Lecture 3

• Overview of relevant concepts in compressible flow)

– The 1D Euler equation for compressible flow
• Primitive/conservative variables
– Entropy and second law of thermodynamics
– Speed of sound ()
– Relations across a discontinuous interface
• Contact discontinuity
• Normal Shock
– Quasi-1D Nozzle flow
• Some conveniently defined quantiles

1
 Reference book chapter
for lectures of week 2
• Book reference
– Modern compressible flow: with historical perspective, Third editions, Johan, D.
Anderson
• Chapter 2:
• Chapter 3, one-Dimensional flow
• Chapter 5, Quasi-One-Dimensional flow

– Computational fluid mechanics and heat transfer, by J.C. Tannehill, D.

A. Anderson and R. H. Pletcher
• Chapter 6: Numerical methods for inviscid flow equations.

2
 Compressible flow?
• Compressibility: p
1  dv 
1 dv t    
t  v  dp T
v dp 1  dv  v1
t    
v  dp  s v2
• t : property of the fluid
– Water: 5x10-10 m2/N @1atm
– Air: 10-5 m2/N @1atm
d  t dp Such a process can be realized through very slow
compression causing negligible velocity (|u| ≈ 0)
in the fluid, this “ideal” thermodynamic process
will maintain a perfectly uniform distribution of
all state variables over the entire fluid. 3
Compressible flow

4
 The three-dimensional Euler equations
# # # #
%+ ⃗
( % + ⃗
+ % + - % = 0,
#$ #' #* #,
where %, /, (⃗ , +⃗ are vectors of 5-component
Conservation law
Mass: 0 01 02 03 0
012 013
# 01
4
x-Momentum: # 01 + 5 # # 023
0
Y-Momentum: 02 + 012 + 4
02 + 5 + = 0
Z-momentum: #$ 03 #' 013 #* 023 #, 4
03 + 5 0
Energy: 0/ 016 026 036 0

8 >? @A ? @B ?
where 6 ≡ / + , : = / − <, ℎ = 6 − < , < ≡
9 4
:: internal energy; ℎ: enthalpy; /: Total energy; 6: Total enthalpy; <: kinetic energy;
0: density; 1, 2, 3: velocity component in ', *, ,; 5 : pressure.

Thermodynamical relations for calorific pefect gas :

Equation of state : 5 = 0IJ
LM
: = A J , ℎ = 8 J, K = N , 8 − A = I
O
where J is temperature, I is universial gas constant; K = 1.4.
A , 8 are specific heat capacity at constant volume/pressure, in later discussion we
assume the value of A , 8 are constant (i.e. their value do not depends on J) 5
 The 1D Euler equations
3D Euler  1D Euler ($, ', *, ,)

0 01 02 03 0
012 013
# 01
4
# 01 + 5 # # 023
0
02 + 012 + 4
02 + 5 + = 0
#$ 03 #' 013 #* 023 #, 03 4 + 5
0
0/ 016 026 036 0
14 + 2 4 + 3 4
<=
2

Conservation law
Mass: 0 01 0
# #
x-Momentum: 01 + 4
01 + 5 = 0
Energy: #$ 0/ #' 016
0

# #
%+ (⃗ % = 0,
#$ #'
0 01
with % = 01 and the flux (⃗ = 014 + 5 .
0/ 016
6
 Different ways of expressing the Euler equations
The primitive variable vs. conservative variable

The same Euler equation can be expressed differently by choosing a “core-set” of three symbols.

Case 1: a core-set chosen as three conservative variables:

variables
\ = 0, 01, 0/ ]
Case 2: a three-variable core-set chosen from the set of primitive symbols [0, 1, 5, J, :, ℎ, /, 6, _]:
a = 0, 1, 6 ]
The transformation between U and V
fd %d
%d 0 fd f4 fd 0 %4 /%d
\(a) ≡ %4 = 01 = ; a(\) = f4 = 1 = %
K−1 f44 e K − 1 %44
%e 0/ fd fe − fd fe − fe 6 K − )
K 2 %d 2 %d4
For any chosen core-set, every variables inside Euler equations can be regarded as a function
of the core-set variables:
0 gh ,g? ,gi = %d 0 lh ,l? ,li = fd
1 gh ,g? ,gi = %4 /%d 1 lh ,l? ,li = f4
%e K − 1 %44 6 lh ,l? ,li = fe
6 gh ,g? ,gi = K − ) J lh ,l?,li = (fe −f44 /2)/m8
%d 2 %d4
J gh ,g? ,gi = ⋯ 2_. 1 f44
5 gh ,g? ,gi = ⋯ 5 lh ,l? ,li = 1− f f −
K d e 2
: gh ,g? ,gi = ⋯ : lh ,l? ,li = ⋯
ℎ gh ,g? ,gi = ⋯ ℎ lh ,l? ,li = ⋯
/ gh ,g? ,gi = ⋯ / lh ,l? ,li = ⋯
… 7
…
 Different ways of expressing the Euler equations
why should we bother about this issue?

The 1D Euler equation is often conveniently expressed using the primitive variables mixed
with a “un-explicitly” chosen core-set, for instance let a = 0, 1, 6 ] , the equation is
expressed as :
0 01 fd 0
n n 01 4
\ + q = r, with \(a) = , q(a) = 01 + 5(9,>,s) , where a ≡ f4 = 1 .
no np
0/(9,>,s) 016 fe 6
As a demonstration the same Euler equation can be re-expressed only using another core-set
U as:
y
%d 0 0 { ?
n n uvwxov + 5(9,{,|)
\ + q = r with, \ ≡ %4 = 01 y , and q(\) = 9
no np
%e 0/ z {
z + 5 9,{,|
9
} | {? {?
where 5(9,{,|) = 0IJ(9,{,|) = 0 − = (K − 1)(z − ) , then we expand flux term
NO 9 49? 49
as:
y %4
e€ {? ?
+ K−1 z ‚ƒ„…† ‡ˆ‰†Š‹ƒˆŒ e€ g? + K − 1 %e
→ q(\) = 4 9 4 gh .
|{ €d {i gi g? €d g? i
K − K −
9 4 9? gh 4 gi
It is very common during numerical computation to calculate certain variable of interest by
re-expressing it as a function certain chosen core-set.
8
 Different ways of expressing the Euler equations
why should we bother about this issue?

One benefit of expressing Euler equation only using the core-set symbols is to prevent us
from “forget” relations such as the equation of state, it is an essential step to find the
Jacobian matrix:
n“h n“h n“h
y
ngh ng? ngi e€ {?
nq n“? n“? n“? + K−1 z
‘ e×e = = ngh ng? ngi
for q(\) = 4 9
n\
|{ €d {i
n“i n“i n“i K −
9 4 9?
ngh ng? ngi
which looks like the following for 1D Euler equation

0 1 0
e€ {? { 0 0
− 3−K K−1
‘ = 4 9? 9 for \ = 01 = y
|{ {i | e €d {? { 0/ z
−K ? + ”−1 K − K
9 9i 9 4 9? 9
The “core-set” is necessary for obtaining [‘], however, it is quite difficult to read and to
manipulate (for instance, to find its eigenvalues) if [‘] is still expressed by the core-set \.. We
can then rewrite [‘] back to the primitive form which give a more “friendly” look as:

0 1 0
K−3 4
1 3−K 1 K−1
‘ = 2
K−1 e
−16 + 1 6 − (K − 1)14 K1
2

z 14 cA 14 1 14 K − 1 14 K − 1 14 9
1_: = A J + = 8 J + = ℎ+ + =6+ .
0 2 8 2 K 2 K 2 K 2
 Conservative / Non-conservative form of 1D Euler equations

Conservative form of 1D Euler eq.

0 01 0 0⋅1 01 ⋅ 1 0
n
01 + n
011 + 5 = 0 →→ n 0⋅1 +
n 01 ⋅ 1 +
n
5 =0
no np no >? np >? np
0/ 016 0 0 ⋅ (A J + ) 01 ⋅ (A J + ) 51
4 4

# # # # # #0 #1
(0 ⋅ ™) + (01 ⋅ ™) = 0 ™+1 ™ +™ 0+1 + 0™
#$ #' #$ #' #$ #' #'
˜ ˜ #1
˜ # # =0 ™ +™ 0 + 0™
™ ≡ ™+1 ™ ˜$ ˜$ #'
˜$ #$ #' ˜ ˜ #1
=0 ™+ 0+0 ⋅™
˜$ ˜$ #'
— — n>
™ = 1 (continuity eq.) : 0 —o 1 + —o
0 + 0 np
⋅1=0
— n>
—o
0 + 0 np
=0

Nonconservative
Nonc form of 1D Euler equation.
—
Continuity eq —o
0 + 0#p 1 = 0
—
Momentum eq. 0 —o 1 + #p 5 =0
— >?
Energy eq. 0 —o (A J + 4
) + #p 51 = 0 10
 What about entropy _ ? Where is the second law of thermodynamics?
Conservative form of 1D Euler eq.
0 01
# 01 # 011 + 5 0 No discontinuity ˜ # #
™ ≡ ™+1 ™
#$ 14 + #' 14 = 0 is allowed !!! ˜$ #$ #'
0(A J + ) 01(A J + ) + 51 0 Only for smooth flow!
2 2

Nonconservative
Nonc form. “Reversible” energy
—
Continuity eq 0 + 0#p 1 = 0 Exchange of kinetic energy
—o with mechanic (pressure) work
— multiple by 1
Momentum eq. 0 1 + #p 5 = 0 0
˜ 14
+ 1#p 5 = 0
—o
˜$ 2
— >?
Energy eq. 0 (A J + ) + #p (51) =0
—o 4

˜
0 ( J) + 5#p 1 = 0
˜$ A
Continuity eq.
Reminder from thermodynamics:
0˜ 5 ˜
(A J) − 0=0 1
5 ˜$ 0 ˜$ J_ = : + 5 ( )
Eq. of state 0
A 1 ˜ 1 ˜
˜ J− 0=0
( ln J − I ln 0) = 0 I J ˜$ 0 ˜$
˜$ A

Introduce Entropy: This _-equation can replace energy

˜
s ≡A ln J − I ln 0 + ›œ_$. _=0 equation in smooth flow!
˜$ Also note, Entropy is not an external 11
quantity, it is implied by the Euler equations
 Isentropic/ homentropic flow
˜ #_ #_ Does it remind you the
_≡ +1 =0 simple advection equation?
˜$ #$ #'
(1)This equation holds for 3D-Euler (zero viscosity, non conducting, adiabatic)
—ž nž nž nž nž
equations using ( ≡ +1 +2 +3 )
—o no np nŸ n 
(2)Before encounting a discontinuity, the entropy will maintain constant along the
trajectory of a material point moving with speed 1(', $).
(3)If the entropy _ remain constant along a streamline in a steady flow, it is called
isentropic flow
(4)If the entropy _ holds constant over the entire flow domain, a.k.a. homentropic
flow.
It is indeed true for irrotaitional, potential flow
In any smooth (containing no shock) (quasi) 1D flow, a material point will
move across all domain
(_) Alternative/equivalent entropy
Entropy definition definitions:
s ≡ A ln J − I ln 0 + ›œ_$ 5 = 0IJ s = 8 ln J − I ln 5 + ›œ_$
N
ln 5 = ¡œ0 + ¡œI + ¡œJ 5 O
(ln 5) = (¡œ0) + (¡œJ) _ = ln € + ›œ_$
0
I = 8 − A s = A ln 5 − 8 ln 0 + ›œ_$
K = 8 /A

u £¤8 u 8 8
Isentropic flow: 0 =  _ = A ⋅  ln5 − 8 ⋅  ln 0 ⇒ u £¤ 9
=K⇒u 9
= K 9 = 12
KIJ
Isentropic/ homentropic flow
˜ #_ #_
_≡ +1 =0
˜$ #$ #'

13
 The speed of sound
0 + 1 1=0
5 + 5  5
0 + 0 0
J + J J

• What is sound?
– ”Wave” propagation of small disturbance
• 1, 5, 0, J, …
• Continuous and differentiable (sound is NOT a discontinuous shock)
u u u
– Chain rule can be applied: up ‘§ = ‘ up § + § up ‘
– Isentropic process
» _ = 0
14
 Speed of sound
(a) Derivation using steady Euler equation in conservative form
Choose a Control volume traveling with (i.e. relatively stationary to) the wave front of sound:
1 + 1 1
5 + 5 5
0 + 0 0 =1
J + J J

Steady Euler equation in conservative form

Mass conservation: 0 01 0
# #
Momentum conservation: 01 + 4
01 + 5 = 0
Energy conservation: #$ 0/ #' 016
0 Constant entropy : _ = 0
(_ =const. across x)

Mass conservation: ( 01 = ›œ_$. across ')

0 + 0 1 + 1 = 01
© 5 ©
4
Momentum conservation (01 + 5 = ›œ_$. across ') =1= ª = KIJ
0 «
4
0 + 0 1 + 1 + 5 + 5 = 014 + 5
15
 Speed of sound
(b) Another derivation using steady Euler eq.

Mass Eq. 0 01 0
Momentum Eq. # #
01 + 014 + 5 = 0
Energy eq. #$ 0/ #' 016
0 _ =const. across x

 01 = 0
 014 + 5 = 0
chain rules
Mass Eq. 01 + 10 = 0
Momentum Eq. 4
1 0 + 201d1 + 5 = 0

© 5 ©
≡1= ª = KIJ
0 «

16
 Speed of sound
(c) Derivation from the eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix of unsteady Euler eq.
Unsteady 0 01 0
# #
conservation eq. #$ 01 + #' 01 + 5 = 0
4
® n n
0/ 016 0 —o
_ ≡ no _ + 1 np _ = 0
Nonconservative
# # # # #5 # #5 #
form: 0+1 0+0 1 = 0 5 0, _ = ª 0+ ª _
#$ #' #' #' #0 « #' #_ 9 #'
# # 1 #
1+1 1+ 5=0
#$ #' 0 #'

1 0 0
# 0 # 0 0
1 #5 #5
1 + ª 1 ª 1 = 0
#$ _ 0 #0 « #_ 9 #' _ 0
0 0 1
Find 3 eigenvalues! 1−¬ 0 0
1 #5 #5
| ± − ¬I| = 0 ª 1−¬ ª =0
0 #0 « #_ 9
0 0 1−¬
© 5
¬d,e = 1 ± ª =1±
4
#5 0 «
¬−1 ¬−1 − ª =0 17
#0 « ¬4 =1
 Limit of compressibility?
 u  u  u  u
  u  i.e. u  
x x x x x x

Can be written as: d dV

 V V
 V

dp  c 2d From Bernoulli: dp   VdV

speed of sound
Mach Usually the limit is set to:
number
dp

dp

V2
 1  M 2
 1 M  0.3
a 2
V 2
c 2

18
 The relations across a discontinuous interface
Use the conservative form of the
governing equations (mass,
momentum, energy conservations)
# # 0d 1d = 04 14
#$
%+
#'
(⃗ % = 0
(⃗d = (⃗4 5d + 0d 1d4 = 54 + 04 144
0 01
0 1d4 144
# 01 # 014 + 5 0d 1d 8 Jd + = 04 14 8 J4 + J4 (8
14 + #' = 0 2 2
#$ 14 ? ,9? )
0(A J + ) 01(8 J + ) 0
2 2
A first “trivial” solution:
(04 = 0d , 14 = 1d , 54 = 5d )
A control volume chosen relatively
There is a second “trivial” solution of
stationary to a discontinuity interface
contact discontinuity (i.e. 04 ≠ 0d ,
but 14 = 1d = r, 54 = 54 ), think
Assume given Find three unknowns about an interface separating gas of
0d 04 different temperature but sharing the
1d 14
same pressure (neglect diffusion).

5d 54
Jd (5d , 0d ) J4 (8 ,9 )
? ?
0d 1d = 04 14
…
… 5d + 0d 1d4 = 54 + 04 144
1d4 144
8 Jd + = 8 J4 (8 ,9 ) +
2 ? ? 2
This gives a relation for shock! 19
 To find the relation across a normal shock

A shock discontinuity
Three unknowns (³, ´,  ) live in a “phase” space of 3 dimensions.

Assume given Find three unknowns Three expressions correspond to three curved surfaces (due to nonlinearity):
/'5”:__µ›œd ³, ´,  = 0
0d 04 /'5”:__µ›œ4 ³, ´,  = 0
1d 14 /'5”:__µ›œe ³, ´,  = 0
5d 54 Surface 1
Jd (54 , 04 ) J4 (8 ,9 ) /'5d ³, ´,  = 0
? ?
…
…

Surface 2
/'54 ³, ´,  = 0

0d 1d = 04 14
5d + 0d 1d4 = 54 + 04 144
1d4 144

8 Jd + = 8 J4 (8 ,9 ) + ´
2 ? ? 2 A third surface /'5e ³, ´,  = 0 can lead to more
than one intersections points.
³
This explain why there may exist multiple (>1) 20
solutions in additional to the trivial solution.
 Normal shock relations
Rankine–Hugoniot jump conditions
0d 1d = 04 14
5d + 0d 1d4 = 54 + 04 144
1d4 144 5#
8 Jd + = 8 J4 (8 ,9 ) +
2 ? ? 2 Rayleigh line
Get rid of 14
Two remaining unknowns 1
now live in a 2D Phase space
Rayleigh line:
54 − 5d 1
= y4 y = 0d 1d
1
−
1 1/0#
04 0d
Hugoniot curve:

K 54 5d 1 1 1
− − + 54 − 5d = 0
K − 1 04 0d 2 04 0d
5# (Shock) Hugoniot curve
8 9 >
Normalizing: 5# = 8? , 0# = 9? , 1# = ¼?
h h h

8#
1 Isentropic curve, » =1
8# d {? 9#
Rayleigh line: h = −º = −
d 8h 9h K−1
¹# −
€@d d €@d d K+1 1
Hugoniot curve: 5# = ( − # )/( − 1) 1/0#
€d 9 €d 9#
K+1 21
K−1
 Normal shock relations
Rankine–Hugoniot jump conditions (cont’d)

8# d {?
Reyleigh line: h = −º = − < 0 (negative slope)
d 8h 9h
¹#
»¾h h

»¿h ¹#
Hugoniot curve: 5# = »¾h h
d
»¿h¹#

5# Which of following is possible?

54 04
5# = = ∞? 0# = = ∞?
ds>0 5d 0d

K−1
−
K+1
1/0#

K+1
K−1 22
 The normal shock relations
expressed using the ³ℎ number

0d 1d = 04 14 0d 04
5d + 0d 1d4 = 54 + 04 144 1d 14
5d 54
1d4 144
8 Jd + = 8 J4 (8 ,9 ) + Jd (54 , 04 ) J4 (8 ,9 )
2 ? ? 2 ? ?
…
…

1d 14 = ³∗ 4
4
1 + [(K − 1)/2]Âd4
Â4 =
KÂd4 − (K − 1)/2 Across a stationary normal shock:
54 2K
=1+ Âd4 − 1 Â4 < 1 < Âd
5d K+1
9? >h €@d Äh?
54 > 5d
= = J4 > Jd
9h >? 4@ €d Äh?
J4 54 0d 04 > 0d
= =⋯
Jd 5d 04 _4 > _d
…. and for total (stagnation) quantiles:
JÅ,4 = JÅ,d

23
 (Quasi) 1D flows
Nozzle flow
Flows configurations Steady state relations
0(') 1D Euler Eq. in a tube of constant Area
1(')
5(') 0 01 0  01 = 0
# #
J(0, 5) 01 + 011 + 5 = 0  011 + 5 = 0
#$ 0(: + 14 /2) #' 01(ℎ + 14 /2)
… 0  ℎ + 14 /2 = 0
Handle
discontinuity?
Quasi 1D Euler Eq. in a tube of changing Area ‘ ' Yes
‘ ' No
0(') (‘01) = 0
1(') ‘0 ‘01 0
# # #‘ 5
5(') ‘01 + ‘011 + ‘5 = 5 + 11 = 0
J(0, 5) #$ #' #' 0
‘0(: + 14 /2) ‘01(ℎ + 14 /2)
… 0 (ℎ + 14 /2) = 0
'
Assumption:
Thin boundary layer, 1(x,y) is constant along y.
u
Smaller rate of change across the Area: ‘(') ≪ 1
up
(‘01) = 0 The conservation of energy-
flux can be replaced by
5 (_) = 0 for Isentropic flow
+ 11 = 0
0 (no shock), which yield this
5 isentropic relations.
* 0
= 4
24
'
 (Quasi) 1D flows
Isentropic flow with (nozzle) area changes

(‘01) = 0 ‘ 0 1
+ + =0 × 14
5 ‘ 0 1
+ 11 = 0 u> uÇ d u8 Mach
0 1
= =− Â≡
5 > Ç Ä? d 9>?  number
= 4
0

Â<1 Â=1 Â>1

1 < 0 1 > 0
‘ > 0 5 > 0 5 < 0 1 increaseing

?
1 > 0 1 < 0
‘ < 0 5 < 0 5 > 0 ³ > 1
³ < 1

1 decreasing
25
 Nozzle flow
• Convergent

Further decreasing pb will not change the

mass flow (”choked” since

M max  1

26
 Nozzle flows
• Convergent-divergent

27
 Some conveniently defined flow parameters
• Static pressure 5 and temperature J for an fluid element in a actual flow domain
8 © ¼ 8 NO
5, J, u ⇒ [0 = , c = rIJ, Ma = , h = CÈ T, e = A J, s = ln ,….]
}] N 9»
• Imagine take this fluid element and adiabatically slow it down (if Ma>1) or speed it up (Ma<1) until
its Mach number is 1, the new temperature at this imagined state is J ∗ , and the corresponding
imagined sound speed is  ∗ = © KIJ ∗ .
• Imagine take the same fluid element and isentropically slow it down to zero velocity (bring it to
stagnation), the new temperature and temperature at this imagined state is called total temperature
JÅ and total pressure 5Å respecectivly.
Question:
1) Can we define _ ∗ ?
Ma>1 Ma<1
2) Can we define _Å ?

Stagnation
reservoir:
JÅ
5Å
1Å = 0
©
Å = KIJ Å J∗
1∗ =  ∗ = ©
KIJ ∗

An hypothetical, imaginary flow process(nozzle

Real flow domain flow) which can either be isentropic (shock free) or
static 5, J, and velocity u = 1 adiabatic (if there exits shock)
28
 Relations between the conveniently defined flow parameters

Stagnation
reservoir: Steady state relations for nozzle flow
JÅ (‘01) = 0
5Å 5
1Å = 0 + 11 = 0
0
Å = © KIJÅ J∗
(ℎ + 14 /2) = 0 Valid across
1∗ =  ∗ = ©
KIJ ∗ discontinuity
Constant energy flux
1 1
8 JÅ + 0 = 8 J + 14 = 8 J ∗ +  ∗ 4
2 2
• Those ”imaganary” flow
JÅ K−1 4 parameters help to:
=1+ Â
J 2 – Compute parameters
]∗ N∗ 4 4
]Ë
= NË
= after/before shock waves
€@d
4
1 K + 1 Â – Boundary conditions
Â∗ = ∗ =
 2 + K − 1 Â4 – …
€
Isentropic €
5Å 0Å JÅ €d
relation give: = =
5 0 J 29
………