplanted the Graeco-Roman
cyclical notion of time with a linear one which embodied the idea of steady progress to­
wards Kingdom Come. The divinity of Christ broke into the cyclical chain as it were, and
snapped it, and the idea of Incarnation thus sounded the death knell of the cyclical notion
of time. Hinduism, however, never made such a break so that both the ideas of Incarna­
tion and cyclical notion lie side by side in a state perhaps of contradiction, even tension.
1 See Parisara Smrti, Adhyaya 1, Sloka 24, 34 and Adhyaya 4, Sloka 30 etc.
2 By the doctrine of Kalivarjya customs and practices once prevalent were deemed avoidable
in Kali age. The ancient law givers made a creative, if not always progressive use of this
doctrine. It was used regressively from a modem standpoint when invoked to ban widow-
remarriage or to deny accessibility to Vedic lore to women (A. L. Basham, op. cit., p. Z49,
188). But it was used “progressively” when used to abolish levirate for instance (Ibid., p.
176).
3 See D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions Bearing on Indian History and Civilization, Vol. I, Universi­
ty of Calcutta, 1965, p. 268-9, 309, 316 etc. The K rta era is also of interest here. This is
how the earliest inscriptions refer to the Vikram era (see A. L. Basham, op. cit., p. 493).
Why? Several explanations have been offered. “ It has been supposed that the era was in­
vented (krta) by astronomers or founded by Krita, (2). C. Sircar, op. cit. p. 91; also see
suggesting that Hindu political thinkers perhaps took a somewhat cynical
view of the doctrines of the pure traditionalists.

I ll

It appears, thus, that the description of the Hindu notion of time as cyclical
is so lop-sided as to be misleading. It overlooks the fact that the Sruti is almost
free of such a notion and it further overlooks the fact that Smrti literature
provides striking exceptions and limitations to this cyclical notion of time. The
Hindu notion of time is not a monochrome but a mosaic: it is too complex to
be described as merely cyclical. If the Hindu notions of time are so complex
that a single description does not suffice, then how is this complexity to be
handled?
If the description of the Hindu notion of time as cyclical has to be abandon­
ed on account of its inadequacy if not inaccuracy then in its place a compact
conceptual framework for looking at the notion of time in Hinduism must be
provided. Such a framework is provided by the realization that the Hindu
notion of time tends to vary with the purusartha or the goal of life under
discussion.1 Hinduism recognises four such goals: Dharma,8 Artha,8

p. 299, fn. 4.) It has also been suggested, however, that the “era” was started to com­
memorate the victory of the M alava Republic ... (of which Vikramaditya was the leader)
... against the barbarous Sakas whose expulsion from India freed the country from foreign
invasion and inaugurated an era of peace and prosperity which, figuratively, might be
regarded as K fta Yuga (Golden Age). So the era was first significantly called K rta.”
(Raj Bali Pandey, Vikramaditya o f Ujjayini, Benaras: Shatadala Prakashana, 1951, p. 5).
1 For a tendency on the part of the H indu thought to view the notion of time as a variable
in relation to the goal of life see Hitopadesa, Introduction, Verse 2, as in Charles Wilkins,
trans., Hitopadeia (1787), Florida Scholars Facsimiles Reprints, 1968, p. 18.
The H indu notions of time in re Dharma, Artha, K am a and Mok?a may be gleaned from
Dharmas&stras, as also from Arthasastra, Kamasastra etc. There is no Mok$as&stra as such,
but since H indu philosophy is geared to that end, D ariana literature may be referred to.
2 The H indu notion of time as it obtains in the discussion of traditional dharma is essentially
cyclical, though subject to various exceptions as indicated earlier. T he expression tradi­
tional dharm a is used advisedly for two reasons. Firstly, we are talking of dharma and not
fta. R ta is in Sruti what dharma is in Smjti. The replacement of fta by dharma coincides
with the coming together of the nomenclature of gambling and the floating notions of
vast stretches of time into the theory of the Yugas. Secondly, the adjective traditional con­
trols dharma, which in this context is largely varnairama dharma. T he prominent fear of
Varnasankara in the Kali age seems to justify this. Even here the severely restricted scope
of the theory of the four Yugas may be noted. Hinduism boasts of being the sanitaria
dharma or eternal dharm a which docs not easily square up with the idea of the fluctuating
dharma of the four yugas!
3 The H indu approach to time in the field of Artha is in the general direction of abandoning
the theory of the four yugas in favour of the king being the maker of the age. Thus, Sukra
says that “ the king is the maker of the age as the promulgator of duties and sins. He is the
cause of the setting on foot of the customs and usages and hence is the cause or maker of
the times” (quoted in C. A. Moore, ed., op. cit., p. 250). Dhirendra M ohan D atta com­
ments “Sukra holds that instead of submitting to the trends of his age, the king, as the head
of the state, should take the initiative in ushering in a new era and should introduce new
Kama,1 and Moksa2 and the notion of time varies with the goal involved. 3

practices. In this Sukra was only making a new application of M anu’s idea that the k in g
should be the m aker of the age. W hether it be a golden, silver, copper or iron age depends
on his initiative" (Ibid., p. 278). C. P. Ram aswani Aiyar (d. 1966) thus recalls seeing th e
M aharaja of T ravancore in connection w ith the Tem ple E ntry Proclam ation as th e
Dewan of T ravancore State, India. “ I then saw th at m onarch who, in The Code o f Manu, is
described as em bodying in himself the four ages, was understood by the medieval philos­
opher Sukra to be the maker of the age, so th at if customs, usages and movements are n o t
assimilated to the needs of the times the fault is said to lie w ith the king himself,” (Ibid.).
1 T h e tem poral perspective of Hinduism changes again when we come to K am a, which adds
its own flavour to the H indu notion of time, w hether it be defined in the narrow er sense o f
sex or in the broader sense of aesthetic delight. In the context of sex the ideal duration of th e
creative act is specified as that of a yam a or three hours all told. W e do not know w hether
the H indu word for art “ kala” is cognate with the H indu word for tim e kala as the ety ­
mology of kala is obscure (vide M onier-W illiams, op. cit., p. 261), but notions of time play
a key role in H indu art. H einrich Zim m er tries to explain Hindu art in terms of the cyclical
notion of time. Thus tim e is symbolised in the dance of Siva, its “choreography is th e
whirligig of tim e” (Heinrich Zimm er, Myths and Symbols etc., op. cit., p. 155). T h e
rhythm s of the dance could be linked to the cycles of time, as both the epithets - Kala
“Tim e” or Mahdkdla “G reat T im e” and Nafaraj “K ing of D ancers” are applied to th e
same god Siva. Elsewhere Heinrich Zim m er concludes th at it “does not lie w ithin th e
Indian cyclical notion of tim e to single out any special m om ent as being all im portant.
Indian art does not immortalise the climax. Its figures are rooted in, while they are sup­
ported by time lasting in its own duration” (Some Aspects of T im e in Indian A rt, Journal
o f the Oriental Society o f Indian Art, Vol. I, 1933, p. 37). T h e tem poral aspect of Indian a rt,
however, cannot be straight-jacketed into the cyclical notion of time. H indu art does
com m em orate the moment, as in the erotic friezes of K hajuraho where the two senses o f
the word k&ma blend, and in the mudras of H indu dance. Kairos becomes more im portant
than Chronos (for hints of a sim ilar distinction in H indu aesthetics see JVdradaSilpaiastra
Patha 71, as per text in V. R aghavan, Two Chapters on Painting in N arada Silpa Sastra,
Journal o f the Oriental Society o f Indian Art, Vol. 3, 1935, p. 21). H indu art also sometimes tries
to ju m p tim e through memory, utilising the fact that memory is the persistence of impres­
sions through time (e.g. as in Ja ta k a tale Roundels when im portant incidents distinct in
time arc portrayed simultaneously on the surface). Thus, in H indu art as a whole the
cyclical notion of time recedes in the background except in perhaps some of its terpsichore-
an forms. A m om ent in time, the flow of time, the eternity of time, the relation of time and
space - these aspects come in the foreground. W hile “all traditional art can be reduced to
theology” perhaps; but all H indu art cannot be reduced to a cyclinal cosmology. T h e
concept o f time varies with the aspect of art.
2 In Moksa the role of tim e depends on w hether you attain it as a “ kevaladvaitin” or a
“ vi£i$tadvaitin” . In the nirvikalpasamSdhi of the former there is no time or space; but the
latter exists in blissful union with God in eternity. T h e various darianas, orthodox and
heterodox, which lead one to Mok$a have their own notions of time (see S. Dasgupta, A
History o f Indian Philosophy, Vol. 2; Cam bridge U niversity Press, 1957, p. 311, 68 etc.).
Similarly, different sects, all seeking mok$a use the notion of time in their own way as did
the darianas. T hus, in the T antric system the “ male is identified with eternity, the female
with time, and their em brace is the mystery of creation” (Heinrich Zim m er, The Philos­
ophies o f India, op. cit., p. 62.
3 Nor is this all. Two term inal points may be m ade: (1) In keeping with the complexity and
dynam ism involved in the Hindu notion of time it must now be added th at as an individual
negotiated the various stages of his life - with different ends appropriate for each (Vatsya-
yana, Kama Sutra 1.2.1), his operational notion of time also changed accordingly; (2) T he
four ends are not w atertight com partm ents and one often finds the notions of time merging
 REFERENCES
B ary, Theodore De, ed. Sources of Indian Tradition. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1958, 217.
B a s h a m , A. L. The W onder T hat Was India. London: Sedgwick and Jackson, 1956,
320-1.
B r o w n , W. Norman. M an in the Universe. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1966, 71.
E l i a d e , Mircea. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. New York: Pantheon Books, 1958,
123-4.
K a n e , P. V. History of Dharmasastra, Vol. III. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute, 1946, 886-890.
M a c d o n e l l , A. A., K e i t h , A. B. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. London: John
M urray, 1912, 193.
M a j u m d a r , R. C., el al. An Advanced History of India. New York: St. M artin’s Press,
1967, 371.
M o n i e r - W i l l ia m s , Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1964, 381.
M o o r e , Charles A. The Indian Mind. Honolulu: East-West Center Press, 1967, 250.
M u l l e r , F. Max. A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. London: Williams and North-
gate, 1859, 412.
The Hymns of the Rg Veda. London: T rubner & Co., 1873, Preface.
N i k h i l a n a n d a , Swami. T he M andukyopanishad with G andapada’s Karika and
Sankara’s Commentary. Mysore: Sri Ramakrishna Ashram, 1936, 13.
W e i n e r , Myron. Party Politics in India. Princeton University Press, 1957, 168.
W i n t e r n i t z , M. A History of Indian Literature. University of Calcutta, 1927, 53.
Z a e h n e r , R. C. Hinduism. London: Oxford University Press, 1966 (Oxford Paperbacks
University Series), 34.
Z i m m e r , Heinrich. The Philosophies of India. New York: Pantheon Books, 1953, 123.

as the ends dovetail into one another. Thus, Mok?a cannot be viewed independendy of
D harm a while one is actively seeking it. In this context the orgies of figures indicating the
decline in D harm a over aeons may serve the Mok?a-oriented purpose of liberating one’s
perception from the captivity of time or its younger brother history to prepare it for trans-
eternity or of creating a disenchantment for the phantasmagorical transitoriness of the
phenomenal world (see Heinrich Zimmer’s reaction to reading the story he calls the
“ Parade of Ants”, Myths and Symbols etc., op .cit., Ch. I). Similarly, when Mok$a and
Kam a are juxtaposed the accent is on the mystery of mysteries: how did the One become
the Many? This was due to Kam a and with K am a came Kala. “For the universe is the
production of divine will (iccha) or desire (kama) - the wish of the One to be Many. All
spheres of being stand generated and supported by that first creative impulse. O n the
carnal plane it operates through the mystery of sex; on the highest, it is the will of the
Creator. Kam a, therefore, is the first of the gods” - but the youngest too, as bom again
every day in the meeting and mating of creatures throughout the course of time. K am a is
the power and the process whereby the One begets itself as man, beast or plant and thus
carries forward the continued creation of universe. K am a is the conjunction of eternity
and time, through which that abundance becomes this abundance, and the non-manifest
is made manifest in all the beings of the cosmos, from Brahma down to the blade of grass
(Heinrich Zimmer, Philisophies of India, op. cit., p. 143).