Chapter 12: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

- exerts chemical control over human body by homeostasis

Hypothalamus (NS) - chemical signals (neurotransmitters) - Pituitary (ES)

ductless glands - hormones - bloodstream - target organs - effects as specific responses

FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

- regulate respiration, metabolism, water & electrolyte concentration, growth, development, reproductive
cycles
- secretion of other hormoes, behavior patterns
- control internal environment of body from cellular to organ level

Negative Feedback Loop - endocrine gland is inhibited & hormone ceases/decreases significantly

CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES

3 General Chemical Categories

1. Modified Amino Acids - epinephrine & norepinephrine (adrenal medulla), oxytoxin & vasopressin
(posterioir PG)
2. Protein - insulin (pancreatic islets), gonad-stimulating & growth (anterioir PG)

- both binds ro membrane-bound receptor sites on cells of target organs

- cannot diffuse across intestinal linings
- injected

3. Steriods (lipids) - cortisol (adrenal cortex), estrogen & testosterone (gonads)

- diffuse across cell membrane
- bind to intracellular receptor molecules
- lipid soluble
- taken orally to treat illnesses

HYPOTHALAMUS OF BRAIN

- inferior part of diencephalon

- major role in controlling secretions from PG

Infundibulum - funnel shaped stalk

Releasing & Releasing Inhibitory Hormones - neurosecretions of nerve cells

MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS & THEIR HORMONES

- hypophysis
- pea size
- affect other glands
- situated in depression of shenoid bone below hypothalamus

ANTERIOR PG

- larger; adenohypophysis
- glandular epithelial
- 7 hormones (G, T, A, M, F, L, L)

1. Growth (GH) - cell metabolism

- protein synthesis & breakdown of fats & carbohydrates
- bones & muscles
- peak secretions during sleep, exercise, fasting

In children,
Dwarfism - decreased
- small, although proportions are normal

Gigantism - increased

Acromegaly - excess secretion after childhood

- wide face, hands & feet

2. Thyroid-Stimulating (TSH) - stimulate thyroid gland

- hypothalamus - thyrotropin releasing hormone - APG - TSH

3. Adrenocorticotropic - adrenal cortex - cortisol

- regulated by corticotrpoin releasing hormone (CRH) by hypothalamus
- glucose sparing effect
- reduce imflammation

4. Melanocyte-Stimulating (MSH) - melanin in melanocytes

- deep pigment of skin

5. Follicle-Stimulating (FSH) - follicle in ovaries & sperm in seminiferous tubules of testes

6. Luteinizing (LH) - ovulation

- progesteron (maintain pregnancy)
- testosterone (maintain sperm production)

7. Lactogenic (LTH) - prolactin

- milk production in mammary glands
- maintains progesterone levels after ovultion & during pregnancy
- increase sensitivity to LH & may decrease male sex hormone

POSTERIOR PG

- nerve fibers & neuroglial cells

1. Antidiuretic (ADH) - vasopressin

- water balance by promoting reabsorption in tubules of nephrons of kidneys
- less water in urine

Diabetes Insipidus - decreased

- 20 to 30 L of daily urine
- dehydrated & lose essential electrolytes
- abnormal nerve & cardiac muscle functions
- treated by ADH injections/nasal spray

osmoreceptors - detect changes in osmotic pressure of body fluids

2. Oxytocin - uterine contraction

- milk ejection/lactation
- may use to induce labor & after childbirth to constrict blood vessels of uterus to minimize hemorrhage

THYROID GLAND

- highly vascular, large covered with capsule of connective tissue

- iodine

isthmus - smaller band that connects 2 lobes

follicles - spheres of cells
- simple cuboidal
- produces & secretes thyroid hormones

1. Thyroxine (T4) - tetraiodothyronine

- 4 iodine atoms

2. Thriiodothyronine (T3) - 3 iodine atoms

- metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins

- growth & development
- NS maturation
- rate of carbohydrate & lipid breakdown into energy
- protein synthesis

Hypothyroidism - decreased
- slowed metabolism
- sluggishness, too tired, accumulation of fluid in subcutaneous tissues (myxedema)

Cretinism - decreased in children

- mentally retarded
- abnormal stature

Hyperthyroidism - increased
- elevated metabolism
- nervousness
- fatigue
Grave's Disease - enlarged thyroid gland/goiter
- exopthalmus (bulging eyeballs)

3. Calcitonin - lowers Ca & PO4 of blood

- inhibits release from bones
- increased secretion by kidneys

PARATHYROID GLAND

- 4 glands about the size of raisins

chief & oxyphil - tighly packed secreting cells close to capillary networks

1. Parathyroid/Parathormone (PTH) - inhibits activity of osteoblasts

- osteoclasts break down bone matrix tissue
- releasing Ca & PO4 into blood
- kidneys conserve blood
- intestinal cells absob Ca from digested food
- raises blood Ca

Vitamin D - increases absorption of Ca by intestines

- ultraviolet from the sun (1st synthesis)
- kidneys (final synthesis)
- supplied in diet

Hypoparathyroidism - decreased
- caused by surgical removal of TG & PTG
- reduces osteoclast activity, bone matrix breakdown/resoption, Vitamin D formation
- bones strong but blood Ca decreases
- nerves & muscles abnormally excitable, spontaneous acton potentials
- muscle cramps/tetanic contractions
- breathing failure

Hyperparathyroidism - increased
- caused by tumor
- breakdown of bone matrix
- bones soft & deformed, easily fracture
- elevated Ca in blood
- muscles & nerves less excitable
- weakness & fatigue

ADRENAL GLANDS

- suprarenal glands
- small found on top of kidneys

Adrenal Medulla - inner

1. Adrenaline - epinephrine
2. Noradrenaline - norepinephrine

- in response to signals from sympathetic of ANS

- fight or flight hormones
- stressful situations that require rigorous activity
- glycogen to glucose (liver)
- release of fatty acids
- released to blood as quick source for ATP synthesis
- increased CR, RR & BP
- blood flow decreased to internal organs & skin
- increases in muscles

Adrenal Cortex - outer

- makes up the bulk of AG

3 Layers of Adrenal Cortex

Outer

1. Mineralocorticoid - regulates concentration of mineral electrolytes

Aldosterone - Na reabsoption & K excretion by kidneys

Middle

2. Glucocorticoid

Cortisol - hydrocortisone
- liver to synthesize glucose from circulating amino acids
- adipose tissue - fatty acids
- protein - amino acids
- released to blood & taken up by tissues as quick energy source
- stressful situations
- proper glucose concentration in blood between meals
- reduce inflammatory response
- cortisone (medication for arthritis)

Inner

3. Adrenal Sex Hormones

Androgens - male
- testes
- develeopment of male sexual characteristics
- (female) sex drive

Addison's Disease - decreased

- bronzing of skin
- decreased blood Na
- low blood sugar causing fatigue & listlessness, dehydration, low pressure

Cushing's Syndrome - increased

- high blood sugar
- low tissue protein
- retention of Na causes tissue fluid increase
- puffy skin
- obesity, moon-shaped face, skin atrophy, menstrual problems
- musculimizing changes in women (facial hair growth & lowered voice)

PANCREAS

Digestive - Acini - pancreatic juice enzyme

Pancreatic Islets/Islets of Langerhans - blood glucose level

1. Glucagon (alpha cells) - glycogen to glucose

- quick source of energy
- increases blood sugar level

2. Insulin (beta cells) - glucose to glycogen

- after meals
- decreases blood sugar level

Acidosis - decreased
- breakdown of fats to fatty acids & ketones

TESTES & OVARIES

1. Testosterone - male
- reproductive structures
- enlargement of testes & penis
- secondary sexual characteristics (facial & chest hair, deepening of voice, muscular development, bone
growth, broad shoulders, narrow hips)
- sex drive & aggressiveness

2. Estrogen

3. Progesterone

- female reproductive structures (uterus, vagina, fallopian tubes)

- secondary sexual characteristics (breast enlargement, fat deposits on hips & thighs, bone development,
broad hips, higher pitch)
- menstrual cycle
- LH & LSH control secretions of these hormones

THYMUS GLAND

- bilobed mass in mediastinum behind sternum

- most important in early life
- larger in children
- immune system

Thymosin - T Cells (WBC)

- against foreign microorganisms
- fight infections

PINEAL GLAND/BODY

- small pine cone between 2 cerebral hemispheres

1. Melatonin - secreted to CSF

- inhibits secretion of gonadotrophins (LH & LSH)
- inhibits reproductive system
- circardian rhythms (light - feel good, dark (more melatonin)- depressed & tired)
- sleep wake patterns

2. Serotonin - neurotransmitter & vasoconstrictor

- smooth muscle contraction
- inhibits gastric secretions

DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. Diabetes Mellitus - deficiency in insulin production

- decreased insulin receptors on target cells & glucose unable to move in cells
- hyperglycemia
- glycosuria
- inhibits fat & protein synthesis
- daily monitoring of blood sugar
- diabetic retinopathy - blindmess

Type I - Juvenile Onset

- autoimmunevdetroying beta cells
- daily injections
- IDDM - insulin dependent

Type II - most common

- overweight
- beta cells produced insulin inadequately
- receptors lost & glucose uptake diminishes
- balanced & controlled diet & exercise
- heredity & ethnic background

4P's
Polyuria
Polydipsia
Polyphagia
Peripheral Neuropathy
2. Diabetes Insipidus - decreased ADH
- excrete copious amounts of urine
- dehydration
- excessively thirsty
- bedwetting (children)

3. Seasonal Affective Disorder - sensitive to overproduction of melatonin

- depression

4. Aldosteronism - increased Aldosterone

- high BP
- Na & water retention by kidneys
- low K in blood
- increased blood pH

5. Stress - environmental influences

- epinephrine - helps in coping by increasing blood sugar & release of fatty acids & adipose cells
- increased heartbeat
- chronic stress - excessive secretion - psychological (depression) & physiological (malaise & infections)

6. Androgenital Syndrome - increased androgen

- born with overdeveloped adrenal gland
- tumor in gland
- pseudohermaphroditic (female) - with enlarged clitoris
- deep voice with facial & chest hairs
- more muscle development
- early enlarged penis & prostate gland

7. Cushing's Syndrome - increased cortisol

- decreased glucose tolerance levels
- excessive weight, moonlike face, reddish blotches on face
- susceptible to infections

8. Grave's Disease - hyperthyroidism

- exopthalmos
- enlarged thyroid
- more common in women
- weight loss, fatigue, palpitations, nervousness, slight hand tremors