 what is call Wheat inflorescence: Panicle

 Soil structure can be improve with the addition of: Compost

 When soil surface is protect/cover with residue of a crop, the practice is called?
Mulching
 The science of categorization called: Taxonomy
 Grapes nurturing called: Viticulture
 Tomato is a good foundation of vitamin: Vitamin C
 Rearing of honeybees is called: Apiculture
 what is called The artificial elimination of the stamens from flower before they dehisce ?
Emasculation.
 The science of fruit fabrication is called: Pomology.
 Scirtothrips citric is a pest violent Citrus.
 Rearing a silk worm known as sericulture
 Magnifier indicia is a botanical name of ?mango
 Which of the subsequent is not a fruit? Pumpkin
 Which one of the subsequent is a good quality source of protein? Pulses
 The vector of cotton leaf curl virus in Pakistan is known as? White fly
 In DNA, adenine always pairs with? Thymine
 Insects have 6 legs and 4 wings
 Tikka disease is major pathogenic threat in: Groundnut
 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has its headquarters situated in? Rome, Italy
 Soil salinity can be rectified with? Gypsum
 Safflower is an? Oil producing plant
 Banana fruit is classified in the category of? Berry
 Ploidy level of maize plant is? Diploid
 Gypsum is affluent source of? Calcium + Sulpher
 Gossypium hirsutem is the botanical name of?Cotton
 Olericulture is the study production with? Vegetable production
 Sorghum inflorescence is panicle
 Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase First carboxylation enzyme in c4 plant
 Barnyard grass is weed of Rice
 Plants take nitrogen in shape of nitrate and ammonium
 Photorespiration observe in plants
 Ks-282 and ks-133 are cultivars of coarse rice
 Green revolution refers to: increase in production of food due to the introduction of
high-yielding varieties
 Root crop carrot
 Bread wheat is hexapod
 Castor bean oilseed crop
 Bolting refers to emergence of inflorescence in sugar beet
 Sericulture is study of silkworm
 clcv is disease of cotton
 CIMMYT is in mexico
 In plants assimilates translocation in form of : Starch
 Delta of water of wheat is: 16 acre inches
 Relative proportion of dissimilar soil particles is soil texture
 Densitometer are use for determination of Darkness.
 Kajli is a breed of sheep
 1) Ploidy level of maize plant is:
a) Diploid
b) Tetraploid
c) Hexaploid
d) None of these
 2) Dajal is a breed of:
a) Milking animal
b) Draft animal
c) Pet animal
d) None of these
 3) Seed cotton means:
a) Lint only
b) Seed without lint
c) Seed with lint
d) None of these
 4) Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium provides basis for study of:
a) Population Genetics
b) Genetic Engineering
c) Biometrical Genetics
d) Mendelian Genetics
 5) Maize plant has its origin in:
a) Russia
b) Africa
c) Middle East
d) America
 6) Olericulture is the study dealing with:
a) Silk worm
b) Vegetable production
c) Honey bees
d) Ornamental flowers
 7) Gypsum is a rich source of:
a) Calcium + zinc
b) Calcium + Potassium
c) Calcium + sulphur
d) Calcium + nitrogen
 8) Banana fruit is classified in the category of:
a) Berry
b) Pomes
c) Sorosis
d) None of these
 9) True potato seed is the:
a) Potato tuber used for propagation
b) Any plant part used for potato propagation
 c) Seed developed within the fruit of potato
d) None of these
 10) Eragate are the types of insects which are:
a) Workers in honey bee
b) Biting
c) Workers in the species of ant
d) None of these
 11) “CIMMYT” is an organization working for the improvement of:
a) Rice and cotton
b) Pulses and oilseeds
c) Dryland Agriculture
d) Wheat and maize
 12) In various plant metabolic processes “PPP” stand for:
a) Plant Protection Procedures
b) Produce Per Plant
c) Pentose Phosphate Pathway
d) None of these
 13) Arachnids are the arthropods with:
a) Single pair of leg
b) Two pairs of legs
c) Three pairs of legs
d) Four pairs of legs
 14) Sericulture means:
a) Rearing of honey bees
b) Rearing silk worms
c) Both (a) and (b)
d) None of these
 15) The cotton species providing main raw material for textile industry is:
a) Gossypium hirsutum (Please confirm it)
b) Gossypium arboreum
c) Gossypium thurberii
d) None os these
 16) Inbred lines are developed through selection and inbreeding in:
a) Self pollinated crops
b) Cross pollinated crops
c) Asexually propagated crops
d) None of these
 17) Safflower is:
a) An ornamental plant
b) Oil producing plant
c) Leguminous
d) Fibre producing plant
 18) Continuous selfing in cross pollinated:
a) Improvment in yield
b) Poor in performance
 c) Growth in vegetative parts
d) None of these
 19) Soil structure can be improved with addition of:
a) Organic matter
b) Chemical fertilizers
c) Gypsum
d) None of these
 20) Synapsis of chromosomes occurs between:
a) Sister chromatids
b) Homologous chromosomes
c) Non homologous
d) None of these
 PAST PAPER—-2007
 (1) Mechanism in which the product of metabolic pathway inhibits an enzyme
catalyzing an early step is called:
(a) Early inhibition
(b) Metabolic inhibition
(c) Feed back inhibition
(d) None of these
 (2) The most suitable part of the plant for the study of Meiosis is:
(a) Young bud
(b) Anther (Please confirm it)
(c) Root tip
(d) Shoot apex
 (3) The shrinkage of protoplasm due to osmosis of water from the cell is known as:
(a) Hydrolysis
(b) Endomosis
(c) Dehydration
(d) Plasmolysis
 (4) The most abundant compound in nature is:
(a) Starch
(b) Protein
(c) Cellulose
(d) All of these
 (5) Antibiotics are produced by the:
(a) Plants
(b) Microorganisms
(c) Animals
(d) All of these
 (6) The amino acids which cannot be synthesized by the mammals are called:
(a) Basic amino acids
(b) Non-essential amino acids
(c) Essential amino acids
(d) Non-Polar amino acids
 (7) Quantitative traits are measurable traits that show:
(a) Discontinuous variation
 (b) Continuous variation
(c) Phenotypic
(d) None of these
 (8) The process of programmed cell death is called:
(a) Apoptosis
(b) Necrosis
(c) Degeneration
(d) Both (a) and (b)
 (9) Genetic material of an organism changes with:
(a) Age
(b) Environmental change
(c) Nutritional change
(d) None of these
 (10) Economically important Genetic traits in plants are influenced by the
environment because these are:
(a) Cytoplasmically inherited traits
(b) Monogenic traits
(c) Polygenic traits
(d) None of these
 (11) Only plant cells contains:
(a) Plasma membrane
(b) Mitochondria
(c) Chloroplasts
(d) Nucleolus
 (12) The accumulation of CO2 in large quantities in the atmosphere causes the
problem of:
(a) Air pollution
(b) Over cooling of atmosphere
(c) Degradation of Biodiversity
(d) Green house effect
 (13) The ovary in plants matures into:
(a) Fruit
(b) Seed
(c) Endosperm
(d) Embryo
 (14) The first step in Photosynthesis is:
(a) Excitation chlorophyll electron
(b) Photolysis of water
(c) Formation of NADPH2
(d) Formation of ATP
 (15) Which one of the following is nonrenewable resource?
(a) Wildlife
(b) Biodiversity
(c) Fossil Fuel
(d) Forest
 (16) A plant disease caused by bacteria is called:
(a) Loose smut
(b) Crown gall
(c) Leaf rust
(d) Powdery Mildew
 (17) Enzymes are chemically:
(a) Carbohydrates
(b) Lipids
(c) Proteins
(d) None of these
 (18) Genes determine:
(a) The sex of a baby
(b) A phenotypic character
(c) Synthesis of a Polypeptide
(d) All of these
 (19) “It is the outmost layer of the animal cell, it is thin, delicate, elastic, and capable
of self repair.” The statement is true for:
(a) Cell wall
(b) Cell membrane
(c) Middle Lamella
(d) Nuclear membrane
 (20) Biotechnology refers to:
(a) Manipulation of Genes
(b) Cheese Making
(c) Manipulation of Biological Systems
(d) All of these
 PAST PAPER—-2008
 (1) The share of livestock in agricultural growth has jumped from 25.3% in 1996 to
________ in 2006:
(a) 35%
(b) 45%
(c) 49.6%
(d) None of these
 (2) Of the total forest area of Pakistan, commercial forests cover:
(a) 16%
(b) 20%
(c) 33%
(d) None of these (Please confirm it)
 (3) To decrease water loss during transmission, a mega project for lining of water
courses and canals was launched in 2004-05 with a cost of Rs ____:
(a) 66 billion
(b) 75 billion
(c) 150 billion
(d) None of these
 (4) A condition when there is excessive produce in the market which lowers down
price is:
 (a) Perfect market
(b) Imperfect market
(c) Market glut
(d) None of these
 (5) Total amount allocated by the Government for agriculture credit disbursement
is Rs. ______:
(a) 160 billion
(b) 180 billion
(c) 280 billion
(d) None of these
 (6) The estimated production of sugarcane for the year 2006-07 is ____ million tons:
(a) 44.8%
(b) 54.8%
(c) 64.8%
(d) None of these
 (7) Increased vigour growth of a hybrid over parents is called:
(a) Heterosis
(b) Heterozygous
(c) Hybridization
(d) None of these
 (8) Cropping pattern in which the second crop is started amidst the first crop before
it has been harvested is called:
(a) Relay cropping
(b) Multiple cropping
(c) Double cropping
(d) None of these
 (9) Time factor of cold days needed by certain plants to produce a bud:
(a) Vernalization
(b) Dormancy
(c) Bloom factor
(d) None of these
 (10) A natural dropping of leaves, flowers and other plant parts is called:
(a) Abscission
(b) Fall
(c) Abortive
(d) None of these
 (11) ICRISAT is located in:
(a) China
(b) India
(c) Mexico
(d) None of these
 (12) Mites are arthopods in class:
(a) Insecta
(b) Diplopoda
(c) Chordata
(d) None of these
 (13) Flax is:
(a) Ornamental plant
(b) Oil producing plant
(c) Fibre producing plant
(d) None of these
 (14) Plants having flowers of only one sex are:
(a) Dioecious
(b) Monoecious
(c) Monogamy
(d) None of these
 (15) Area which can be economially irrigated by an irrigation system is called:
(a) Command area
(b) Catchment area
(c) Watershed
(d) None of these
 (16) A group of plants having identical genetic makeup from a single parent is
called:
(a) Clone
(b) Race
(c) Tribe
(d) None of these
 (17) C.E.C stands for:
(a) Cation Exchange Capacity
(b) Calcium Exchange Capacity
(c) Carbon Enriched Compounds
(d) None of these
 (18) Breakdown of nitrate and nitrite by bacteria in an anaerobic condition is
called:
(a) Denitrification
(b) Mineralization
(c) Immobilization
(d) None of these
 (19) Best root stock of citrus in Punjab is:
(a) Jhatti khatti
(b) Rough lemon
(c) Sour orange
(d) None of these
 (20) The expectation of occurence of a particular event is called:
(a) Probability
(b) Replication
(c) Convergence
(d) None of these
 “A sustainable agriculture is one which depletes neither the people nor the land.”
 – Wendell Berry
 What is sustainable agriculture? What is it that we hope to achieve by following
sustainable practices in agriculture?
  The fast depleting ecological system is predicting an alarming scenario for the survival of
future generations.
 Rampant wastage of natural resources and irresponsible use of pesticides are among the
critical reasons for this decline. Additionally, skewed economic parity and unprofitability
of the agricultural sector are adding to the gloomy picture.
 This scenario spells spiralling implications for the majority of the Indian population and
has led to an urgent need to take corrective measures.
 Therefore, sustainable agricultural practices are critical, both for our present as
well as our future.
 In layman terms, that means meeting society’s need for good quality and healthy food
and other agro-products. All this, without adversely impacting the ability of future
generations to do the same.
 The key is to find the right equilibrium between the production of food and the
preservation of the ecosystem.
 Additionally, it helps farmers, the most crucial player in agriculture, achieve economic
stability and improve their quality of life.
 Sustainable agricultural practices work towards achieving a thriving ecosystem,
productive economy and socio-economic parity.
 Each player in this value chain, right from farmers, farming experts, waste management
experts, food processing companies, distributors, retailers and consumers can add value
and do their bit in building a viable future for all.
 The need for sustainable farming practices becomes even more significant in a country
like India, where agriculture is the biggest employer.
 Around 58% of the Indian population is dependent on agriculture for its livelihood.
 So how do sustainable agricultural practices help the current and future
generations?

It is predicted that by the year 2050, the world will need approximately 70% more food than is
currently being produced to sustain the growing world population.

 Sustainable farming techniques revolve around optimally using natural resources while
not harming the environment in any way.
 5 Powerful & Positive Impacts of Sustainable Agriculture
 Conserves Natural Resources & Promotes Healthier Ecosystems
 
 Employing sustainable agricultural practices ensures that natural resources like water,
electricity, air etc. are used most optimally. As a result, these will be available for our
future generations as well.
 A case in point being the use of efficient irrigation techniques like Sprinkle & Drip
irrigation techniques used by companies like Jain Farm Fresh Limited. The utilisation of
these evolved techniques has resulted in as much as a 60% reduction in water usage.
 Sustainable agricultural practices promote healthy ecosystems, as everything and
everybody flourishes in a balanced environment.
 Reduces Pollution and Adverse Effects on the Land Resources
 Sustainable farming techniques reduce the need for non-renewable energy resources.

Agricultural activities contribute around 12% of the global greenhouse gas emissions, and
industrial agriculture only adds to the damage.

 Sustainable farming techniques work towards adopting good agricultural practices so that
there is minimum wastage of crop and resource.
 The farmers are trained to use pesticides and fertilisers most optimally, which results in
two positives. One, there are zero pesticide residues in the crop. Two, the land around the
farms, which is made redundant by the overload of chemicals in the soil, can be salvaged.
 Ensures Better Quality and Healthier Food
 Crops grown using cutting edge and responsible farming techniques like Ultra-High
Density Plantation (UHDP), optimal use of pesticides and fertilisers, are of high-quality.
 This practice protects consumers from being exposed to toxins and other hazardous
pollutants, thus ensuring many health benefits to them.
 Promotes Social & Economic Growth
 Sustainable and ethical farming practices like JAINGAP and Contract Farming, help in
improving the economic and social status of the farmers.
 Farmers work in humane and fair working conditions and receive a reasonable price for
their produce.
 As a result, they significantly reduce their dependence on subsidies and concessions to
lead a quality life.
 Helps in Reducing Farming Costs
 The use of sustainable practices reduces the need for fossil fuels, chemicals, etc., and
further the costs of transporting them.
 All these lead to a significant reduction in the overall farming costs, which in turn mean,
better quality products at lower prices.
 Methods like crop rotation, crop diversity, using renewable resources all contribute to
moving towards sustainable farming.
 Also, innovative technologies like Ultra-High Density Plantation, tissue culture also add
significant value.
 Furthermore, cover crops, soil enrichment, natural pest control techniques, optimal use of
pesticides, are also essential components of sustainable agriculture.
 All these methods and techniques employ farming practices that harness nature and use
its resources most optimally.
 Here are some sustainable farming methods that make a difference
 Soil Enrichment
 Rich and fertile soils are integral to growing healthy crop and for increasing the crop
yield as well.
 The traditional techniques of farming often reduce the fertility of the soil by the overuse
of pesticides.
 Sustainable farming practices like leaving crop residue in the field post-harvest, using
plant and animal compost as manure, are all critical.
 Crop Rotation
 Crop rotation is a powerful and highly effective method of moving towards adopting
sustainable agriculture.
 It helps eliminate the challenges that come with planting the same crop in the same soil
for years together.
 The chief is the elimination of pests that attack specific crops.
 Crop rotation breaks down the population of the pests that thrive on a particular variety of
crop.
 Also, planting crops that replenish plant nutrients after harvesting one specific crop, leads
to a decreased need for chemical fertilisers.
 Cover Crops
 As the name suggests, the cover crops are sown for the protection and enrichment of the
soil.
 Cover crops like clover, oats and rye protect the soil from erosion by wind and water.
 They also suppress the growth of weeds, optimise the nitrogen levels in the soil and
improve the overall quality of the land.
 All this leads to a reduced need for fertilisers.
 Natural Pest Hunters
 Many birds and animals are natural predators of pests that plague and destroy the crops.
  Sustainable farming ensures the habitation of these birds and animals on the farms,
thereby keeping the number of pests in check.
 As a result, it improves the production and quality of the crop grown dramatically.
 Using pest predators is a highly effective technique in controlling the onslaught of the
pests.
 Consequently, it also helps in bringing down the need for insecticides.
 All of the above and many more sustainable practices lead to a more profitable and viable
future for all. In fact, this is the only way forward to ensure the ensuing generations even
have a future.
 We can all contribute by demanding products that have been grown or produced using
sustainable practices. Let us all pledge to do our bit in nurturing nature.

ntroduction:

“Agriculture is the of process of cultivation of land or soil for production purpose”. Agriculture
plays a very vital role for economy of Pakistan and its development. 48% of labour force is
engaged directly with agriculture. So it is the main source of living or income of the major part
of economy population. About 70% of population is relates to agriculture directly or indirectly.
Agriculture is the major source of food of huge population of Pakistan. Agriculture is also the
major source of provision of raw martial to industrial sector of Pakistan. Its contribution towards
GDP is about 25% which is higher than contribution of any other sector. Following are the main
points of importance of agriculture for Pakistan economy.

Source of employment:

Pakistan as developing economy the employment on consistent level has much importance. In
this behalf agriculture has much importance because it provides employment directly or
indirectly to the public. Employment directly affects the GSP of economy as well as the per
capita income. With the increase in per capita income living standard increases, higher hygiene
facilities & better education facilities are also increases. All these signs are the factors of
economic development. So we can say that agriculture has a great contribution toward economic
development by providing the employment.

Food requirement:

Population growth rate of Pakistan is increasing rapidly. According to UNDP human

development report population growth rate of Pakistan is 2% per year. So with the rapidly
increasing population the food requirement is also increasing rapidly. In this behalf agriculture is
the only the major sector which is the meeting the increasing requirement of food. It also reduces
the import of food from other economies. So we can say that agriculture sector is playing very
vital role in development of Pakistan by providing the food for massive population as well as
supporting the economic growth.
Contribution in exports:

Major exports or cash crops of Pakistan are wheat, rice and cotton. 9.8 billion Bales of cotton are
produced per year. Rice crop is produced 4.3 million ton per year. These agricultural
commodities are exported to various countries against foreign exchange. This foreign exchange
is utilized for the import of industrial or technological equipments such as machinery or
automobiles. Further this foreign exchange is utilized to improve the infrastructure of economy
or for improving the other sector of economy like education, health and investments.

Raw material for industries:

Industries have great importance for the development of any country specially for developing
economies like Pakistan. Industries need raw material to produce finish goods. In Pakistan
agriculture provides raw material to industries. Cotton is very important agricultural production
which is also major export of Pakistan. It is used as raw material in textile industries. The
production of these textile industries is exported to various countries against foreign exchange.
Live stock is also an agricultural sector. It also plays very important role to export goods by
providing the raw material to various industries like sports goods industries and leather
industries. So in this way agriculture helps to Pakistan economy and its growth toward
development.

Infrastructural development:

Infrastructure plays very important role to development of any economy. It is fuel to the
economy development. Well organised infrastructure is a key to development because of quick
means of transportation of agricultural goods or commodities (raw material or finish goods) and
communication. On distribution purpose of agricultural products good and quick means of
transportation are required this intends to improve the infrastructure rapidly. So agriculture play
important role to the development of transportation for the purpose of distribution of goods.

Increase in GDP level:

Agriculture has huge contribution toward GDP of Pakistan economy. it contributes about 25% of
total GDP, which is larger than other sectors of Pakistan. Increase in GDP shows the developing
progress of the economy. It has played very important role since independence toward GDP of
Pakistan. Now agriculture is the 3rd largest sector of contributing to GDP. Live stock and
fisheries are the huge sector of agriculture in order to providing the employment. Employment
contribute to GDP, it is as with the increase in employment the per capita income will increase
which results to increase in GDP rate of the economy.

Decreasing in rural poverty:

Agriculture sector has played very important role in order to reduction of rural poverty. Since
1975 to 2000 the GDP growth rate of agriculture was about 4.1% per year. Green revolution
technology in irrigation, improved seeds and fertilizers played very vital role to increase the
agricultural production which results in increase in GDP. Through this technology farmers with
land gain the opportunity to increase their production. So in this way arable lands became
cultivated lands and farmers got the market of agricultural products against some return.

Development of banking sector:

Agriculture has also contributed a great role toward the development of banking sector. As the
government realized the importance of agriculture, it takes steps to improve the productivity of
crops by providing the credit facilities to the farmers at low interest rates. With utilizing these
credits farmers can produce more and more crops. For this purpose government established the
ZTBL and other financial institutes for the provision of credit facilities. So in this way
development of banking sector takes place.

Farm mechanization:

Introduction of farm mechanization in agricultural sector had played very effective role in the
development of economy. With the use of modern machinery in agricultural lands causes more
and high quality production of crops. So the provision of raw material to the industries increases.
Due to increase in productivity level the export rate of major export crops is increased which
causes foreign exchange and economic development.

Use of Nanotechnology:

In agricultural sector use of modern technology like nanotechnology has played very vital role in
the development of economy. This technology is used for producing the high yielding variety
with high quality products. High quality products results into high rate of return to the farmers
and the per capita income of farmer increases. Increase in per capita income shows the growth of
economy toward development.

Role of dairy farming:

Dairy farming from agricultural sector has also played a great role in economic development.
Livestock or dairy farming has huge contribution toward economic growth. The annual protein
per capita is 18 kg of meat and 155 litters of milk. This is the highest rate in South Asia. Milk
and meat and their by products have a good market. Farmers can receive a good return by
producing and providing these products to the market. This process results into increase in per
capita income as well as increase in national income of the economy.

Role of textile industries:

In economic development textile industries plays very important role. These industries totally
depend on agriculture production in raw form. Cotton is the major crop which is used as raw
material for these industries for production purpose. Further these products are exported to many
economies against foreign exchange. So cotton as raw material from agriculture side contributes
toward increase in NI (National Income). Textile industries also provide employment level
which increases the per capita income of the person. So we can say that contribution of textile
industries in the development of economy has much importance.

Role of sugar industries:

Sugar industry is also one of the major sectors of economy which has great importance according
to development of economy. This is totally agricultural based industry. Sugar cane is produced
on very large scale in many areas of Pakistan. This further supplies to sugar industries for the
production of sugar and other by products which has great market. As large scale industries these
also helps to provide employment level to the public. This results into increase in per capita
income as well as improves living standards.

Rice Export Corporation:

Many areas of Pakistan have much importance according to the production of rice crop. In some
areas the world most famous rice crop is produced. A huge quantity is exported to many
economies against foreign exchange. This foreign exchange is further utilized in import of some
other products like modern technology or machinery or this is utilized for the improvement of
infrastructure of the economy.

Role of fishery:

Fishing industry plays very important role in the development of national economy. With a
coastline of 814 km Pakistan has enough resources for that remains to fully development. This is
also the major export of Pakistan.

Forestry:

About 4% of land is covered with forests in Pakistan. This is the major source of paper, lumber,
fuel wood, and latex medicine. It is also used for the purpose of wildlife conservation and
ecotourism.

Measure to improve the efficiency of agricultural sector for development of economy:

Yield collection problems:

The collection of yield from small farmers is very expensive & difficult process. So it is a great
problem of marketing. There should be some easy way for collection of yield from the farmers.

Rough grading Products:

Commodities or products which are graded have higher price in the market. In Pakistan mixing
of poor & good qualities are common. So grading problems must reduce.
Storage problems:

The storage facilities in markets are not enough, seller can not store & wait for a higher price of
the product due to lack of warehouses. Because of this some perishable produce suffers loss.

Middleman’s role:

The middleman takes a big share of farmer crop without doing anything. The farmers borrow the
money from them & sell their products at low prices. So this is a big loss to the farmers.

Transportation problems:

Our sources of transportation are insufficient, so regular supply of product is not possible to the
market. The village are not properly linked to the markets. For proper provision of products to
the market their must be sufficient as well as fast means of transportation.

Revenue system:

Our farmers have to pay land revenue after the harvesting of each crop, so it forces the farmers to
sell their produce at low price.

Market Advisory Committee (MAC):

MAC (Market Advisory Committee) at district and tehsil level should be set up to provide
technical advice and information to co-operative marketing societies. The officers of co-
operative & agriculture department should be the members of the committee.

Market reforms:

The government should improve the markets system. Strict rules and laws should be introduced.
The prices of agricultural products should be checked by the inspectors in the market.

How to: test your garden soil’s pH, and balance it for a better veggie harvest

So you’re resolved to grow the best darn vegetables ever. You’re on a mission to feed your
family nutrient-dense, organic, home-grown food, to stick it to the supermarket, and to hopefully
have enough to share with friends and neighbours too.

Getting your soil’s pH balanced can help a lot. Here’s how to do it:

Why test my soil?

Healthy plants should be able to get all (yep, ALL) of the nutrients they need from the soil.
But if your soil is too acidic or too alkaline, those nutrients won’t be available, no matter how
much fertiliser you add.

Acidity has a strong effect on the ability of plants to take up soil nutrients as well as upon the
wellbeing of soil organisms.

Most nutrients that plants need can be chemically assimilated when the pH of the soil solution
ranges from 6.0 to 7.5.

 Below pH 6.0, some nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are less available.
 When pH exceeds 7.5, iron, manganese, and phosphorus are less available.

So getting your soil pH right is absolutely essential, if you want nutrient-dense veggies.

First, the basics of pH

pH is a measure of the acidity vs the alkalinity of the soil, and determines the capacity of that soil
to exchange nutrients with plants growing in it.

As well as affecting the ability of plants to uptake nutrient by both chemical and biological
processes, the pH also affects the diversity and species of soil microbiology.

pH is usually measured on a scale of 1-14:

 A pH of 7 indicates neutral soil

 A pH above 7 indicates alkaline soil
 A pH below 7 indicates acidic soil

Not all plants are the same – different crops prefer different levels of acidity – for example:

 Strawberries will yield well at a lower pH of 5.5 to 6.5

 Carrots love balanced soils pH of 6 to 7
  Sunflowers thrive in soils ph 7 to 7.5

So it depends what you’re growing as to what pH you want to nudge your soils towards. Keep in
mind that most annual veggies prefer a bacterially dominated soil, which is leaning towards a pH
of 7 – 7.5

Soil science and the nature and intricacies of the soil food web is a VERY BIG topic. And an
awesome one, too. But for now, let’s leave it at that.

Basically, if you want a garden bed that the majority of your veggies will thrive in, you want to
create soil that has a pH of 7 – 7.5.
How to test your soil with a simple soil ph test kit:

Firstly, get your hands on a soil pH test kit. These can be got from garden centres, or online.

We recommend the dye & powder system (scroll down the page) developed by the CSIRO ($29)
, or Kelway Soil pH & Moisture Meter ($175) for broader areas.

 Use a small sample of soil, taken 10-15cm from the surface, and put on a the mixing card
 Add a few drops of the indicator dye and dust with the white powder supplied with the kit.
 Wait about 30 seconds for the colour change to take effect. You will get a more accurate result if
you wait a few minutes.
 Use the colour chart to match the colour of your soil samples. Each color indicates what level pH
your soil is.
 If in doubt, wait 2 minutes and check again the resulting color
 Take several measurements in different spots in the garden. A minimum of six samples from
different parts of your garden is a safe amount.
 A single reading may be an anomaly, so it’s good to get an idea of the average pH in a plot. If
they’re all around the same, take the average and amend the soil accordingly. If one spot is very
different than the rest, however, you may need to “spot treat” it.
 Record your results in a garden diary. You may need to reference your test results at a later
date, as they may change over time.
 Test your soil annually to know exactly what your garden’s nutritional requirements are.
 Keeping a garden
diary is a great way to improve garden and soil health – don’t assume you’ll remember all those pH
results just in your head!

How to balance your soil’s pH

So you’ve tested your soil in six places and you’ve found out that it’s generally a pH of…
whatever it is.

Here’s some tips on how you can balance your soil…

If the soil is too acidic: less than 7 = low pH

 Add green manure crops into your rotation with more frequency.
 Add organic matter in the form of a well balanced, pH neutral compost… adding humus
is the best way of changing pH… let the biology do the work!!
 Add agricultural lime (not builders lime!). As a rule of thumb, carefully apply 100g to
each meter squared. NOTE lime can only be accurately applied if a total mineral test is
performed. It will take a while to increase the pH this way – you should see a change in
the pH within 6 months. Be careful not to over apply.
 Add Dolomite – BUT it contains Magnesium, which if it is already present in large
quantities, could block other minerals. Again, a total mineral test is a good idea before
doing this.

If soil is too alkaline: greater than 7 = high pH:

  This soil will be harder to rebalance

 Add organic matter such as pine needles or decomposed tree leaves.

 Add green manure crops into your rotation with more frequency
 Add organic matter in the form of a well balanced, pH neutral compost… adding humus is the
best way of changing pH… let the biology do the work!!

 In an extreme situation you could use powdered sulphur. Be very careful with this as sulphur is
anti microbial… and will kill off your biology if applied regularly. Apply one handful per square
metre, once a year. It works very slowly and you won’t notice a change in your pH for about 6
months.

There’s other, more in-depth roads you can go down with mineral testing for your soil (we
recommend Swep Laboratories if you’re going this road).

But as you can hopefully see from the info above, balancing your soil’s pH is a great first step to
healthy veggies.

In short, balancing your soil’s pH is a short-cut to growing healthy food.

Once you’re on your way with good soil pH, it’s much easier to treat mineral deficiencies if they
crop up in your plants.

Because now, you’ve created a soil environment where the plants can suck up the goodness they
need, once you give it to them.

How to: test your garden soil’s pH, and balance it for a better veggie harvest

So you’re resolved to grow the best darn vegetables ever. You’re on a mission to feed your
family nutrient-dense, organic, home-grown food, to stick it to the supermarket, and to hopefully
have enough to share with friends and neighbours too.

Getting your soil’s pH balanced can help a lot. Here’s how to do it:

Why test my soil?

Healthy plants should be able to get all (yep, ALL) of the nutrients they need from the soil.

But if your soil is too acidic or too alkaline, those nutrients won’t be available, no matter how
much fertiliser you add.

Acidity has a strong effect on the ability of plants to take up soil nutrients as well as upon the
wellbeing of soil organisms.

Most nutrients that plants need can be chemically assimilated when the pH of the soil solution
ranges from 6.0 to 7.5.
  Below pH 6.0, some nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are less
available.
 When pH exceeds 7.5, iron, manganese, and phosphorus are less available.

So getting your soil pH right is absolutely essential, if you want nutrient-dense veggies.

First, the basics of pH

pH is a measure of the acidity vs the alkalinity of the soil, and determines the capacity of that soil
to exchange nutrients with plants growing in it.

As well as affecting the ability of plants to uptake nutrient by both chemical and biological
processes, the pH also affects the diversity and species of soil microbiology.

pH is usually measured on a scale of 1-14:

 A pH of 7 indicates neutral soil

 A pH above 7 indicates alkaline soil
 A pH below 7 indicates acidic soil

Not all plants are the same – different crops prefer different levels of acidity – for example:

 Strawberries will yield well at a lower pH of 5.5 to 6.5

 Carrots love balanced soils pH of 6 to 7
 Sunflowers thrive in soils ph 7 to 7.5
So it depends what you’re growing as to what pH you want to nudge your soils towards. Keep in
mind that most annual veggies prefer a bacterially dominated soil, which is leaning towards a pH
of 7 – 7.5

Soil science and the nature and intricacies of the soil food web is a VERY BIG topic. And an
awesome one, too. But for now, let’s leave it at that.

Basically, if you want a garden bed that the majority of your veggies will thrive in, you want to
create soil that has a pH of 7 – 7.5.
How to test your soil with a simple soil ph test kit:

Firstly, get your hands on a soil pH test kit. These can be got from garden centres, or online.

We recommend the dye & powder system (scroll down the page) developed by the CSIRO ($29)
, or Kelway Soil pH & Moisture Meter ($175) for broader areas.

 Use a small sample of soil, taken 10-15cm from the surface, and put on a the mixing card
 Add a few drops of the indicator dye and dust with the white powder supplied with the
kit.
 Wait about 30 seconds for the colour change to take effect. You will get a more accurate
result if you wait a few minutes.
 Use the colour chart to match the colour of your soil samples. Each color indicates what
level pH your soil is.
 If in doubt, wait 2 minutes and check again the resulting color
 Take several measurements in different spots in the garden. A minimum of six samples
from different parts of your garden is a safe amount.
 A single reading may be an anomaly, so it’s good to get an idea of the average pH in a
plot. If they’re all around the same, take the average and amend the soil accordingly. If
one spot is very different than the rest, however, you may need to “spot treat” it.
 Record your results in a garden diary. You may need to reference your test results at a
later date, as they may change over time.
 Test your soil annually to know exactly what your garden’s nutritional requirements are.
 Keeping a garden
diary is a great way to improve garden and soil health – don’t assume you’ll remember all those
pH results just in your head!

How to balance your soil’s pH

So you’ve tested your soil in six places and you’ve found out that it’s generally a pH of…
whatever it is.

Here’s some tips on how you can balance your soil…

If the soil is too acidic: less than 7 = low pH

 Add green manure crops into your rotation with more frequency.
 Add organic matter in the form of a well balanced, pH neutral compost… adding humus
is the best way of changing pH… let the biology do the work!!
 Add agricultural lime (not builders lime!). As a rule of thumb, carefully apply 100g to
each meter squared. NOTE lime can only be accurately applied if a total mineral test is
performed. It will take a while to increase the pH this way – you should see a change in
the pH within 6 months. Be careful not to over apply.
 Add Dolomite – BUT it contains Magnesium, which if it is already present in large
quantities, could block other minerals. Again, a total mineral test is a good idea before
doing this.

If soil is too alkaline: greater than 7 = high pH:

 This soil will be harder to rebalance

  Add organic matter such as pine needles or decomposed tree leaves.
 Add green manure crops into your rotation with more frequency
 Add organic matter in the form of a well balanced, pH neutral compost… adding humus
is the best way of changing pH… let the biology do the work!!

 In an extreme situation you could use powdered sulphur. Be very careful with this as
sulphur is anti microbial… and will kill off your biology if applied regularly. Apply one
handful per square metre, once a year. It works very slowly and you won’t notice a
change in your pH for about 6 months.

There’s other, more in-depth roads you can go down with mineral testing for your soil (we
recommend Swep Laboratories if you’re going this road).

But as you can hopefully see from the info above, balancing your soil’s pH is a great first step to
healthy veggies.

In short, balancing your soil’s pH is a short-cut to growing healthy food.

Once you’re on your way with good soil pH, it’s much easier to treat mineral deficiencies if they
crop up in your plants.

Because now, you’ve created a soil environment where the plants can suck up the goodness they
need, once you give it to them.

SOURCES OF WATER

God has blessed Pakistan with

abandoned water resources, with
water flowing down the
Himalayas and Karakorum
heights, from the world’s largest
glaciers, a free and unique
bounty of nature for this land of
alluvial plains. As a result of this
natural resource, today we have
the world’s marvelous and the
largest irrigation system that
irrigates over 16 million hectors of land, out of 34 million hectors of cultivable land available.
Basically we have two major sources of water i.e. surface water & ground water.

SURFACE WATER

In surface water we have three hydrologic units. First one is Indus Basin River.

(a) Indus Basin River

At the time of independence, we had about 67 maf water available for diversion; this amount
increased to about 85 maf by 1960. In 1960 Pakistan signed a water treaty “Indus water treaty”
with India, which brought major changes in the sources of water for Pakistan. In that treaty the
right of three eastern rivers i.e. Beas, Sutlej and Ravi was given to India. Now the Indus river
basin constitutes of the mountain basins Indus plain, Karachi plains and desert areas of Sindh. Its
principle rivers and tributaries are Indus, Shyok, Gilgit, Astor, Siran, Kabul joined by Jhelum,
Chenab and Sutlej. It covers an area of 516,600 sq. km. its source of water are snowing, glacier
melting and rainfalls. From this annually 141.67 maf of water is being received.

(b) Closed basin Kharan desert

It consists of areas of mountain basins of Quetta and basins of tributaries draining in to Kharan
desert. its main rivers are Pishin Lora, Baddo Rakhshan, Mashkhel and many other streams. It
covers an area of 120,100 sq. km. its main sources of water are rainfall and nominal snow. Here
we are getting approximately 4.5 maf of water.

(c) Makran coastal basin

Makran coastal basin constitutes of streams of Malir, Hub, Porali, Kud, Hingol, Nai, Mashhai,
Dasht, Nihing and Kech. It covers an area of 122,400 sq. km and its main source of water is
rainfall. From this basin 0.78 maf of water.

Now coming towards groundwater sources.

Ground water:-

The Indus plains constitute about 34 million hectors (over 85 million acres) of cultivable land.
The recharge or absorption to the ground is around 72 maf, out of which about 48 maf is in the
command of Indus basin irrigation system (ibis). Ground water is also found in some rain-fed
(barani) lands and inter-mountain valleys at depths varying from 100 to 200 feet.

After pointing out the main sources of water, let’s have a glance of the water available to us
through them. We receive an average of 141.67 maf of water from western rivers. Eastern rivers
contribute 8.47 maf of water. About 4 maf of water is received from outside Indus plains. Water
available above rim stations is 5.28 maf whereas rainfalls below rim also contribute about 14 maf
of water. Also about 66.89 maf ground water is available to us. In other words a total of 240.22
maf of water is available to us from the present sources.

For controlling the water resources and for its effective utilization lets have a glance at the
present storages and its capacities.

Water reservoirs / capacities:-

Pakistan is having three basic reservoirs, namely mangla dam reservoir, Terbela dam reservoir
and Chashma barrage reservoir. more small reservoirs like Warsak, Baran dam hub, Khanpur,
Tanda, Rawal, Simly, Bakht khan Hamal lake, Mancher lake, Kinjhar lake and Chotiari lake
Arealso included as small storage. The storage capacity of these reservoirs is as shown on the
view foil.

I shall be discussing only the major reservoirs only.

(a) Terbela dam reservoir

World’s largest earth and rock filled dam was built at Terbela on river Indus in 1976 with a gross
capacity of 11.62 maf and a live storage capacity of 9.68 maf. With the passage of time, due to
silting, 24.6% of the storage has been lost and now it has a live storage of 7.295 maf.

(b) Mangla dam reservoir

Mangla reservoir is the second major storage of Pakistan. It was built in 1967 on river
Jhelum with a gross capacity of 5.882 maf and live storage of 5.41 maf. Again due to
siltation it has lost 13.2% of its storage and presently can store 4.636 maf of water.

(c) Chashma barrage reservoir

Chashma barrage is situated on river Indus and was built in 1972 with a gross storage of 0.870
maf and live storage of 0.717 maf. It has also reduced its storage capacity by 39.3% and is left
with a storage capacity of 0.435 maf.

UTILIZATION OF WATER

In Pakistan we utilize the water available to us for different purposes. The basic utilization is for
irrigation and then used for power generation, drinking and also provided to some Industries.

(a) Irrigation

Out of 240.22 maf, 172.21 maf water is utilized for irrigation purposes as shown on the view
foil. In this the canal diversions is 105.23 maf; system loses are 144-40; rainwater is 6.0 maf;
ground water is 41.30 and utility above rims is 5.28 maf.

(b) Power generation

Water released by the hydropower plants returns to the river system. The reservoirs are operated
on priority bases only for irrigation. Recent increase in thermal generation has reduced the
potential conflicts between water releases from reservoirs for hydropower generation and
irrigation. Now most of the annual storage is utilized for irrigation and not for hydropower, but
conflicts do arise at times.

(c) Drinking

Most of the rural and urban water is supplied from ground water through tube wells and hand
pumps except few cities like Karachi and Islamabad/Pindi. Total urban and rural (domestic and
commercial) requirements estimated is 10-15% of the surface water, out of which 80% return to
the system, however with degraded quality. Net consumption is normally about 2% of the total
water available.

(d) Industry

Water is also utilized in Industries basically for cooling purposes and also in manufacturing
processes. This utility is less than 1%.

Shortage of water

As we all know that now a days our country is facing severe shortage of water. There are two
main reasons, one natural due to prolong drought—which is beyond the control of a man, and the
other due to the gross negligence in the development and mis-management of water resources.
The average annual inflow of the Indus and its tributaries is i41.67 maf, of which 97% is used in
agriculture and the remaining 3% for domestic and Industrial purposes. Out of 141.67 maf,
around 106 maf is annually diverted in to one of the largest but in-efficient irrigation system. The
remaining 36 maf goes into the sea unused – a total loss –. Out of 106 maf, diverted into an
extensive irrigation net work, more than 50% is lost during the changeling and the field
application before it reaches the crop root zone.

In the years when the rainfall is normal or above, the country generally does not face any water
shortage, where as in below average rainfall period it does. This has happened just few weeks
earlier. i was sitting with secretary irsa, in connection of my vision, and he said that they are
reducing the quota of punjab and sind by 5% because of no rains and that the level of mangla has
gone below dead level. After three days i was again with him and he said that now we are
increasing the quota of all the provinces, because we are in happy situation due to present heavy
rains and snowfalls. The planners, it is assumed, are responsible to foresee and carry out
effective water resources development and management planning to meet the future challenges.
However, sadly this is not practiced which ultimately lands the state into such uncalled
situations.

Impact on economy / society

As I said earlier that agriculture is our backbone and the water flowing in the channels to the
crops is its blood line—and if there is no or less water then we should be prepared for facing
problems economically as well as socially. According to the estimates of federal government, the
agriculture sector would suffer a loss of about Rs. 90 billion because of drought. Since
agriculture has remained a major source of shouldering the already crippled economy, it has a
vital role to play particularly in terms of food security and employment of the ever-burgeoning
population of the country. It contributes around 35 % to the gnp and employs about 44% of labor
force. It also contributes 65% of our export earning. The adverse effects of water shortage on
agriculture would have a spiraling effect on the prevailing level of poverty.

(a) Less water means less agricultural yields and to fulfill the food requirements of the nation, we
will be dependent on other countries.
(b) Raising livestock is the main source of livelihood of rural areas. it is also an important
economic activity, which contributes 9.7% of gdp, will be affected due to shortage of water.

(c) Orchards of pakistan bring home a healthy amount of foreign exchange, which can be
affected due water shortage.

(d) Due to less production of main crops, which are wheat, cotton, sugar cane and rice, the
Industries related to them will suffer adversely.

(e) Then due to drought and more dependency on ground water for irrigation, the water table will
go down, and this will cause water constrains to the population.

(f) Less agricultural outputs will compel people to head towards urban areas for jobs, which will
increase the unemployment further.

(g) The distribution of water is controlled from the center by irsa (Indus river system authority)
as per 1991 agreement between the provinces. Now the shortage of water will cause disputes
between the provinces, which may cause harm to the national integrity.

Analysis

Pakistan is one of the poorest countries of the world, where as on the other hand it is one of the
richest in its population increasing capabilities. Our population has surpassed the 140 million
mark by now and is still increasing at an alarming rate of about 3%, which definitely needs to be
checked. On the other hand the growth rate of agriculture is decreasing due to water shortages.
To keep up the pace of agricultural growth comparable to population growth, we must bring
additional lands under cultivation. in order to achieve the required growth targets in agriculture,
we needed an estimated amount of 149 maf in 2000 and will need 215 maf year 2013 and about
277 maf by year 2025. this scenario warns that pakistan has already has slided from a water
happy country to a water scarce country in 1994 and already shortage of over 40 maf persists,
which may increase to a shortage of 108 maf and 151 maf by years 2013 and 2025 respectively.
This water shortage has been threatening the federal structure of the country. Our reluctance to
treat water as an economic good and inadequate recognition of the environmental concerns
associated with current practices have led us towards this catastrophic situation. Further more its
remedy is an urgent one, otherwise it could trigger water riots and finally lead to social, if not
political, catastrophe. Since no additional water is available, it is the time to recognize our
responsibilities and start taking steps in the right direction.

So for overcoming the water crises following steps are recommended

Recommendations

The national water strategy must be based upon two essential elements covering

 Water developments
 Water management
The water development strategy is largely based upon construction of new storage
reservoirs where as the water management strategy will help in reducing the present
losses.

Water development

In this construction of following dams should start immediately:-

(a) Chasha dam

It would be located 200 miles upstream of terbela on river Indus. its gross storage capacity would
be 7.3 maf and live storage 5.7 maf. Its power generation capacity would be 3360 mw.

(b) Kalabagh dam

Kalabagh dam site is located 132 miles down stream of Terbela. Its gross storage would be 6.1
maf. It would have a power generation of 3600 mw. Here I shall further suggest that the
construction of Kalabagh be under taken only, once all the provinces are convinced and willing
to cooperate.

(c) Thal reservoir

It would be located on the right bank of Chashma – Jhelum link canal, along the western bank of
river Jhelum. Its reservoir would have gross capacity of 2.3 maf.

(d) Raised Mangla dam

in this the present Mangla dam would be further raised by 40 ft and thus increasing its gross
capacity to 9.5 maf. In addition, its power generation capacity would be increased by 15%.

(e) Mirani dam

The dam is located on Dasht River about 48 km of Turbat town in Mekran division. Its main
objective is to provide water for irrigation. Its gross storage is 0.30 maf.

(f) Gomalzam dam

It is located at Khajori Kach on Gomal River in South Waziristan, about 75 miles from Dera
Ismail Khan. Its main objective will be to irrigate 132000 acres of land, power generation of 17.4
mw and flood control.

From these projects we shall be able to store additional 20maf of water.

Water management
Managing water resources is the need of time, and we in Pakistan already short of water, must
chalk out a strategy. In this endeavor can be made to save around 1.3 maf of water from existing
losses. following is recommended in this regard:-

 Presently the losses occur due to seepage, infiltration and leakages etc. seepage
results in water logging and these losses can be reduced or eliminated by lining
the canals.
 In addition, people should be educated to conserve water by cooperation.
 Further more government should make laws on water conservation, like many
western countries.
 The second largest contribution to the total water available comes from the
groundwater sources. This source has been exploited and very well used by
public and private tube wells. It can still provide over nine maf of water. This
source can be exploited and judiciously used for irrigation purposes. How ever in
some areas ground water is rapidly depleting due to excessive pumpage,
authorities should take control in such areas to save them from depleting.
 Efforts be made to convert the present rotation based irrigation system to
demand oriented system.
 The modern irrigation techniques, that is trickling, sprinkling etc, which have a
potential to improve water distribution and its utilization.
 Authorities should take appropriate steps to curb the illegal extraction of water
and ensure its equitable distribution.
 Presently irrigation department has failed to stop the illegal theft and extraction;
thus irrigation distribution system needs to be privatized through water user
associations.
 In addition, water, now-a-days is supplied to farmers at a very negligible cost and
that is why they do not treat water as a precious resource; therefore there is a
need to increase the water prices to make irrigators realize the importance of this
asset.
 Farmer’s organizations, water user association, and private sector be involved in
construction, operation, and maintenance of the irrigation system. Such
associations are conceived as a mechanism for creating a cooperative frame
work for improvement of watercourses.

Conclusion

The problems faced by the water sector in the country are many, acute and serious and it is also
known that we can generate about 83 maf of more water. Therefore, building of more reservoirs
and an effective management strategy are the needs of time. Also implementation of the
recommendations will enable the country to meet the challenges, and achieve the objectives of
integrated, efficient, environmentally and financially sustainable development and management
of limited water resources. At the same time it will enable us to utilize every drop of our water
for our bright future.
Myths get in the way of our ability to restore degraded soils that can feed the world using
fewer chemicals

One of the biggest modern myths about agriculture is that organic farming is inherently
sustainable. It can be, but it isn’t necessarily. After all, soil erosion from chemical-free tilled
fields undermined the Roman Empire and other ancient societies around the world. Other
agricultural myths hinder recognizing the potential to restore degraded soils to feed the world
using fewer agrochemicals.

When I embarked on a six-month trip to visit farms around the world to research my forthcoming
book, “Growing a Revolution: Bringing Our Soil Back to Life,” the innovative farmers I met
showed me that regenerative farming practices can restore the world’s agricultural soils. In both
the developed and developing worlds, these farmers rapidly rebuilt the fertility of their degraded
soil, which then allowed them to maintain high yields using far less fertilizer and fewer
pesticides.

Their experiences, and the results that I saw on their farms in North and South Dakota, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Ghana and Costa Rica, offer compelling evidence that the key to sustaining highly
productive agriculture lies in rebuilding healthy, fertile soil. This journey also led me to question
three pillars of conventional wisdom about today’s industrialized agrochemical agriculture: that
it feeds the world, is a more efficient way to produce food and will be necessary to feed the
future.

MYTH 1: LARGE-SCALE AGRICULTURE FEEDS THE WORLD TODAY

According to a recent UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report, family farms
produce over three-quarters of the world’s food. The FAO also estimates that almost three-
quarters of all farms worldwide are smaller than one hectare – about 2.5 acres, or the size of a
typical city block.

Only about 1 percent of Americans are farmers today. Yet most of the world’s farmers work the
land to feed themselves and their families. So while conventional industrialized agriculture feeds
the developed world, most of the world’s farmers work small family farms. A 2016
Environmental Working Group report found that almost 90 percent of US agricultural exports
went to developed countries with few hungry people.

Of course the world needs commercial agriculture, unless we all want to live on and work our
own farms. But are large industrial farms really the best, let alone the only, way forward? This
question leads us to a second myth.

MYTH 2: LARGE FARMS ARE MORE EFFICIENT

Many high-volume industrial processes exhibit efficiencies at large scale that decrease inputs per
unit of production. The more widgets you make, the more efficiently you can make each one.
But agriculture is different. A 1989 National Research Council study concluded that “well-
managed alternative farming systems nearly always use less synthetic chemical pesticides,
fertilizers, and antibiotics per unit of production than conventional farms.”
And while mechanization can provide cost and labor efficiencies on large farms, bigger farms do
not necessarily produce more food. According to a 1992 agricultural census report, small,
diversified farms produce more than twice as much food per acre than large farms do.

Even the World Bank endorses small farms as the way to increase agricultural output in
developing nations where food security remains a pressing issue. While large farms excel at
producing a lot of a particular crop – like corn or wheat – small diversified farms produce more
food and more kinds of food per hectare overall.

MYTH 3: CONVENTIONAL FARMING IS NECESSARY TO FEED THE WORLD

We’ve all heard proponents of conventional agriculture claim that organic farming is a recipe for
global starvation because it produces lower yields. The most extensive yield comparison to date,
a 2015 meta-analysis of 115 studies, found that organic production averaged almost 20 percent
less than conventionally grown crops, a finding similar to those of prior studies.

But the study went a step further, comparing crop yields on conventional farms to those on
organic farms where cover crops were planted and crops were rotated to build soil health. These
techniques shrank the yield gap to below 10 percent.

The authors concluded that the actual gap may be much smaller, as they found “evidence of bias
in the meta-dataset toward studies reporting higher conventional yields.” In other words, the
basis for claims that organic agriculture can’t feed the world depend as much on specific farming
methods as on the type of farm.

Cover crops planted on wheat fields in The Dalles, Oregon. Credit: Garrett Duyck, NRCS Flickr
(CC BY-ND 4.0)

Consider too that about a quarter of all food produced worldwide is never eaten. Each year the
United States alone throws out 133 billion pounds of food, more than enough to feed the nearly
50 million Americans who regularly face hunger. So even taken at face value, the oft-cited yield
gap between conventional and organic farming is smaller than the amount of food we routinely
throw away.

BUILDING HEALTHY SOIL

Conventional farming practices that degrade soil health undermine humanity’s ability to continue
feeding everyone over the long run. Regenerative practices like those used on the farms and
ranches I visited show that we can readily improve soil fertility on both large farms in the US
and on small subsistence farms in the tropics.

I no longer see debates about the future of agriculture as simply conventional versus organic. In
my view, we’ve oversimplified the complexity of the land and underutilized the ingenuity of
farmers. I now see adopting farming practices that build soil health as the key to a stable and
resilient agriculture. And the farmers I visited had cracked this code, adapting no-till methods,
cover cropping and complex rotations to their particular soil, environmental and socioeconomic
conditions.
Whether they were organic or still used some fertilizers and pesticides, the farms I visited that
adopted this transformational suite of practices all reported harvests that consistently matched or
exceeded those from neighboring conventional farms after a short transition period. Another
message was as simple as it was clear: Farmers who restored their soil used fewer inputs to
produce higher yields, which translated into higher profits.

No matter how one looks at it, we can be certain that agriculture will soon face another
revolution. For agriculture today runs on abundant, cheap oil for fuel and to make fertilizer – and
our supply of cheap oil will not last forever. There are already enough people on the planet that
we have less than a year’s supply of food for the global population on hand at any one time. This
simple fact has critical implications for society.

So how do we speed the adoption of a more resilient agriculture? Creating demonstration farms
would help, as would carrying out system-scale research to evaluate what works best to adapt
specific practices to general principles in different settings.

We also need to reframe our agricultural policies and subsidies. It makes no sense to continue
incentivizing conventional practices that degrade soil fertility. We must begin supporting and
rewarding farmers who adopt regenerative practices.

Once we see through myths of modern agriculture, practices that build soil health become the
lens through which to assess strategies for feeding us all over the long haul. Why am I so
confident that regenerative farming practices can prove both productive and economical? The
farmers I met showed me they already are.

Water is the most important element necessary for human beings, animals, insects, plants and for
earth as a whole. Sources of water available in Pakistan are rainfall, surface water available in
rivers and underground water.

After the Indus Basin Treaty with India, water of only two rivers i.e. Jhelum and Chenab is
available to Pakistan while the availability of water in the remaining three rivers i.e. Ravi, Sutlej
and Bias depends on the will of India.

The construction of dams and barrages by India over River Chenab and River Jhelum in
violation of the Indus Basin Treaty created the problem of water shortage for Pakistan which is
becoming more and more severe with the passage of time. According to the UNO Report,
Pakistan is at the 7th position in the list of countries, which are facing water crisis. Presently,
Pakistan has a surface water of 153 MAF and underground water resources of only 24 MAF and
Pakistan may face water shortage of 33 MAF during the year, 2025.

The population of Pakistan is increasing at a rate of 3.2%. Presently, we have to feed more the
200 million people and if population increase rate remains the same, then it will be almost
double by the year,2025 and hence, the consumption of the underground water will also add to
the problem which will be further aggravated due to factors such as global warming and other
climate changes.
According to a research study on water resources of Pakistan, approximately water having
economic values of $70 billion is being thrown into sea every year due to non-construction of
water reservoirs. A water starved country, which has the foreign reserve of only $20 billion,
can’t afford throwing water of economic value of $70 billion every year into sea.

Study of Pakistan Counsel of Research on the water resources of Pakistan (PCRWR) revealed
that rapid depletion of ground water may soon worsen the water crisis in Pakistan’s major cities,
causing a drought-like situation. Such crisis needs to be taken on war footings; otherwise, a large
section of Pakistan’s population, especially those living in big cities, will be facing severe
shortage of water.

Due to excessive pumping of underground water, the quality of underground water is being
contaminated rapidly with heavy metals like Copper, Nickel and Cobalt etc, which are the causes
of spread of Hepatitis in the people of Pakistan, especially in those living in big cities.

The problem of water shortage in Pakistan has gained the momentum as our water storage
capacity is only for 30 days, and Pakistan has the 4th highest rate of water use in the world. It
simply means that water intensity rate – the amount of water in cubic meters used per unit of
GDP is the world highest and no country’s economy is more water intensive than that of
Pakistan.

As regards the remedial measures needed to overcome this horrible water shortage in Pakistan,
steps required to be taken immediately include:

* Preparation of country’s water policy;

* Construction of water reservoirs;

* National Action Plan to be formulated for judicious use of available water.

* Reduction in water losses through seepage, leaching and percolation by lining of Canals,
Distributaries and Water Channels.

* Controlled over pumping of underground water and over irrigation practices.

* By increasing the water use efficiency of the crops by switching from conventional agriculture
to conservative agriculture.

* By adopting water use efficient methods of irrigation like Sprinkler, Basin and Drip irrigation.

Production and protection Technology of five major crops of Pakistan:

Author names: Dr. Faisal Hafeez, Ayesha Iftikhar, Muhammad Sohaib, Ayesha Arshad.

Ayub Agricultural Research Institute (AARI) Faisalabad.

Introduction:

Wheat, rice, maize, cotton and sugarcane are considered most valuable crops in Pakistan. Wheat
is a staple food for people of India and Pakistan. After wheat, rice is considered edible crop.
Maize was also important as staple food in most parts of world. But not all maize is consumed as
human food, it is also used as corn, animal feed etc. However, in fabric industry cotton is most
important crop. For the formation of sugar and ethanol etc, sugarcane is used. The following
table summarises all the important points of production and protection technologies of these five
crops.

Characteristics Wheat Maize Sugarcane Cotton Rice

Triticum Sacchaum Gossypium
Botanical name Zea mays L. Oryza sativa L.
aestivum L. officinarum. hirsutum.
Family Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Malvaceae Poaceae
Order Poales Poales Poales Malvales Poales
Urdu name Gandum Makai Naishkar Kapas Chaawl
Kamad/ Kapah/
Punjabi name Kanak Jowar Monji
Ganna Phutti
Yield per acre/ ha 2.79 t/ha 3.67t/ha 60-70t/ha 638Kg/ha 691mounds/acre
Crop type Annual Annual Perennial Annual Annual/Perennial
4th in the
8th in the 23th in the 6th in the
world 3rd in the world
Ranking in the world world world world
production
production production production
production
February- September
October- March
Sowing time April-May May-June
November February-
July-August March
When top Feb-March
Harvesting time April becomes Oct-Nov Oct-Nov
brown Nov-Dec
22.5 to 30
Row to row distance 60-75cm 75-90cm 2.5ft 22.5cm
cm
Plant to plant Continuous Continuous
22.5cm 9 inches 22.5cm
distance lines setts
65,000 to
75,000 60000 canes
Plants per acre/ ha 10-12 lac 22k-23k Almost 80k
plants per per acre
hectare
 5-7kg/acre
for Desi
1-2 Kg for Non-
40- 12- 30k-45k setts
Seed rate Basmati (for one
50kg/acre 15kg/acre per acre 8-12kg/acre
Marla)
for
American
Heavy to Sandy to
Soil type Clay Loam Loam Clayey soil
Loam heavy loam
Tassel
Tap rooted,
Pithy Erect, usually
Ear Usually height of
nodes, 5-6m having
Description of plant 2-5 feet, 1.8m, look like
Hollow nodes and
Cross self- hollow stem
internodes internodes.
pollinated pollinated
crop
(15-16)1100-
Irrigation 3-4 6-8 18-22 5-6
1400mm
4-6 1-2
2 ploughing Usually 2
ploughing ploughing 2 ploughing
Soil preparation and ploughing and 1
and 2 and 2 and planking
planking planking
planking planking
Fertilizer/acre(NPK) 1N:1P 60:28:25kg 80:40:40kg 40:28:28 70:40:25kg
Galaxy Neelam SPF-213 CIM 496
Basmati 198,
2013
370, 385, 6129
Sadaf SPF-234 CIM 499
Super Basmati,
Verities Inqilab 91
Shaheen
Akbar HSF-240 NIAB 999
Chakwal
86 Sultan HSF-242 FH 114
American,
Shoot Fly
Pink,
Important pests Aphids Borers Stem Borers
Spotted
Borers
Bollworms
Water
spray Acetamiprid
Cartap and Fipronil and
and Cartap and
Protection from pest chlorpyrifos Imidacloprid
Bio-control Deltamiprid carbofuran spray
spray spray
agent spray
(Beetles)
Ear rot Paddy blast
Smut and Root rot of
Diseases Root rot Red rot Brown spot
Rust cotton
Rusts Bakaine disease
1-Sugarcane pyrilla is?
2 – which is approved variety of sugar cane?
3- hybrid variety of maize?
4- hysun 33 is variety of ?
5-hydrometer is used for?
6- purpuse of farm manegement is?
7- magzine by agriculture department?
8- num of agriculture helplines?
9- approved variety of wheat for barani areas?
10 – program on aired by radio pakistan for farmers
11- best suited irrigation for orchards?
Guava is propagated by?
12 – Crysanthemum is vegetatively propagated by?
13- safe moisture content of wheat?
14- safe moisture content of rice?
15- rearing of honeybees?
16- study of ornamental plants?
17- study of fruits?
18- cultivation of grapes is called?
19- best type of irrigation?
20- seed rate of wheat?
21- seed rate of cotton?
22- seed rate of hybrid variety of sunflower perhaps
23- leguminous plants provide what element?
24-which is the not oil seed crop?
25- which are cereals crops?
26- which crops require less water?
27- laggards are at which rank to adopt innovation
28- procedure denonstration and result demonstration shows?
29- T& V approach involves?
30- world food day?
31- WTO was established in?
32- diffusion and adoption are part of ? (not sure how was the exact MCQ)
33- Purpose of Mulching is ?
34- Fly related to cotton plant?
35- Aphid attack is increasing to which crops recently
36- which seed can be used by farmers and selk in market?
37- certified seed can be produced from?
38- what type of harvesting can be done to produce seed from a crop?
39- IPM aims at?
40- IPM involves use of?
41- Powdery mildew is caused by?
42- Basic problem in production of new variety of potato?
43- Ear and —- disease is the disease of?
44- Cultivation of rice is not allowed before?
45- which variety is banned for cultivation and propagation?
46- which is cultivated in trenches?
47- benefit of trench farming?
48-to solve and emerging problem which is the efficiant method?
49- which crop is sown in between harvesting of two crops?
50- percentage of nitrogen in NPK(or perhaps any other fertillizer)
51- dinitrification is more problematic in which type of soil?

Answers

1. Sucking
2. CPF 249
3. None ( it is FH 1046..But given in paper FH 1046)
4. Sunflower
5. Soil texture
6. All
7. Zarat nama
8. Both ( 0800-15000+29000)
9. Fateh jung
10. Hull Waghde ren
11. Drip
12. Seed
13. Suckers
14. 14
15. Apiculture
16. Floriculture+ Landscape
17. Pomology
18. Viticulture
19. Drip+Sprinkler
20. 50-60
21. 6-8kg/acre
22. 2.5kg
23. Nitrogen
24. Bean
25. Both ( wheat+millet)
26. Option yaad nae
27. Last
28. Show comparisons of innovations
29. Farmer
30. 16th Oct
31. 1995
32.
33. Both ( weed control+moisture)
34. Whitefly
35. Wheat
36. Certified seed
37. Options nae yaad
38. Manually ( to avoid mixing)
39. All
40. To keep pest below ETL
41. Fungus
42. Virus problem
43. Sorgham
44. 20th May
45. Kashmiri
46. Sugarcane
47. Yeh question nae tha..
48.
49. Its Catch crop for time adjustment
50. 46%
51. Waterlogged soil

Variation in temperature:

Ecologically temperature is very important factor which effect different physiological functions
of plants and animals. Sun is the temperature main source. So on the Land temperature varies
from one region to other i,e.

Altitude, air humidity, changing season, day and night, distance from sea and ocean.

According to temperature variations plants are classified into four groups:

1)Megatherms:

Such plants which require high temperature for growth throughout the year. Such plants mostly
in tropical areas.

2) Mesotherms:

Such plants require low temperature in winter season and high in summer for growth.

3) Microtherms:

Such plants require low temperature for growth. Such plants mostly in alpine areas.

4) Hekistotherms:

Such plants can grow very well in very cold winter season.

If you don’t have the proper soil pH, say, “Good-bye” to a great-looking lawn! In fact, you can
be wasting between 20% and 70% of your lawn fertilizer if your pH is imbalanced. Remember,
lawn fertilizers acidify turfgrass every time they are applied.
The role of soil pH in the health of the lawn

The pH level of the soil is an important consideration in growing lawns. Most of us have a basic
understanding of pH as a way of measuring how acidic or alkaline a soil may be. If you own a
swimming pool you know that correcting and balancing the pH of the water you swim in is
important. On a scale of 1 to 14 a pH of 1 is very acidic and a pH of 14 is very alkaline, also
called base, while a pH reading of 7 would be neutral. Lawns grow best in a soil that is neutral
to slightly acidic between a 6 and a 6.8 reading.

Seemingly small changes in pH readings can mean big changes for lawn grass plants. That is
because the pH scale is logarithmic not arithmetic. This means that a pH reading of 5 is ten
times more acidic than a pH reading of 6, and one hundred times more acidic than a pH reading
of 7, and so on.

Importance of Ph concept

Lawn grasses need a slightly acidic pH, reading between 6.0 – 6.8, to grow healthy and strong.
Tiny soil microorganisms increase and multiply in soil, when the soil has a proper pH. They die
in acidic soils of low pH! These microorganisms breakdown the vast array of the organic
compounds and mineral nutrients found in the soil that no other form of life can degrade. Since
grass plants need much more than the nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium that comes in the bag
of fertilizer you spread, they can only get their other essential nutritional requirements from the
soil. These include, humic and fulvic acids, calcium, sulfur, iron, manganese, cobalt etc.
etc. The bag of fertilizer you spread on your lawn is mostly wasted when the soil pH is
too acidic. Also weeds thrive in acidic soils of low pH, so you fight a never ending battle trying
to eliminate the lawn weeds. Turf diseases and even insect populations are kept in check when
the soil pH is adjusted. There is nothing more important that you can do for your lawn than to
improve a low pH soil by bringing it up to a 6.0 or higher pH. Even in high alkaline soils
exhibiting a higher pH there may also be a high sodium content. The sodium competes with the
calcium reducing both elements availability. Calcium is not very mobile in the soil, or lawn
grass plant tissue, therefore a continuous supply is essential for the development of a healthy
attractive lawn.

About Bushra Gul

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These methods (mechanical and manual) removes, kills injures or make growing conditions
unfavorable for the weeds to grow. This approach causes the direct damage or lethal injury to the
weeds. It can be selective or non-selective in nature.

A selective attack can control the weed population in an effective way but the non-selective
attack can be threat. Some weeds may eradicate or control the weeds population if mechanical
method is adopted at optimum time and intensity of weed germination.

Weed pulling methods uproot and remove the weed from the soil. Weed pulling can be used to
control some shrubs, tree saplings, and herbaceous plants. Annuals and tap-rooted weeds tend to
be very susceptible to pulling. Many species are able to re-sprout from root segments that are left
in the soil. Therefore, the effectiveness of this method is dependent on the removal of as much of
the root system as possible. Well established perennial weeds are much less effectively
controlled because of the difficulty of removing all of the root system and perennating plant
parts. Small herbaceous weeds may be pulled by hand but larger plants may require the use of
puller tools like the Weed Wrench or the Root Talon. This technique has a little to no impact on
neighboring, non-target plants and has a minimal effect on the growing environment. However,
pulling is labor intensive and time consuming making it a more suitable method to use for small
weed infestations.

Mowing methods cut or shred the above ground of the weed and can prevent and reduce seed
populations as well as restrict the growth of weeds. Mowing can be a very successful control
method for many annual weeds. Mowing is the most effective when it is performed before the
weeds are able to set seed because it can reduce the number of flower stalks and prevent the
spread of more seed. However, the biology of the weed must be considered before mowing.
Some weed species may sprout with increased vigor after being mowed. Also, some species are
able to re-sprout from stem or root segments that are left behind after mowing. Brush cutting and
weed eating are also mowing techniques that reduce the biomass of the weeds. Repeatedly
removing biomass causes reduced vigor in many weed species. This method is usually used in
combination with other control methods such as burning or herbicide treatments.

Mulch is a layer of material that is spread on the ground. Compared with some other methods of
weed control, mulch is relatively simple and inexpensive. Mulching smothers the weeds by
excluding light and providing a physical barrier to impede their emergence .

Mulching is successful with most annual weeds, however, some perennial weeds are not affected
Mulches may be organic or synthetic. Organic mulches consist of plant by products such as: pine
straw, wood chips, green waste, compost, leaves, and grass clippings. Synthetic mulches, also
known as ground cover fabric, can be made from materials like polyethylene, polypropylene, or
polyester. The effectiveness of mulching is mostly dependent on the material used. Organic and
synthetic mulches may be used in combination with each other to increase the amount of weeds
controlled.

Tillage, also known as cultivation, is the turning over of the soil. This method is more often used
in agricultural crops.Tillage can be performed on a small scale with tools such as small, hand
pushed rotary tillers or on a large scale with tractor mounted plows. Tillage is able to control
weeds because when the soil is overturned, the vegetative parts of the plants are damaged and the
root systems are exposed causing desiccation. Generally, the younger the weed is, the more
readily it can be controlled with tillage.To control mature perennial weeds, repeated tillage is
necessary. By continually destroying new growth and damaging the root system, the weed’s food
stores are depleted until it can no longer re-sprout.Also, when the soil is overturned, the soil seed
bank is disrupted which can cause dormant weed seeds to germinate in the absence of the
previous competitors. These new weeds can also be controlled by continued tillage until the soil
seed bank is depleted.

Soil solarization is a simple method of weed control that is accomplished by covering the soil
with a layer of clear or black plastic. The plastic that is covering the ground traps heat energy
from the sun and raises the temperature of the soil.Many weed seeds and vegetative propagules
are not able to withstand the temperatures and are killed.

For this method to be most effective, it should be implemented during the summer months and
the soil should be moist. Also, cool season weeds are more susceptible to soil solarization than
are warm season weeds. Using black plastic as a cover excludes light which can help to control
plants that are growing whereas clear plastic has been shown to produce higher soil
temperatures.

Burning and flaming can be economical and practical methods of weed control if used carefully.
For most plants, fire causes the cell walls to rupture when they reach a temperature of 45 °C to
55 °C.Burning is commonly used to control weeds in forests, ditches, and roadsides. Burning
can be used to remove accumulated vegetation by destroying the dry, matured plant matter as
well as killing the green new growth. Buried weed seeds and plant propagules may also be
destroyed during burning, however, dry seeds are much less susceptible to the increased
temperature.Flaming is used on a smaller scale and includes the use of a propane torch with a fan
tip. Flaming may be used to control weeds along fences and paved areas or places where the soil
may be too wet to hoe, dig, or till. Flaming is most effective on young weeds that are less than
two inches tall but repeated treatments may control tougher perennial weeds.

Flooding is a method of control that requires the area being treated to be saturated at a depth of
15 to 30 cm for a period of 3 to 8 weeks. The saturation of the soil reduces the availability of
oxygen to the plant roots thereby killing the weed. This method has been shown to be highly
effective in controlling establish perennial weeds and may also suppress annual weeds by
reducing the weed seed populations.

Growth is actually a complex processes with different organs developing, growing and dying in
overlapping sequences”. It is also: “Irreversible increase in size, weight, or volume”.

Types of growth:

There are basically two types of growth:

 Determinate growth
 Indeterminate growth

Determinate growth:

It is the type of growth in which a plant first completes its vegetative growth and then it shifts to
the reproductive growth.

For example, wheat.

Indeterminate growth:

In this type of growth, both stages “vegetative and reproductive” of a plant goes side by side.

For example, Cotton.

Phases of growth:

Basically, there are two phases of growth:

 Vegetative
 Reproductive

Vegetative phase:

It is that stage of growth when a plant develops its vegetative part. For example, leaves, roots,
stem etc.

Reproductive phase:

It is that stage of growth when a plant develops its reproductive part. For example, ovaries,
anthers etc.

Growth stages for Cereals crops:

There are different stages of crop for the cereal cops that are:
  Vegetative stage
 Stem elongation stage
 Booting stage
 Heading stage
 Anthesis stage
 Milking stage
 Dough stage
 Ripe seed stage

Vegetative stage:

In this stage of growth, leaves emerge from the plant.(stem elongation process not started).

Stem elongation stage:

In this stage of development, stem elongation starts, specify early or late jointing.

Booting stage:

In this stage, flower head is enclosed in flag leaf sheath and not showing.

Heading:

In this stage, flower head emerging or emerged from flag leaf sheath but not shedding pollen.

Anthesis:

In this flowering stage, anthers shedding pollen.

Milking stage:

Seed immature, endosperm milky.

Dough stage:

In this stage, well developed seed is produced.

Ripe seed:

Seed ripe, leaves green to yellow brown.

Growth stages for legume crops:

There are different growth stages for the legume crops, that are:

 Late vegetative
  Early bud
 Mid bud
 Late bud
 First bloom
 Mid bloom
 Full bloom

Late vegetative:

In this stage of leguminous crop, the crop has no visible buds, flowers, or seed pods. Stem at
least 12 inch tall.

Early bud:

In this stage of growth and development, flowers start to visible on at least one stem(1%).

Mid bud:

In this stage of development of plant, Half (50%) of the stems have at least one bud.

Late bud:

In this stage of plant growth, 75% of the stems has at least one bud and no visible flower.

First bloom:

In this stage, flowers emerge on at least one stem.

Mid bloom:

In this stage, 50% stems of plant have at least one flower.

Full bloom:

In this stage of growth of a plant, 75% of the stems have at least one flower, and no visible seed
pods.

Roundup ready crops can increase the yield:

Now a days the basic aim of an agronomist, breeders, scientists is:

 To feed the growing population

 To keep our environment safe

Weeds are considered as the basic problem in crop production not only in Pakistan but also all
over the world and ultimately it causes the less foreign exchange. In maize, approximately 30-
35% yield losses due to weeds. The crops which are growing traditionally have required a lot of
plant protection and for this purpose different type of herbicide, pesticides are used which causes
the environmental pollution as well as also harmful for the crop plant. Roundup ready crops can
help to increase the production of crop (especially maize crop) by decreasing the weed
production and by controlling the insect pests attack.

The history of agriculture tells that no technology has been quickly and completely adopted by
crops as genetically improved crops. The successful crops are those which have resistance.
Roundup is a chemical spray, prepared by the Monsanto company, is used to kill the weeds as it
contains resistance to glyphosate, which kill all the chlorophyll containing plants. Therefore,
roundup spray can only used for the genetically improved verities or on roundup ready crops.
The roundup ready crops are genetically modified crops which help to increase yield by
controlling weeds.

The first round up ready soybean crop was introduced in 1996, which was genetically improved
and resistant to roundup and it helps to control weeds and ultimately it helped to increase the
yield. The term “terminator seed” s referred to roundup ready crop because it produces the
sterile seeds. But the seeds of this type can not be reused. Each time of sowing, the new seed is
used. In soybean , the new DNA is introduced into food supply involved the allergens. The basic
issue is to convert the gene from one organism to another organism. Most of the roundup crops
are safely consumed by the human beings as well as by animals. But one roundup crop , alfalfa,
has been removed from the market due to some problems.

The roundup spray when sprayed on crops, it may helps in the

 Reduce crop damage

 Help to weed control
 Help to save the environment
 Try to feed the growing population

But some weeds may become resistant and they are known as “super weeds” ,and these can be
controlled by integrated weed management.

In present, the roundup is experienced on the genetically improved maize, cotton and on various
other crops. In genetically improved verities, the gene is introduced which allow plant to resist
against glyphosate. The introduction of specific organism’s gene into the desired plant helps to
born the roundup ready crop.

Conclusion:

Round up ready crops helps in the weed control and ultimately helps to increase the yield.
Farmers are using these for better production and to earn more. This also helps to increase the
foreign exchange of a country. But roundup can only useful for the roundup ready crops. If it
sprayed on conventional crop, it will burn all the crops which ultimately causes the huge loss.
Q: I recently came across a fact that said, “It takes more than 500 years to form an inch of
topsoil.” Could you tell me more about this? What’s the actual process through which soil
is made? What part of the process takes so long? And if it takes so long to form, why is
topsoil so readily available?

A: We say that it takes 500 to thousands of years to create an inch of topsoil. The reason is that
soil is often derived from rock. The rock has to be broken into small pieces first. This happens by
physical weathering: things like freezing and thawing in colder climates, and chemical
weathering in warmer climates. Once cracks form in the rock and plants can take hold, the plants
continue to break the rock into smaller pieces by root action and start to add organic matter.
Chemical weathering also continues, turning the rock pieces into the sand, silt, and clay particles
that make up our soil.

Formally, we think of soil as being formed by five factors: 1) Parent material…or the type of
rock or unconsolidated material we start with; 2) Vegetation…the action of roots and the
addition of organic matter; 3) climate…which controls physical and chemical weathering
processes; 4) Topography…which controls the stability of the soil in the landscape; and lastly 5)
TIME…as mentioned above.

So it can take an incredible amount of time to form topsoil. Luckily, two things in our favor
allow us to have a lot of topsoil in the United States. First, not all soil forms from solid rock. The
glaciers of the north crushed the parent material and did much of the physical weathering for us.
Many soils formed after glaciers retreated are only about 10,000 to 20,000 years old, but have
thick topsoils. Other soils formed in materials that were already physically weathered and
deposited by moving water or wind, allowing topsoil to form much faster.

Second, outside of glaciated areas we have had a very long time to form soil. In the panhandle of
Florida, for example, the landscape has been exposed to continuous weathering for close to 1
million years. So while it takes a great deal of time to form topsoil, we have had that time.

Summer Vegetables
Tomato, Hot pepper, sweet pepper, Brinjal, Cucumber, Okra, Bottle Gourd, Sponge Gourd,
Bitter Gourd, Tinda Gourd, Pumpkin, Arum, Potato, Mint, Turmeric, Ginger, Musk Melon,
Water Melon, Sweet Potato & Groundnut are summer crops. The best time of sowing is spring
(Feb, March) and they will produce till September, October.
Winter Vegetables
The best sowing time of winter vegetables is September, October and they will produce till Feb,
March.
Winter Vegetable includes: Cabbage, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Carrot, Potato, Onion, Lettuce leaf,
Radish, Turnip, Peas, Spinach, Fenugreek, Beets, Mustard, Coriander, Mint & Garlic

The above mentioned seasons are generally suited for most areas, but there are certain exceptions
varying from crop to crop. For example tomato can be grown year around in Karachi or similar
areas, but you cannot grow it in those parts of country where frost is certain also there are
different varieties for different seasons for example summer Radish variety is different from
winter variety.
Early and late sowing can also be beneficial, prepare seedling of spring planting in winter
underneath plastic sheets & fall planting in summers underneath shades these crops will provide
you off-season vegetables which are otherwise very costly in market.

English Urdu Rows X Plants X First

Sowing Time Yield/Plant
Name Name Rows(inch) Plants(inch) Harvest
Arum ‫اروی‬ Feb – March 24 18 180 –
200 days
Bitter ‫کریلہ‬ Feb – March, 36 12 3 kg
Gourd June – July
Bottle ‫کدو‬ Feb – March, 36 18 4 kg
Gourd June – July,
October
Brinjal ‫بینگن‬ Feb – March, 30 18 2 kg 60 -70
June, Nov days
Broccoli Aug –Nov 24 12 0.75 kg 60 -80
days
Cabbage ‫بند‬ Aug – Nov 24 12 0.75 kg 60 -100
‫گوبھی‬ days
Carrot ‫گاجر‬ Sep – Oct 18 2 130 gm 60 -80
days
Cauliflower ‫پھول‬ June – Oct 24 12 850 gm 60 -80
‫گوبھی‬ days
Celery Sep – Oct 12 4 100 gm 100 –
120 days
Coriander ‫دھنیا‬ July _ Nov, 45 -50
Feb -April days
Cucumber ‫کھیرا‬ Feb – July 36 18 2.5 kg 50-70
days
Fenugreek ‫میتھی‬ Sept – Oct
Garlic ‫لہسن‬ Sept – Oct 8 4 50 gm
Ginger ‫ادرک‬ Feb – March 12 8
Hot Peppers ‫مرچ‬ Sept – Oct, 30 18 1.5 kg 50-60
Feb. days
Lettuce ‫ سالد پتہ‬Sept – Oct 12 6
 Mint ‫پودینہ‬ July – Nov, 45-50
Feb -April days
Mustard ‫سرسوں‬ Sept – Oct
Okra ‫بھنڈی‬ Feb – March, 24 18 1 kg 70-90
June- July days
Onion ‫پیاز‬ Feb-March, 12 4 100 gm 150-180
Sep – Oct days
Peas ‫مٹر‬ mid Sep-mid 24 2 600 gm 50-75
Nov days
Potato ‫آلو‬ Feb-March, 24 8 1 kg 110 -150
Sep – Oct days
Radish ‫مولی‬ July – Nov, 18 2 120 gm 30-60
Feb-March days
Spinach ‫پالک‬ June – Nov 50-80
days
Sponge ‫توری‬ Feb – April, 36 18 2.5 kg 60-70
gourd June – July days
Sweet ‫شملہ‬ Oct – Nov, 30 18 1 kg 50-60
Peppers ‫مرچ‬ February days
Sweet ‫شکر‬ Feb – March 36 18 700 gm 140-150
Potato ‫قندی‬ days
Tinda ‫ٹینڈا‬ March – 36 18 1 kg 50-60
Gourd April, June- days
July
Tomato ‫ٹماٹر‬ Feb – March, 30 18 2.5 kg 60-70
Sep – Nov days
Turmeric ‫ہلدی‬ March – 36 1 kg
April, June-
July
Turnip ‫شلجم‬ Aug – Nov 24 3 150 gm 60-90
days

Types of soil tillage

Conventional tillage

The cultivation of the soil using plow, harrow and other farm tools or mechanical implements to
prepare the field for crop production.
Advantages

1. Destroys pests’ shelters and disrupts their lifecycles

2. Exposes pests to predators and unfavorable conditions
3. Distributes soil nutrients throughout the soil
4. Aerates the soil
5. Controls weeds
6. Makes other farm cultural practices easier to undertake

Disadvantages

1. Destroys the soil cover and its structure

2. Enhances soil erosion
3. High moisture loss
4. Disrupts the lifecycle of beneficial soil organisms
5. Needs more labor cost for the soil preparation

Conservation tillage

The planting or sowing in the previous crop’s residues that are purposely left on the soil surface.

Advantages

1. Conserves water. The mulch reduces water to evaporate.

2. Reduces erosion because the topsoil is protected.
3. Reduces soil compaction.
4. Protects impact from rain and wind.
5. Improves the soil condition with the increased organic matter content.
6. Natural enemies have places to stay.
7. Lessens the overall production cost.

Disadvantages

1. Needs a thorough understanding of the concept and requires careful farm management
practices to be successful.
2. Most soil pests populations are increased.
3. Weeds compete with the main crops.
4. High tendency of a carryover of the insect pests and diseases from the crop residues.
5. Organic matters are not evenly distributed or are concentrated at the topsoil.
6. It needs patience and waits a longer time to have an excellent soil.

Methods of conservation tillage

 Zero tillage (no-till, minimum tillage, or direct seeding). A system where the soil is not disturbed
between harvesting one crop and planting the next. It is a crop production where the soil is not
traditionally tilled or cultivated although sticks or other planting equipments are used to make
the openings for seeds.
 Ridge tillage. A specific form of no-till wherein a new crop is planted on pre-formed ridges or
hills or bunds from those of the previous crop. After harvest, the crop residues are left until the
planting time. The seeds are sown along the ridges. Sticks or other farms tools are used to make
the openings for seeds.

 Mulch tillage (stubble mulch tillage). Any system that ensures a maximum retention of crop
residues (30% or more) on the soil surface. The soil is prepared in such a way that plant residues
or other mulching materials are specifically left on or near the surface of the farm.
 Source:
 Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of rocks and minerals at or near the Earth’s
surface into products that are more in equilibrium with the conditions found in this
environment. Most rocks and minerals are formed deep within the Earth’s crust where
temperatures and pressures differ greatly from the surface. Because the physical and
chemical nature of materials formed in the Earth’s interior are characteristically in
disequilibrium with conditions occurring on the surface. Because of this disequilbrium,
these materials are easily attacked, decomposed, and eroded by various chemical and
physical surface processes.
 Weathering is the first step for a number of other geomorphic and biogeochemical
processes. The products of weathering are a major source of sediments
for erosion and deposition. Many types of sedimentary rocks are composed of particles
that have been weathered, eroded, transported, and terminally deposited in basins.
Weathering also contributes to the formation of soil by providing mineral particles
like sand, silt, and clay. Elements and compounds extracted from the rocks and minerals
by weathering processes supply nutrients for plant uptake. The fact that the oceans are
saline in the result of the release of ion salts from rock and minerals on the
continents. Leaching and runoff transport these ions from land to the ocean basins where
they accumulate in seawater. In conclusion, weathering is a process that is fundamental to
many other aspects of the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
 There are three broad categories of mechanisms
for weathering: chemical, physical and biological.
 Products of Weathering
 The process of weathering can result in the following three outcomes
on rocks and minerals:
 (1). The complete loss of particular atoms or compounds from the weathered
surface.
 (2). The addition of specific atoms or compounds to the weathered surface.
 (3). A breakdown of one mass into two or more masses, with no chemical change
in the mineral or rock.
 The residue of weathering consists of chemically altered and unaltered materials. The
most common unaltered residue is quartz. Many of the chemically altered products of
weathering become very simple small compounds or nutrient ions. These residues can
then be dissolved or transported by water, released to the atmosphere as a gas, or taken up
by plants for nutrition. Some of the products of weathering, less resistant alumino-silicate
minerals, become clay particles. Other altered materials are reconstituted by sedimentary
or metamorphic processes to become new rocks and minerals.
 Chemical Weathering
 Chemical weathering involves the alteration of the chemical and mineralogical
composition of the weathered material. A number of different processes can result in
chemical weathering. The most common chemical weathering processes
are hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction,hydration, carbonation, and solution.
 Hydrolysis is the weathering reaction that occurs when the two surfaces of water and
compound meet. It involves the reaction betweenmineral ions and the ions of water (OH-
and H+), and results in the decomposition of the rock surface by forming new
compounds, and by increasing the pH of the solution involved through the release of the
hydroxide ions. Hydrolysis is especially effective in the weathering of common silicate
and alumino-silicate minerals because of their electrically charged crystal surfaces.
 Oxidation is the reaction that occurs between compounds and oxygen. The net result of
this reaction is the removal of one or more electrons from a compound, which causes the
structure to be less rigid and increasingly unstable. The most common oxides are those of
iron and aluminum, and their respective red and yellow staining of soils is quite common
in tropical regions which have high temperatures and precipitation. Reduction is simply
the reverse of oxidation, and is thus caused by the addition of one or more electrons
producing a more stable compound.
 Hydration involves the rigid attachment of H+ and OH- ions to a reacted compound. In
many situations the H and OH ions become a structural part of the crystal lattice of the
mineral. Hydration also allows for the acceleration of other decompositional reactions by
expanding the crystal lattice offering more surface area for reaction.
 Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate ions with minerals. The
formation of carbonates usually takes place as a result of other chemical processes.
Carbonation is especially active when the reaction environment is abundant with carbon
dioxide. The formation of carbonic acid, a product of carbon dioxide and water, is
important in the solution of carbonates and the decomposition of mineral surfaces
because of its acidic nature.
 Water and the ions it carries as it moves through and around rocks and minerals can
further the weathering process. Geomorphologists call this phenomena solution. The
effects of dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in water have already been
mentioned, but solution also entails the effects of a number of other dissolved compounds
on a mineral or rock surface. Molecules can mix in solution to form a great variety of
basic and acidic decompositional compounds. The extent, however, of rock being
subjected to solution is determined primarily by climatic conditions. Solution tends to be
most effective in areas that have humid and hot climates.
 The most important factor affecting all of the above mentioned chemical weathering
processes is climate. Climatic conditions control the rate of weathering that takes place
by regulating the catalysts of moisture and temperature. Experimentation has discovered
that tropical weathering rates, where temperature and moisture are at their maximum, are
three and a half times higher than rates in temperate environments.
 Physical Weathering
 Physical weathering is the breakdown of mineral or rock material by entirely mechanical
methods brought about by a variety of causes. Some of the forces originate within the
rock or mineral, while others are applied externally. Both of these stresses lead to strain
and the rupture of the rock. The processes that may cause mechanical rupture
are abrasion, crystallization, thermal insolation, wetting and drying, and pressure release.
 Abrasion occurs when some force causes two rock surfaces to come together causing
mechanical wearing or grinding of their surfaces. Collision between rock surfaces
normally occurs through the erosional transport of material by wind, water, or ice.
 Crystallization can cause the necessary stresses needed for the mechanical rupturing of
rocks and minerals. Crystal growth causes stress as a result of a compound’s or an
element’s change of physical state with change in temperature. The transformation from
liquid to solid crystalline form produces a volumetric change which in turn causes the
necessary mechanical action for rupture. There are primarily two types of crystal growth
that occur; they are ice and salt. Upon freezing the volumetric change of water from
liquid to solid is 9%. This relatively large volumetric change upon freezing has
potentially a great rupturing effect. Several researchers have discovered in the laboratory
and the field that frost action plays a major role in weathering in temperate and polar
regions of the Earth. The threshold temperature for frost action is at least – 5° Celsius,
and it is at this temperature that the most effective rupturing occurs.
 The crystallization of salt exhibits volumetric changes from 1 to 5 percent depending on
the temperature of the rock or mineral surface. Most salt weathering occurs in hot arid
regions, but it may also occur in cold climates. For example, cavernous salt weathering of
granite is widespread in the dry valley regions of South Victoria Land, Antarctica. At this
location outcrops and large boulders are pitted by holes up to 2 meters in diameter.
Researchers have also found that frost weathering is greatly enhanced by the presence of
salt.
 The physical breakdown of rock by their expansion and contraction due to diurnal
temperature changes is one of the most keenly debated topics in rock weathering
research. Known as insolation weathering, it is the result of the physical inability of rocks
to conduct heat well. This inability to conduct heat results in differential rates of
expansion and contraction. Thus, the surface of the rock expands more than its interior,
and this stress will eventually cause the rock to rupture. Differential expansion and
contraction may also be due to the variance in the colors of mineral grains in rock. Dark
colored grains, because of their absorptive properties, will expand much more than light
colored grains. Therefore, in a rock peppered with many different colored grains,
rupturing can occur at different rates at the various mineral boundaries.
 Alternate wetting and drying of rocks, sometimes known as slaking, can be a very
important factor in weathering. Slaking occurs by the mechanism of “ordered water”,
which is the accumulation of successive layers of water molecules in between the mineral
grains of a rock. The increasing thickness of the water pulls the rock grains apart with
great tensional stress. Recent research has shown that slaking in combination with
dissolved sodium sulfate can disintegrate samples of rock in only twenty cycles of
wetting and drying.
 Pressure release of rock can cause physical weathering due to unloading. The majority of
igneous rocks were created deep under the Earth’s surface at much higher pressures and
temperatures. As erosion brings these rock formations to the surface, they become
subjected to less and less pressure. This unloading of pressure causes the rocks to fracture
horizontally with an increasing number of fractures as the rock approaches the Earth’s
surface. Spalling, the vertical development of fractures, occurs because of the bending
stresses of unloaded sheets across a three dimensional plane.
 Biological Weathering
  Biological weathering involves the disintegration of rock and mineral due to the chemical
and/or physical agents of an organism. The types of organisms that can cause weathering
range from bacteria to plants to animals.
 Biological weathering involves processes that can be either chemical or physical in
character. Some of the more important processes are:
 1. Simple breaking of particles, by the consumption of soils particles by animals.
Particles can also fracture because of animal burrowing or by the pressure put
forth by growing roots.
 2. Movement and mixing of materials. Many large soil organisms cause the
movement of soil particles. This movement can introduce the materials to
different weathering processes found at distinct locations in the soil profile.
 3. Simple chemical processes like solution can be enhanced by the carbon dioxide
produced by respiration. Carbon dioxide mixing with water forms carbonic acid.
 4. The complex chemical effects that occur as a result of chelation. Chelation is a
biological process where organisms produce organic substances, known
as chelates, that have the ability to decompose minerals and rocks by the removal
of metallic cations.
 5. Organisms can influence the moisture regime in soils and therefore enhance
weathering. Shade from aerial leaves and stems, the presence of roots masses,
and humus all act to increase the availability of water in the soil profile. Water is
a necessary component in several physical and chemical weathering processes.
 6. Organisms can influence the pH of the soil solution. Respiration from plant
roots releases carbon dioxide. If the carbon dioxide mixes with water carbonic
acid is formed which lowers soil pH. Cation exchange reactions by which plants
absorb nutrients from the soil can also cause pH changes. The absorption
processes often involves the exchange of basic cations for hydrogen ions.
Generally, the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions the more acidic a soil
becomes.

Agriculture is an important sector of the U.S. economy. In addition to providing us with much of
our food, the crops, livestock, and seafood that are grown, raised, and caught in the United States
contribute at least $200 billion to the economy each year.

Agriculture and fisheries are highly dependent on specific climate conditions. Trying to
understand the overall effect of climate change on our food supply can be difficult. Increases in
temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) can be beneficial for some crops in some places. But to
realize these benefits, nutrient levels, soil moisture, water availability, and other conditions must
also be met. Changes in the frequency and severity of droughts and floods could pose challenges
for farmers and ranchers. Meanwhile, warmer water temperatures are likely to cause the habitat
ranges of many fish and shellfish species to shift, which could disrupt ecosystems. Overall,
climate change could make it more difficult to grow crops, raise animals, and catch fish in the
same ways and same places as we have done in the past. The effects of climate change also need
to be considered along with other evolving factors that affect agricultural production, such as
changes in farming practices and technology.

Impacts on Crops
Despite technological improvements that increase corn yields, extreme weather events have
caused significant yield reductions in some years. Source: USGCRP (2009)

Crops grown in the United States are critical for the food supply here and around the world. U.S.
exports supply more than 30% of all wheat, corn, and rice on the global market. Changes in
temperature, amount of carbon dioxide (CO2), and the frequency and intensity of extreme
weather could have significant impacts on crop yields.

Warmer temperatures may make many crops grow more quickly, but warmer temperatures could
also reduce yields. Crops tend to grow faster in warmer conditions. However, for some crops
(such as grains), faster growth reduces the amount of time that seeds have to grow and mature.
This can reduce yields (i.e., the amount of crop produced from a given amount of land).

For any particular crop, the effect of increased temperature will depend on the crop’s optimal
temperature for growth and reproduction. In some areas, warming may benefit the types of crops
that are typically planted there. However, if warming exceeds a crop’s optimum temperature,
yields can decline.

 Higher CO2 levels can increase yields. The yields for some crops, like wheat and
soybeans, could increase by 30% or more under a doubling of CO2 concentrations. The
yields for other crops, such as corn, exhibit a much smaller response (less than 10%
increase). However, some factors may counteract these potential increases in yield. For
example, if temperature exceeds a crop’s optimal level or if sufficient water and nutrients
are not available, yield increases may be reduced or reversed.
 More extreme temperature and precipitation can prevent crops from growing. Extreme
events, especially floods and droughts, can harm crops and reduce yields. For example, in
2008, the Mississippi River flooded just before the harvest period for many crops,
causing an estimated loss of $8 billion for farmers.
 Dealing with drought could become a challenge in areas where summer temperatures are
projected to increase and precipitation is projected to decrease. As water supplies are
reduced, it may be more difficult to meet water demands.
 Many weeds, pests and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and
increased CO2 levels. Currently, farmers spend more than $11 billion per year to fight
 weeds in the United States. The ranges of weeds and pests are likely to expand
northward. This would cause new problems for farmers’ crops previously unexposed to
these species. Moreover, increased use of pesticides and fungicides may negatively affect
human health.

Impacts on Livestock

Beef cattle and pasture/rangeland distribution in the continental United States. Source: USGCRP
(2009)

Americans consume more than 37 million tons of meat annually. The U.S. livestock industry
produced $100 billion worth of goods in 2002. Changes in climate could affect animals both
directly and indirectly.

 Heat waves, which are projected to increase under climate change, could directly threaten
livestock. A number of states have each reported losses of more than 5,000 animals from
just one heat wave. Heat stress affects animals both directly and indirectly. Over time,
heat stress can increase vulnerability to disease, reduce fertility, and reduce milk
production.
 Drought may threaten pasture and feed supplies. Drought reduces the amount of quality
forage available to grazing livestock. Some areas could experience longer, more intense
droughts, resulting from higher summer temperatures and reduced precipitation. For
animals that rely on grain, changes in crop production due to drought could also become
a problem.
 Climate change may increase the prevalence of parasites and diseases that affect
livestock.The earlier onset of spring and warmer winters could allow some parasites and
pathogens to survive more easily. In areas with increased rainfall, moisture-reliant
pathogens could thrive.
 Increases in carbon dioxide (CO2) may increase the productivity of pastures, but may also
decrease their quality. Increases in atmospheric CO2 can increase the productivity of
plants on which livestock feed. However, studies indicate that the quality of some of the
forage found in pasturelands decreases with higher CO2. As a result, cattle would need to
eat more to get the same nutritional benefits.
Impacts on Fisheries

American fisheries catch or harvest five million metric tons of fish and shellfish each
year. These fisheries contribute more than $1.4 billion to the economy annually (as of
2007). Many fisheries already face multiple stresses, including overfishing and water pollution.
Climate change may worsen these stresses. In particular, temperature changes could lead to
significant impacts.

The ranges of marine species have shifted northward as waters have warmed.
Source: USGCRP (2009)

 The ranges of many fish and shellfish species may change. Many marine species have
certain temperature ranges at which they can survive. For example, cod in the North
Atlantic require water temperatures below 54°F. Even sea-bottom temperatures above
47°F can reduce their ability to reproduce and for young cod to survive. In this century,
temperatures in the region will likely exceed both thresholds.
 Many aquatic species can find colder areas of streams and lakes or move northward along
the coast or in the ocean. However, moving into new areas may put these species into
competition with other species over food and other resources, as explained on the
Ecosystems Impacts page.
 Some diseases that affect aquatic life may become more prevalent in warm water. For
example, in southern New England, lobster catches have declined dramatically. A
temperature-sensitive bacterial shell disease likely caused the large die-off events that led
to the decline.
 Changes in temperature and seasons could affect the timing of reproduction and
migration. Many steps within an aquatic animal’s lifecycle are controlled by temperature
and the changing of the seasons. For example, in the Northwest warmer water
temperatures may affect the lifecycle of salmon and increase the likelihood of disease.
Combined with other climate impacts, these effects are projected to lead to large declines
in salmon populations.

In addition to warming, the world’s oceans are gradually becoming more acidic due to increases
in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Increasing acidity could harm shellfish by weakening their
shells, which are created from calcium and are vulnerable to increasing acidity. Acidification
may also threaten the structures of sensitive ecosystems upon which some fish and shellfish rely.
International Impacts

Internationally, the effects of climate change on agriculture and food supply are likely to be
similar to those seen in the United States. However, other stressors such as population growth
may magnify their effects. For example, in developing countries, adaptation options like changes
in crop-management or ranching practices or improvements to irrigation are more limited than in
the United States and other industrialized nations.

To learn more about adaptation options, visit the Agricultural and Food Supply Adaptation
section.

Impacts to the global food supply concern the United States because they can affect food prices
here at home. In addition, food shortages abroad can pose humanitarian crises and national
security concerns.

source:

A soil moisture sensor is a device people can use to measure moisture levels in soil for purposes
like irrigation control and scientific research. This equipment can use a number of different
techniques to detect soil moisture, including measuring capacitance or impedance. Many
scientific suppliers carry these devices and people can also find them at irrigation supply stores. It is
also possible to build them from scratch; guides for constructing soil moisture sensors can be found

online and in books.

Some sensors have a design allowing people to leave them in place. They can connect with an
irrigation system and may offer features like remote readings, so people can collect data without
actually having to look at the sensor in place. These soil moisture sensor designs are more rugged,
with protective casings to prevent corrosion, and tend to be more expensive. Other sensors are
portable probes people can insert into the soil to take a moisture reading.
In an automated irrigation system, a soil moisture sensor can be a valuable tool for saving water, as
well as making sure the watering needs of a crop are met. The sensor can alert the system when
moisture levels drop, telling it to start watering, and can also send a signal when moisture levels are
adequate or high, keeping the irrigation system off. In addition to conserving water, this can also
prevent issues like fertilizer runoff and will protect surrounding waterways, as well as neighboring
farms.
People can use a soil moisture sensor hooked to an irrigation system for crops, landscaping, and
regular gardening. The level of complexity in the system varies and the cost can be considerable,
which is something to think about when preparing to invest in a system. Cost savings over time will
be significant, but the initial expense may be more than people are prepared to undertake. For
farmers, it may be possible to receive a grant if people can show how the system will save water and
protect the environment.
Soil scientists can use a portable soil moisture sensor when evaluating soils at a site, as do people
like geologists, project engineers, and other scientists interested in soil properties. Biologists and
ecologists may need soil moisture measurements for their work, and these devices can also play a
role in the classroom, where teachers may want to show students how moisture affects soil
properties. This can be useful for activities ranging from exploring quicksand to understanding good
farming practices.
source:

A thermometer hygrometer is a device that is used to measure both the current air temperature and
the relative humidity at a particular location. The temperature is typically measured in degrees
Fahrenheit or Celsius, and the unit might show the indoor temperature, outdoor temperature, or
both. Relative humidity refers to how saturated with water vapor the air is, and it is usually shown as
a percentage. A temperature hygrometer will commonly be either a dial instrument or a digital one.

Air temperature is a measurement of the level of sensible heat in the atmosphere. The higher the
temperature, the more heat in the air, and the warmer it feels. A thermometer hygrometer has the
ability to quantify how hot or cold it is in that location. Some digital models have awireless sensor to
measure the temperature at a remote position from the main unit. For example, if the main unit is
indoors to measure the temperature there, it might also have a wireless sensor that can be placed
outdoors to record the temperature outside as well.
A hygrometer shows the amount of relative humidity where the temperature hygrometer is located,
and possibly at a remote location if the model includes a wireless sensor. Relative humidity is
determined by the amount of moisture in the air versus how much the air is capable of holding at that
specific temperature. Since hot air can contain more water vapor than cold air, the same amount of
water vapor in the air would cause a higher relative humidity at a low temperature than it would at a
high temperature. A relative humidity of 100% would mean the air is fully saturated.
A dial version of a thermometer hygrometer will have one dial for measuring temperature and one for
relative humidity. A bimetallic coil is generally used for a dial thermometer. It is sensitive to changes
in heat and controls the needle on the face of the dial, which indicates what temperature it
measures. The dial hygrometer portion typically uses a hair that grows or shrinks with changes in air
moisture. It is attached to a lever that moves the needle on the dial to show the percentage of
relative humidity.
Digital models of a thermometer hygrometer are often handheld units that run on batteries and have
a screen to display the measurements. The electronic thermometer has a sensor that changes
resistance with changes in heat, and a circuit converts the resistance into a temperature. An
electronic hygrometer uses a sensor that also changes electrical resistance, but the change is
caused by the amount of moisture in the air. Both the recorded temperature and relative humidity are
shown as numbers on the screen of the unit, and it usually has the capacity for a greater
temperature range than the dial models. It might display both the indoor and outdoor measurements
if it has a wireless remote sensor that is placed in the opposite location.
A thermometer hygrometer is useful for various tasks. For example, it is used by mold remediation
technicians and home inspectors to determine air quality. Also, people who grow plants in
a greenhouse will often use one to make sure that the temperature and humidity is ideal for what
they are trying to grow.
How do i use outdoor hygrometer:

A hygrometer is a device that senses relative humidity. This technology, sometimes coupled with
thermometers, allows monitoring of humidity conditions for numerous industrial, commercial, and
residential applications. An outdoor hygrometer differs from the indoor type in several ways: it is
typically weatherproof, and provides readings over a greater range with less precision than indoor
types. Determine whether you need to spot check or monitor humidity, the intended placement of the
unit, and if you need to use a datalogger for computer tracking.

To ensure the most accurate readings, you can use a psychrometer, or wet-and-dry bulb thermometer,
to calibrate a hygrometer. Devices are sometimes protected under solar radiation shields or ventilated
housing. They should not be placed in direct sunlight or precipitation.

Humidity is the degree of moisture present in the atmosphere. To best place an outdoor hygrometer,
you must consider qualities of ventilation, heat absorption of the ground, and air and water table flow,
all of which can skew readings. In other words, a hygrometer should be placed about 5 ft (about 1.5
m) above ground in a level, open space. It should be placed ideally above trimmed grass, which
permits air between the sensor and the ground to mix. Hard ground radiates temperatures more
intensely; slopes divert water table and air flows, thus distorting readings.

Other considerations for placement of an outdoor hygrometer include nearby objects and environs. It
should not be placed near any heating or cooling systems or equipment. Avoid areas that collect
water or snow, as well as the shade of trees. A rule of thumb is to place the unit at a distance four
times the height of an obstruction, and over 100 feet (about 30 m) from parking lots or streets.
Match the unit to its environmental conditions. An outdoor hygrometer may detect, monitor, and log
specified ranges of high or low humidity. The conditions of humidity to be measured should match
the unit’s design specifications; units may have a margin of error from one to five percent. Typical
devices can measure humidity levels from 20% to 90%.
Readouts can be either analog or digital, like a clock. These faces come in all sizes, so knowing your
intended placement will allow you to choose a readout that you can see from a given vantage point.
If the weather station is a hygrometer-thermometer couple, make sure it can provide readings in the
unit you prefer, that is, Celsius or Fahrenheit.
Different models of outdoor hygrometer have added uses. They may work as a standalone gauge or
with a remote sensor via cable or wireless link. This permits more convenient access to the control
unit in a separate location from the sensor. Some units permit daily log graphs or tallies, while others
set alerts if humidity falls outside a preset range. By assessing placements, distorting factors, and a
unit’s tolerance levels, you can ensure more accurate data collection, environmental monitoring, and
analysis insights.
source:

Crop rotation

Crop rotation is one of the oldest and most effective cultural control strategies. It means the
planned order of specific crops planted on the same field. It also means that the succeeding crop
belongs to a different family than the previous one. The planned rotation may vary from 2 or 3
year or longer period.

Some insect pests and disease-causing organisms are hosts’ specific. For example, rice stem
borer feeds mostly on rice. If you don’t rotate rice with other crops belonging to a different
family, the problem continues as food is always available to the pest. However, if you plant
legume as the next crop, then corn, then beans, then bulbs, the insect pest will likely die due to
absence of food.

Advantages of crop rotation

1. Prevents soil depletion

2. Maintains soil fertility
3. Reduces soil erosion
4. Controls insect/mite pests. Crop rotation as a means to control to insect pests is most effective
when the pests are present before the crop is planted have no wide range of host crops; attack
only annual/biennial crops; and do not have the ability to fly from one field to another.
5. Reduces reliance on synthetic chemicals
6. Reduces the pests’ build-up
7. Prevents diseases
8. Helps control weeds

Useful tips in planning crop rotation

 1. Know the family where your crops belong to make sure that you plant on the next
cropping a crop that belongs to a different family than the previous one.

Table 1. Crop groups r

Family Common names

Allium Chive, garlic, leek, onion, shallot

Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, chayote

Cucurbit (Gourd family) cucumber, ivy gourd, luffa gourd, melons
pumpkins, snake gourd, squash, wax gourd

Bok choy (petchay), broccoli, Brussels sprouts,

cabbage, Chinese cabbage, cauliflower, collard,
Crucifer (Brassica)
kale, kohlrabi, mustard, radish,
turnip, watercress

Common beans, black bean, broad bean (Fava),

clover, cowpea, garbanzo, hyacinth bean,
kidney bean, Lima bean, lintel, mungbean,
Legume
peanut, pigeon pea, pinto bean, runner bean,
snap pea, snow pea, soybean,
string bean, white bean

Aster Lettuce, artichoke

Solanaceous (Nightshade family) Potato, tomato, pepper, eggplant

Grains and cereals Corn, rice, sorghum, wheat, oat, barley, millet

Carrot family Carrot, celery, dill, parsnip, parsley

Root crops Cassava, sweet potato, taro, yam, water chestnut

Mallow family Cotton, okra

1. Make a list of the crops you want to grow by also taken into consideration the market’s demand
of your produce. For example, plant leafy vegetable on the first cropping season, next fruit
vegetables, then root crops, then legumes, then small grains.
2. Grow legumes before grains or cereals.
3. Practice green manuring.
4. Always keep farm records.
5. Source:
6. Sustainability in agriculture is an important goal, which can be gained through the effective
and economic utilization of natural resources as well as careful management of agricultural
 inputs. Fertilizers are the important input, which is proved to be essential for better and
quality production. The rising prices, untimely availability, adequate doses and purity of
fertilizers are the important considerations now days. Deficient and excessive fertilization
induces ill-effects on crop health and produce quality. The fertilizer requirements of plants
differ with nature and age of plant, edaphic and climatic factors. Balanced nutrients
availability at the proper growth stage improves yield, quality and other growth characters.
Organic matter (O.M) acts as store house of nutrients and can reduce the use of mineral
fertilizers. Synthetic fertilizers are very costly and do not fulfill the farmer’s demand, so
there is a need to use bio chemicals like humic acid and micro nutrients to increase yield
with superior quality fruits and crops.
7. What is Humus or Humic Acid? The term “humus” was later applied to the organic
matter of soils and composts, or to different fractions of this organic matter as well as to
complexes formed from a variety of natural organic substances. Humus compounds are
complex natural organic compounds that are formed in soils from plant residues, by a
process of “humification”. Humus materials are complex aggregate of brown to dark
colored amorphous substances, which have originated during the decomposition of plant
and animal residues by microorganisms, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, in soils,
composts, peat bogs, and water basins. Chemically, humus consists of certain constituents
of the original plant material resistant to further decomposition; of substances undergoing
decomposition; of complexes resulting from decomposition, either by processes of
hydrolysis or by oxidation and reduction; and of various compounds synthesized by
microorganisms.
Humic acid is a fraction of humic substances composed of a long chain molecule, which is
high in molecular weight and soluble in an alkaline solution. Humic acid is known to be
among the most bio-chemically active materials found in soil. All humic acids are primarily
composed of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. They may also contain sulfur and
phosphorus in varying minute amounts depending on the source. Humic acid use will
reduce the need for fertilization due to the soil’s and plant’s ability to make better use of
it. In some occurrences, fertilization can be eliminated entirely if sufficient organic material
is present and the soil can become self-sustaining through microbial processes and humus
production.
Impact of Humic acid on soil: Physically, humic acids modify the structure of the soil. It
improves the soil structure and prevents high water and nutrient losses in light, sandy soils.
Simultaneously convert them into fruitful soils by way of decomposition. In heavy and
compact soils, aeration of soil and water retention is improved; cultivation measures are
facilitated. Soil cracking, surface water runoff and soil erosion are prevented by increasing
the ability of colloids to combine. It helps the soil to loosen and crumble and thus increase
aeration of soil as well as soil workability. Soil water holding capacity increased and thus
help resist drought. It makes dark color of soil and thus help absorption of the sun energy.
Chemically, humic acids change the fixation properties of the soil. Humic acids neutralize
both acid and alkaline soils; regulate the pH-value of soils, improve and optimize the
uptake of nutrients and water by plants, increase buffering properties of soil, act as
natural chelator for metal ions under alkaline conditions and promote their uptake by the
roots, increases percentage of total nitrogen in the soil, reduce the availability
of toxic substances in soils and liberate carbon dioxide from soil calcium carbonate and
enable its use in photosynthesis. Ecologically, humic acids reduce the over-salination
 problem in the application of watersoluble mineral fertilizers. Humic acids are able to
decrease high salt contents in soils and thus the resulting toxicities. Especially the NH4-
toxicity of fertilizers containing ammonia is reduced, which is of great importance for
young plants particularly. Generally, humic acids reduce root burning which comes about
through excessive salt concentrations in soils after fertilization; in case of permanent high
levels of salt in soils, these are reduced. Furthermore, when humic acids are mixed with
liquid fertilizers, the undesirable smell is diminished. They are also an effective mean to
fight against soil erosion. This is achieved both by increasing the ability of soil colloids to
combine and by enhancing root system and plant development. It offers an economical and
effective solution to environmental problems.
8. Impact of humic acid on seed: Humic acid increases germination and viability of seed by
inducing enzyme production, stimulating respiration in mitochondria, increasing oxidative
phosphorylation, increasing seed membrane permeability and better root growth and vigor
of seedling.
9. Impact of humic acid on plant: Humates have been shown to provide a significant
increase in crop yields when combined with your current fertilizer program. Humates can
improve root development, total leaf area and total crop yields per acre. A consistent result
from all crops tested was increased root growth. Length, density, and radius of plant roots
dramatically increased. Tests have shown that root system vigor is very important to the
nutrient uptake capability of plants, as well as to the plant’s ability to combat disease. In
addition, plant stability is enhanced, and plants are better able to find and absorb water with
a broad based root system. Humic matter has been shown to increase the chlorophyll
content in plants, and can prevent or correct chlorosis. Humates have been shown to
consistently improve the uptake of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron, as well
as innumerable trace elements essential for plant health. This is due to the biochemically
active nature of humic acid, and its ability to form both soluble and insoluble complexes
with various metals, minerals, and organics. Nutrients are mobilized in forms that the plants
can accept. They can improve the quality of fruit, vegetables, and flowers by improving
their physical appearance, and in the case of food crops, their nutritional value. Cereal
crops have shown more balanced amino acid content, and higher protein content. All of
this can enhance their worth in the marketplace. The biochemically active nature of humic
acid is to enhance a plant’s natural defenses against toxins and disease. Many toxins are
inhibited or neutralized directly by bonding interactions with humic acids. In addition,
biologically active compounds (such as antibiotics and phenolic acids) found in healthy
humus can enhance plant resistance to some diseases.
In crux, some Pakistani scientists reported that best economic results can be obtained in
light and sandy soils poor in humus as well as on recultivation fields. This is true for almost
all soils in dry and warm regions. As a result of the high mineralization rate of organic
substances, providing these soils with stable humic acids is indispensable for the
maintenance and improvement of soil fertility. High increases up to 70% in yield,
accompanied by a reduction up to 30% in the use of fertilizers and pesticides, as well as
better and healthier growth of greengrass, ornamentals, agricultural crops and woods can
be attained with the regular application of first-quality humic acids. It also reported that
humic culture increased yield up to 200-500 kg ha-1 and thus 30 to 50 kg of superphosphate
can be saved. In 2011, Pakistan economy positive impact of 6.5 billion rupees is estimated
 as a result of yield increases and saving of phosphate fertilizer by application of humic
acid.
10. Agriculture is the major occupation of the people of Pakistan. Even today agriculture is a
major sector and occupies a very important place in the economy of Pakistan. It not only
provides food for our growing population but is a source of raw materials for our principal
industries as well as a source of foreign exchange for our government.
11. 24% of our gross domestic products belong to this sector. It engages 53% of our employed
labour .About 75% of our people are engaged directly or indirectly with this profession. A
large part (about 10%) of Pakistan’s exports is made up of primary commodities, including
the major cash crops. In addition to this major large scale industries like cotton textile and
sugar etc. as well as medium and small scale agro-based and cottage industries are directly
dependent on this sector for their raw materials.
12. Problems:
13. Following are the causes of our backwardness in agriculture:
14. 1. The farmers of our country are mostly un-educated and lack technical knowledge .They
are unable to unde4rstand the modern scientific methods of agriculture and often remain
ignorant of good means to protect and increase their yield. Their production is therefore
low.
15. 2. The majority of our farmers are poor and they often live in a hand to mouth position.
Most of them are always under heavy burdens of debts. So due to lack of capital they cannot
afford to purchase modern scientific implements, chemical manures, improved types of
seeds etc. Hence they cannot attain the required standards.
16. 3. Most of our farmers are still stuck to the old traditions of their fore fathers. The
circumstances have compelled them to use the crude implements, because due to small
holdings of land and poverty they are unable to acquire and use modern scientific methods.
That is why their standard is lower than that of cultivators in developed countries.
17. 4. Due to excessive use of canal water, most of our cultivated lands have become victims
of these two dangerous diseases. Every year, salinity alone, is turning about 1, 00,000 acres
of arable land into marches and salt lands. Water-logging is no less injurious. On the other
hand the measures taken so far are quite inadequate for such issues.
18. 5. Due to our law of inheritance, our farmers command very small pieces of hands which
prove to be costly. A farmer cannot afford tractors and other machineries for a small piece
of land and those incomes are low. Hence his interest is converted to some other sector.
19. 6. Our farmers have to face many problems due to scarcity of water which is one our
major problems. Large tracts of land estimated to be about 22 million acres is lying
uncultivated due to shortage of water. Rainfall is uncertain and the existing irrigational
facilities in our country are quite insufficient and need to be extended.
20. 7. The land tenure system of Pakistan has creates a chain of intermediaries in between the
state and the tenants. The system, instead of being conductive to agricultural development,
stands in the way of its progress.
21. 8. In some areas of our country, especially in hilly regions, the upper fertile soil is being
eroded by different natural agents of change .Thus the fertility is poor and soils are
becoming less productive.
22. 9. The marketing facilities for agricultural products in Pakistan are still far from
satisfactory level. Our cultivators cannot get just prices for their produce due to defective
marketing organization. Moreover the chain of middlemen between the producers and
ultimate consumers take a heavy share of their produce .Thus the cultivators do not take
much real interest in increasing their product too.
23. 10. Due to lack of agricultural education and methods of modern research, our farmers
cannot control the various diseases of crops and attacks of pests and insects. The result is
low yields.
24. 11. The agricultural activities in our country are performed in rural areas, but most of our
villages have no road or railway links with our markets. So farmers have to face
innumerable hardships to sell their products. Hence the farmers take very little interest in
their profession and production suffers.
25. 12. The resources required for agricultural operation are land, layout, livestock, farm
equipment, seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, transport etc. For the convenient and timely
procurement of these resources the farmers must have easy access to credit. Zarai taraqiati
and commercial banks provide loans to the farmers which are insufficient because our
farmers are very poor.
26. 13. Due to the above mentioned facts, it is clear that the yield per acre of various crops in
our country is comparatively low than of the other countries. Hence we are backward
agriculturally.
27. Remedies to Overcome the Problems:
28. 1. The land which has been declared useless due to salinity and water-logging should be
reclaimed. Tube-wells should be installed in the affected areas to decrease the salinity.
Beds of new canals should be made of concrete to avoid water-logging. These measures
should be taken on priority basis to avoid further deterioration of land .
29. 2. The major problem of agriculture in Pakistan is scarcity of water. Most of the land is
lying unused due to this problem. Therefore, it is necessary that the irrigation facilities be
extended for increasing agricultural output.
30. 3. The agricultural yield can also be increased to a great extent by using fertilizers. The
use of artificial manure should be introduced throughout the country. Due to poverty and
illiteracy our farmers hesitate to purchase the fertilizers.
31. 4. The use of better seeds, fertilizers and modern implements is not possible without
adequate credit facilities for the farmers. The government has extended the existing credit
facilities to a large extent. The commercial banks also grant loans to the farmers, but still
there is a need for more facilities as our farmers are very poor.
32. 5. The farmers should be provided better quality seeds at the lowest price and at the right
time. Better seeds will ultimately give better yield.
33. 6. Various plant diseases damage a large part of our crops. But our farmers have no
effective control over them. Therefore, preventive and narrative measures should be taken
throughout the country.
34. 7. Mechanization of agriculture refers to the use of various equipments the different stages
of cultivation. By the use of modern equipments better results can be achieved in the
shortest time.
35. 8. Co-operative farming refers to the farming done on the basis of mutual help and co-
operation. Under this method the small holdings are consolidated .In this way the owners
of small holdings can also use fertilizers and modern equipments jointly. After harvesting,
the yield can be distributed among the owners according to their ownership.
36. 9. Increase of literacy ratio in rural areas especially in agree-education is the need of the
day. The more educated the farmers will be the better will be the results achieved.
37. 10. Marketing procedures should be simplified and various marketing facilities should be
provided to the cultivators.
38.
39. 11. The rural areas of the country must be provided with road and railway links with
marketing centers and better means of transport and communication should be provided.
40. Agriculture is the major occupation of the people of Pakistan. Even today agriculture is a
major sector and occupies a very important place in the economy of Pakistan. It not only
provides food for our growing population but is a source of raw materials for our principal
industries as well as a source of foreign exchange for our government.
41. 24% of our gross domestic products belong to this sector. It engages 53% of our employed
labour .About 75% of our people are engaged directly or indirectly with this profession. A
large part (about 10%) of Pakistan’s exports is made up of primary commodities, including
the major cash crops. In addition to this major large scale industries like cotton textile and
sugar etc. as well as medium and small scale agro-based and cottage industries are directly
dependent on this sector for their raw materials.
42. Problems:
43. Following are the causes of our backwardness in agriculture:
44. 1. The farmers of our country are mostly un-educated and lack technical knowledge .They
are unable to unde4rstand the modern scientific methods of agriculture and often remain
ignorant of good means to protect and increase their yield. Their production is therefore
low.
45. 2. The majority of our farmers are poor and they often live in a hand to mouth position.
Most of them are always under heavy burdens of debts. So due to lack of capital they cannot
afford to purchase modern scientific implements, chemical manures, improved types of
seeds etc. Hence they cannot attain the required standards.
46. 3. Most of our farmers are still stuck to the old traditions of their fore fathers. The
circumstances have compelled them to use the crude implements, because due to small
holdings of land and poverty they are unable to acquire and use modern scientific methods.
That is why their standard is lower than that of cultivators in developed countries.
47. 4. Due to excessive use of canal water, most of our cultivated lands have become victims
of these two dangerous diseases. Every year, salinity alone, is turning about 1, 00,000 acres
of arable land into marches and salt lands. Water-logging is no less injurious. On the other
hand the measures taken so far are quite inadequate for such issues.
48. 5. Due to our law of inheritance, our farmers command very small pieces of hands which
prove to be costly. A farmer cannot afford tractors and other machineries for a small piece
of land and those incomes are low. Hence his interest is converted to some other sector.
49. 6. Our farmers have to face many problems due to scarcity of water which is one our
major problems. Large tracts of land estimated to be about 22 million acres is lying
uncultivated due to shortage of water. Rainfall is uncertain and the existing irrigational
facilities in our country are quite insufficient and need to be extended.
50. 7. The land tenure system of Pakistan has creates a chain of intermediaries in between the
state and the tenants. The system, instead of being conductive to agricultural development,
stands in the way of its progress.
51. 8. In some areas of our country, especially in hilly regions, the upper fertile soil is being
eroded by different natural agents of change .Thus the fertility is poor and soils are
becoming less productive.
52. 9. The marketing facilities for agricultural products in Pakistan are still far from
satisfactory level. Our cultivators cannot get just prices for their produce due to defective
marketing organization. Moreover the chain of middlemen between the producers and
ultimate consumers take a heavy share of their produce .Thus the cultivators do not take
much real interest in increasing their product too.
53. 10. Due to lack of agricultural education and methods of modern research, our farmers
cannot control the various diseases of crops and attacks of pests and insects. The result is
low yields.
54. 11. The agricultural activities in our country are performed in rural areas, but most of our
villages have no road or railway links with our markets. So farmers have to face
innumerable hardships to sell their products. Hence the farmers take very little interest in
their profession and production suffers.
55. 12. The resources required for agricultural operation are land, layout, livestock, farm
equipment, seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, transport etc. For the convenient and timely
procurement of these resources the farmers must have easy access to credit. Zarai taraqiati
and commercial banks provide loans to the farmers which are insufficient because our
farmers are very poor.
56. 13. Due to the above mentioned facts, it is clear that the yield per acre of various crops in
our country is comparatively low than of the other countries. Hence we are backward
agriculturally.
57. Remedies to Overcome the Problems:
58. 1. The land which has been declared useless due to salinity and water-logging should be
reclaimed. Tube-wells should be installed in the affected areas to decrease the salinity.
 Beds of new canals should be made of concrete to avoid water-logging. These measures
should be taken on priority basis to avoid further deterioration of land .
59. 2. The major problem of agriculture in Pakistan is scarcity of water. Most of the land is
lying unused due to this problem. Therefore, it is necessary that the irrigation facilities be
extended for increasing agricultural output.
60. 3. The agricultural yield can also be increased to a great extent by using fertilizers. The
use of artificial manure should be introduced throughout the country. Due to poverty and
illiteracy our farmers hesitate to purchase the fertilizers.
61. 4. The use of better seeds, fertilizers and modern implements is not possible without
adequate credit facilities for the farmers. The government has extended the existing credit
facilities to a large extent. The commercial banks also grant loans to the farmers, but still
there is a need for more facilities as our farmers are very poor.
62. 5. The farmers should be provided better quality seeds at the lowest price and at the right
time. Better seeds will ultimately give better yield.
63. 6. Various plant diseases damage a large part of our crops. But our farmers have no
effective control over them. Therefore, preventive and narrative measures should be taken
throughout the country.
64. 7. Mechanization of agriculture refers to the use of various equipments the different stages
of cultivation. By the use of modern equipments better results can be achieved in the
shortest time.
65. 8. Co-operative farming refers to the farming done on the basis of mutual help and co-
operation. Under this method the small holdings are consolidated .In this way the owners
of small holdings can also use fertilizers and modern equipments jointly. After harvesting,
the yield can be distributed among the owners according to their ownership.
66. 9. Increase of literacy ratio in rural areas especially in agree-education is the need of the
day. The more educated the farmers will be the better will be the results achieved.
67. 10. Marketing procedures should be simplified and various marketing facilities should be
provided to the cultivators.
68.
69. 11. The rural areas of the country must be provided with road and railway links with
marketing centers and better means of transport and communication should be provided.

ritten and compiled by:

Ahmad Mahmood, Department of Agronomy, Pir Mehr Ali Shah-Arid Agriculture University,
Rawalpindi.

Email: ahmadmahmood91@gmail.com
What is Agronomy? : Agronomy is the science of crop production. It incorporates the basic
sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Microbiology, etc.) into an applied science
which is the foundation for most agriculture.

Absorption Losses: Loss of water from a canal or a reservoir by capillary action and percolation
and in case of canal during the process of delivery.

Acid soil: A soil which is deficient in available bases, particularly Ca and which give an acid
reaction when tested by a standard method.

Acre foot water: The amount of water that would cover an area of land to a depth of one foot
assuming no seepage evaporation and run off.

Acre inch day: Term used principally in irrigated section of united state for measuring quantity
of flow of water. It is equal to a flow which will cover one acre to a depth of one inch in a 24
hours period or 0.042 cubic feet per second.

Acre inch: It is a measure of quantity of flow of water and is equal to the flow which will cover
one acre to a depth of one inch.

Acre :( 43560 sq. ft) an area of land about 220 feet long and 198 feet wide.

Adiabatic: A condition in which heat is neither gained nor dissipated.

Adobe soil: These soils are formed by the broken material of rocks transported by both wind and
water.

Agar: A substance made from seed weed and used in the solid culture.

Agriculture: It is an art, science and business of raising crops and rearing of animals through
exploring the natural resources with the coordination of socio economic infrastructure to meet
the basic necessities of life .i.e. .food, feed, fiber and shelter.

Allelopathy: Phenomenon involving the release of certain chemicals from plant parts into the
environment which may when present in sufficient amounts, inhibit or suppress the germination
or growth of the plants in the neighborhood. Alluvial soil: These are the soils which are formed
by the deposition of broken material of rocks transported and deposited by water of streams and
rivers.
Altitude: Height from sea level

Application losses: Water losses through percolation or run off.

Arable farming: The term arable farming refers to system in which only crops that require
cultivation of the soil are grown.

Arboriculture: Intensive cultivation of individual trees possibly for fruits gums and resins.

Arid region: The region where total rain fall is less than natural evapo – transpiration rate.

Aridity: It is the characteristic of a region where there is low average rain fall or 100% available
water. It is permanent feature of region.

Available water: The water retained in a soil which represents the difference between field
capacity and the permanent wilting percentage is called available water.

Barani soil :When the source of irrigation to crop is only the rain water that is known as Barani
soil.

Base period: Period of time in days from the first watering of crop before sowing and the last
watering before harvesting.

Basic seed :Is the progeny of pre – basic seed produced so as to maintain genetic purity and
identity.

Basin : Flat area of land surrounded by low ridges or bunds

Biological yield :It is the total dry matter produced by a plant as a result of photosynthesis and
nutrient uptake minus that lost by respiration.

Blind hoeing :Hoeing before a crop germinates.

Botanical variety :When a group of plant occurring in nature is different from the general
species originally described and the botanical binomial name is not enough to identify it is called
as botanical variety.

Broadcasting :Manual spreading of seed in the field and mixing of the spread seed by ploughing
or planking the field.

C3 plants :Plants which fix CO2 in three C molecule and do not use temperature and water as
efficiently as C4 plant. e.g wheat, rice, cotton.

C4 plant :: Plants which fix CO2 in to a four C molecules .e.g sugarcane, maize, sorghum.
Capillary Water :It is the soil water in excess of hygroscopic water. This exists in the pore
space of the soil by surface tension or molecular attraction against gravitational forces. It is only
water available for plant growth and development.

Capillary Water :It is that water which is held by surface forces (adhesion, cohesion, surface
tension) or films around the particles in angles between them and in capillary pores.

Catchment’s Area :The area which drains the rain water falling on it, via streams and rivers,
eventually to the sea or into a lake.

Cereal Crops :: A cereal is defined as crop grown for its edible seed. These crops are also
known as grain crops e.g. wheat , Rice, Maize etc.

Certified Seed :It is the progeny of basic seed and is produced by registered growers of seed
producing agencies.

Clayey Soil :A soil is known as clayey which contain at least 30% clay particles and in most
cases not less than 40% ,usually it contain 45% clay , 30% silt and 25% sand.

Climate :Aggregate of atmospheric condition over a long period of time.

Clone : A cultivar propagated by vegetative method is called a clone.

Colluvial Soil :Are those which are form from the material transported by the force of gravity.

Command Area :Area which can be economically irrigated by an irrigation system.

Commercial Farming System :In this type of farming system, crops are raised on a commercial
scale for marketing.

Companion Crops :The two crops grown together are called companion crops. e.g. Berseem
and barley.

Condiment Crops :Crops which are grown and consumed as condiments e.g. coriander, mint.

Conidia :One celled asexual spores in certain fungi.

Consumptive Use of Water :Evapo-transpiration plus the water assimilated by various plant
metabolic processes. As the water consumed in plant metabolism is very small, consumptive use
and evapo-transpiration are considered almost equal.

Cover Crops :The crops, which are planted to cover the ground and to reduce the soil erosion
and nutrients losses by leaching. e.g grasses and rye.

Crassulation Acid Metabolism (CAM) Plants :CAM plants fix CO2 in four carbonic acid as
do the C4 plants e.g pine apple.
Critical Period of Competition :During the crop period there is a certain time when crop plants
are most sensitive to competition by weeds, this time is known as the critical period of
competition.

Critical Threshold Level (CTL) : A weed, insect pest density capable of causing significant
damage to crop is termed as critical threshold level.

Crop Rotation :Is the strategy of raising crops from a piece of land in such an order or
succession that the fertility of land suffers minimally and the farmer’s profits are not reduced.

Crop Water Requirement :The amount of water required to raise a crop to maturity with in a
given period of time.

Crop :A crop is a community of plants grown under field condition for its economic value.

Cropping Intensity :The term cropping intensity refers to the ratio of actual cultivated area to
total farm area over a year.

Cropping Pattern :It is a general cropping system followed or practiced by the farmers in an
ecological zone.

Cropping Scheme :Allocation of an area to different crops being grown on a particular farm in a
year.

Cultivator :Which only cut and stirr the soil.

Define Necrosis :Death of organs of a plant, either as blight or death of tissue in localized areas,
usually inside fruit and stems or die back or death of stems or branches.

Define Olericulture :Branch of horticulture which deals with cultivation of vegetables.

Delta of Water :The depth of irrigation water required for the full crop period.

Determinate Plants :Those plant which initiate their reproductive stage after completing
vegetative growth, e.g. wheat, barley.

Dicots :Dicots have two cotyledons and reticulate leaf venation.

Diversified Farming :This is an expanded type of farming system in which varieties of crops
are produced and many types of animals are reared.

Dobari Crops :A crop grown on residual moisture after the harvest of rice.

Dormancy :Seed dormancy is the state of inhibited germination of seeds with viable embryos in
condition conducive to plant growth.
Drainage :It is the removal of excess surface or ground water from the root zone of a crop by
means of surface or sub – surface drains.

Dry farming: In which crops and livestock are raised on land which does not receive sufficient
rainfall for water intensive crops and no irrigation facilities are available fall into this category.

Duty of water: The relationship between irrigation water flow and its commanded area where
crops mature fully with that amount of water within a base period is called duty of water.

Earthing up: The operation of pulling up soil from the center of crop rows to the bottom of the
plants, this helps in uprooting weeds and supporting to plants.
Economic yield: The economically important part for which a particular crop is grown.
Effective rainfall: It is the part of the rainfall which forms a portion of the water requirement of
a crop or which can be used by crop.
Eolian soil: The soil which is formed by the material transported by winds from one place to
another is called eolian soil.
Epigeal germination: It is derived from two words epi “above” and geas “earth”. In this type of
germination the cotyledons come out above the soil surface and generally turn green and act as
first foliage leaves. e.g. bean,cotton.
Evapotranspiration:It is the total loss of water due to its evaporation from land, plant and water
surfaces and transpiration by vegetation per unit area per unit time.
Exhaustive crops: Crops, which feed heavily on the soil and deplete soil nutrients e.g. sorghum,
tobacco.
Extensive farming: In this type of farming large areas are used with minimum expenditure or
attention to efficient use of other resources.
Fiber crops: The crops, which are grown for their fiber and are used in making textiles, ropes.
e.g. jute, sun hemp, cotton.
Field capacity: The amount of water retained by soil after drainage of saturated soil by
gravitational force is called field capacity.
Field carrying capacity: It is the field capacity. It is also called normal moisture capacity.
Forage crops: Those crops, which are grazed by animals and harvested for green chop, hay,
silage are classified as forage crops e.g. maize and sorghum.
Fruit farming: In which orchards are planted and the objectives are to maximize fruit
production, enhance quality and increase income.
Functional Allelopathy: It is the case when the chemicals are toxic after being transformed by
microorganism.
Garden crops: Vegetable crops, which are grown for their edible leaves, shoots, flowers, fruit
and seed. e.g cabbage and okra.
Germination: Is the emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential
structures which, for the kind of seed provided, indicate the ability to produce a normal plant
under favourable conditions.
Grassland farming: These systems are mainly concerned with growing grasses for consumption
by livestock kept for milk or meat production.
Gravitational potential: It is produced by gravitational forces operating on soil water.
Gravitational water:Is the water in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water that percolates
through the soil under the action of gravity if favourable conditions for water drainage are
provided.
Green manure crops: Some crops are grown and ploughed in the soil in green form in order to
improve soil fertility e.g. Berseem , Guara,Dhaincha etc
Hard pan: A hard semi impervious layer usually developed due to continuous ploughing to a
depth of about 15 cm, with cultivators, or with continuous deposition of salts due to soil or
surface irrigation water.
Herbaceous: Plants with soft and easily vulnerable body parts.
Herbs: Are plants of small to medium height and canopy.
Hydrophyte: Plant which grows in water, or which loves water.
Hygroscopic water:Water attached to soil particles by loose chemical bonds and does not move
by the action of gravity or capillary force.
Ideotype: An ideal plant type developed through breeding.
Indeterminate plants:In these plants, the vegetative and reproductive stages continue
simultaneously e.g. okra, tomato. Soybean is the only crop, which has determinate and
indeterminate as well as semi – determinate growing types.
Inoculant: The bacteria containing material used to introduce N – fixing Rhizobium bacteria
into soil.
Integrated weed management: The concept of IWM involves the planned use of all possible
direct and indirect measures rather than relying on a single method to combat weeds.
Inter cropping: Growing of two or more crops together on the same field, where one crop (main
crop) planted in rows first and then another crop (intercrop) is planted in between the rows.
These crops remain in association for a shorter time. These crops may or may not be planted and
harvested at the same time e.g in Sugar cane planting of onion, garlic etc
Interception: When the drops of rainfall or precipitation are intercepted by plant leaves it is
called interception.
Irrigated soil: The soil, which receives irrigation water from well and tube wells, are known as
irrigated or chahi soil.
Irrigation efficiency: It is a term used to indicate how efficiently the available water supply is
being used for crop production.
Irrigation scheduling: It refers to the number of irrigations for a crop and their timing.
Irrigation water requirement: The quantity of water required for successful crop production
exclusive of precipitation, ground water and other natural resources.
Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil or crop plants to assist crop
production.
Kera: Manual sowing of seeds in lines in furrows.
Kharif crops: Those crops, which are planted in the summer month from the March to July and
harvested in autumn and winter, are called Kharif crops e.g. rice and cotton.
Lacustrine soil: When the material transported by streams and river, if deposited in lakes the
soils are called Lacustrine soil.
Latitude: The angular distance north or south of earth equator.
Line: A cultivar propagated by seed is called a line.
Livestock and poultry farming: This category includes farming system in which various kinds
of livestock are reared for meat, milk, wool and eggs.
Loamy soil: The soil is more or less than midway clay and sandy soil and ideal loam soil may
defined as a mixture of sand , silt and clay particles which shows the properties of sandy, silt and
clayey in equal proportion.
Lodging: The bending or breaking over of a plant before harvesting.
Long day plants: Plants which change vegetative to reproductive stage by producing flowers
and fruits, when the days become longer. e.g. Carrot, Radish etc.
Matric potential: It is produced by capillary and surface forces.
Maximum potential soil moisture deficit: Is the greatest value of potential soil moisture deficit
attained during the growth of a crop.
Monocots: These plants have one cotyledon and parallel leaf venation.
Muck soil: If the quantity of organic matter exceeds 20 % but less than 50% are called muck
soil.
Mulch: Any material or practice which is used to check the loss of water by evaporation is
called mulch.
Multiple cropping: It is growing of two or more crops in a year from the same piece of land
Narcotic or drug crops: This category includes those crops, which have some narcotic and drug
value e.g. poppy, tobacco.
Natural erosion: The erosion of the soil under natural condition.
Natural soil: Strictly speaking a soil having pH of 7, in practice a soil having PH 6.6 and 7.3.
Net plot: Area from which yield and other characteristics are measure. It is also known as the
net area of the plot.
No tillage crop(zero tillage crop): Crop grown with out any tillage to prepare seed bed
or row.
Node A slightly enlarge portion of stem where leaves and bud arises and where branches
originate.
Nucleus seed: Seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety which needs
to be purified and multiplied in such a way as to maintain its genetic purity.
Nut cycle: The regeneration/cycling of nutrients.
Nutrients budget: A quantitative data of the major nut flowing to retained within the discharge
from the system.
Nutrients: The food for microbial and plant life mainly composed of nitrogen and
phosphorous but also of potassium , Mg , Fe , Ca ,Co ,Cu , Zn and others elements.
Oil seed crops: These are the crops, which are grown for the purpose of extracting oil from their
seed e.g. mustard and groundnut.
On – farm water management: The planned use of irrigation water at the farm level or
more efficient utilization in agriculture.
Osmotic potential: It is also called solute potential. It is produced by various solutes in
soil water.
Peat soil: If the quantity of organic matter is more than 50% is called peat soil.
Percolation: Downward movement of water with in the soil profile.
Permanent wilting percentage: The soil water content at which plants can no longer extract
sufficient water from the soil for their growth is called permanent wilting percentage.
Plant development: Plant development is the progress of plant from germination to maturity
through a series of stages.
Plant growth: It is the increase in the dry weight of a plant over time mainly as a consequence
of photosynthesis.
Plough pan: A dense, compacted layer about 5 to 7 cm thick formed beneath the surface soil by
repeated ploughing in the same path.
Plough: Its function is to cut, stirr, invert, and pulverize the soil.
Pore space: It is a space between soil particles occupied by air and water; it is largely controlled
by the texture of soil.
Potential Evapotranspiration: Is defined as the amount of evaporation occurring from an
extensive area of a short, green growing crop completely covering the ground and well supplied
with water.
Potential soil moisture deficit: It is the difference between a crop potential evapotranspiration
and the amount of rainfall received by a crop plus the quantity of water delivered to it in
irrigation.
Pre – basic seed: It is the progeny of nucleus seed, and is handled so as to maintain specific
genetic purity and identity as completely as possible.
Pressure potential: It is produced by actual hydrostatic pressure.
Puddling: Ploughing in standing water to create a shallow hard pan at a 10 to 15 cm depth,
which helps to increase water-holding capacity and reduce moisture losses by percolation.
Pulses or grain legumes: The crops belonging to Leguminoseae family are grown for their
edible seed e.g chick pea, lobia.
Rabi crops: These crops are planted in winter from October to December and harvested in
summer from March to May e.g. wheat,
Readily available water The portion of the available water that is most easily extracted by a
plant is called readily available water.
Regular and trade winds e.g. monsoon winds
Relay crops: A relay crops is one which is planted as a second crop after the first crop has
reached its reproductive stage of growth but before it is ready for harvest. e.g. planting of sugar
cane in sugar beet.
Relief: When rising ground or mountains running at right angle to the prevailing wind.
Root and tuber crops: These are vegetable crops grown for their under ground parts like roots,
bulbs, rhizomes, corms and stem tubers e.g. carrot and onion.
Rumber: The process in which planker or leveler is used to conserve moisture at watter
condition before the preparation of land after rauni.
Run off: When water flows out the field by breaking the bunds of the field or flows to the sloppy
areas from the high level is called run off..
Sandy soil: the soil which contains 2.00 to 0.2 mm diameter soil particles , it contain 85% sand
, and >15% , silt and clay. These soils are poor in plant material.
Saturation capacity:This term refers to the amount of water present in the soil when it is
completely saturated with water.
Scarification: Any physical or chemical treatment that makes the seed coat permeable is known
as scarification.
Seed certification: Is the process to secure, maintain and make available high quality seed and
propagating materials of superior crop varieties, so grown and distributed as to ensure desirable
standards of genetic identity, physical purity and quality attributes.
Seedling A young plant that has grown from a seed
Seeling: Mechanical weeding process carried out by ploughing with bullocks or tractors.
Seepage: Losses through the beds and banks of canals and water channels take place
mainly by unlined canals.
Sett: A piece of seed cane with two – four buds(eyes).
Short day plants: Plants which changes from vegetative to reproductive stage and produces
flowers and fruits , when the days become shorter.
Shrubs: Are bushy plants with medium to tall height and canopy.
Silage crops: Those crops, which are harvested when still green and succulent and are fed
directly to animals with out curing, are called silage crops. e.g. Berseem, Shaftal, maize.
Soil: A natural body developed from variable mixtures of broken and weathered minerals and
decaying organic matter which covers the earth crust in thin layers and supplies proper amount
of nutrients and air water and mechanical support to plants.
Stratification: Is the practice of exposing imbibed seeds to cool temperature conditions for a
few days prior to germination in order to break their dormancy.
Subsistence farming: In which basic necessities like food, clothing, and shelter are produced for
the family to live on.
Sugar crops: These are the crops, which are grown for sugar purposes. e.g. sugar cane and sugar
beet.
Tell the share of wheat crop in total cropped area of
Pakistan: 37.01% under wheat.
Temporary wilting percentage: Soil water content at which plants wilt during the hot windy
part of the day but regain turgidity during the cooler part of the day is called TWP.
Tillage: It is usually defined as the mechanical manipulation of the soil aimed at improving its
physical condition.
Tiller: To put forth shoots other than the mother shoot from roots axis.
Tilth: The physical condition of soil is called Tilth.
Topping: Topping in tobacco is the removal of the terminal bud with or without some of the
small top leaves just before or after the appearance of the flower head.
Transpiration ratio:It is the ratio of the weight or volume of water transpired by the plant
during its growth period to the weight of dry matter produced by the plant.
Transpiration: It is the process of loss of water from living plants.
Truck farming: It refers to the system in which the bulk of the out puts are produced and
marketed.
True Allelopathy: When the allelochemical is toxic in their original form is called true
Allelopathy.
Variety: In general the term variety has been used to refer to a group of similar plant with in a
particular species that is distinguished by one or more then one character and given the name.
Vernalization and chilling: Many biennials and temperate annuals, as well as certain fruit trees,
require exposure to cold temperature before they can flowers. This is known as Vernalization
requirement for annuals and biennials and chilling requirement for fruit trees.
Vines: Are plants, which have tender stems, and requires some support for upward growth.
Water holding capacity: Ability of soil to retain water.
Water potential: Refers to the chemical potential of water.
Watter: Describes the condition when soil moisture level is suitable for cultivation.
Weather: It is a state of atmosphere at any time; it is combined effect of many things such as
heat, cold.
Weed: any plant growing out of its proper place.
Harvest index
It is the ratio of economic yield to biological yield. It is expressed in percentage in
H.I. = economic yield x 100 / Biological yield

Biological yield
It is the total dry matter produced by the crops after synthesis minus respiration losses.
Economic yield
That part of the crop for which crop is grown e.g. stem in sugarcane, root in the case of sugar
beet.
Monocropping
Raising of only one crop in a year when there is seasonal supply of water is called
Monocropping, monoculture or specialized farming.
Multiple cropping
Raisingof two or more crops in the same field or in a year is called diversified multiple cropping
or simple multiple cropping.
Tilth
It is the final condition of soil when all the tillage operations are carried.
What is composite variety? A mixture of genotype from general sources maintained by normal
pollination.
What are the compounds which act as buffer in soil? Clay organic matter and such
compounds as carbonates and phosphates which make the soil to resist appreciable change in pH
value.
What is arid? A term applied to land that is dry also means deficient in rainfall.
What is compost? A manure derived from decomposed plant remains usually made by
fermentation, waste plant material under controlled conditions. Compost usually used in green
houses to enrich the soil either dungs as surface.
What is contact herbicide ? Which kill only those parts of plant with which they come into
contact and used mostly to control annual weeds when seedling, they have little residual effect.
What is crop rotation ? A definite succession of crops following one an other in a specific
order.
What is drought resistance? Characteristics of plants which are suitable for cultivation in dry
condition regardless of the inherent mechanism that provides resistance.
What is effective rainfall? Precipitation which falls during the growing period of the crop and is
available to meet the Evapotranspiration requirements of crops .
What is Gibberellins ? Plant growth stimulating chemicals which are able to induce a number
of effects on plants.
What is harvest index? The ratio of grain weight to total plant weight in a cereal crop.
What is hybrid vigour ? Qualities in a hybrid not present in either parent.
What is malathion ? An Organophosphorus insecticide and acaricide available either alone or in
mixture used in liquid or dust form.
What is meant by autotrophe? Organism able to manufacture their own food from inorganic
materials. Using energy from outside sources. Most green plants are completely autotrophe.’
What is meant by bolting? Formation of elongated stem or seed stalk, it is usually takes
place during the second season of the growth in biennial plants.
What is meant by cropping intensity ? Refers to the no. of crops which are raised during the
year.
What is meant by F1 and F2 generation? Genetic terms for the off spring generations
produced by a parental generation of plants or animals.

What is meant by layerage? Methods of plant propagation by asexual means in which a

portion of stem, shoot or branch has covered with soil or some other medium in which root can
develop , after which the rooted portion get detached from the parent plant.
What is meant by soiling crops? Crops harvested when green and succulent condition are fed
to animals shortly after cutting , it is neither dried nor stored for future feeding.
What is organic farming? System of farming which avoid the use of artificial fertilizers ,
pesticides or herbicides, and concentrate on methods of crop rotation and the use of home
growth feed , organic fertilizer.
What is pasteurization? Process of killing organisms in a product, commonly milk by heating
to a controlled temperature.
What is pedology? The study of soil.
What is planker? Implement used to crush clods on land where a roller can be used consisting
of number of fixed over lapping plates, showed with iron bars along the working edges which is
pulled over the land.
What is seed certification? Refers to the system of maintaining the genetic purity and quality of
seed.
What is seed dressing? The chemical treatment of seeds particularly cereals, with fungicides
and some time insecticides to protect them against soil and seed borne disease and pest.
What is truch gardening ? Growing of crops like potato onion and cabbage on large scale for
distinct market.
What is trench layering ? An asexual reproductive method of plant propagation involving
laying down the whole stem, the new shoots are thus forced to push their way through a layer of
soil which prevents the bark from coloring and favors root formation.
What is weathering? The process by which soil disintegrates and decomposes, eventually
producing soil particles by exposure to the physical and chemical effects of atmospheric agents.
Wilting point: The point at which the water content of a soil reaches such a level that it is firmly
held by soil and unavailable to plant roots, so that the plants wilt permanently and die.
Zaid Kharif crops: These are the crops, which are planted in August to September and
harvested in December to January e.g. toria.
Zaid rabi crops: These are crops, which are planted in February and harvested in May-June e.g.
tobacco.

ritten and compiled by:

Ahmad Mahmood, Department of Agronomy, Pir Mehr Ali Shah-Arid Agriculture University,
Rawalpindi.

Email: ahmadmahmood91@gmail.com
What is Agronomy? : Agronomy is the science of crop production. It incorporates the basic
sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Microbiology, etc.) into an applied science
which is the foundation for most agriculture.

Absorption Losses: Loss of water from a canal or a reservoir by capillary action and percolation
and in case of canal during the process of delivery.

Acid soil: A soil which is deficient in available bases, particularly Ca and which give an acid
reaction when tested by a standard method.

Acre foot water: The amount of water that would cover an area of land to a depth of one foot
assuming no seepage evaporation and run off.

Acre inch day: Term used principally in irrigated section of united state for measuring quantity
of flow of water. It is equal to a flow which will cover one acre to a depth of one inch in a 24
hours period or 0.042 cubic feet per second.

Acre inch: It is a measure of quantity of flow of water and is equal to the flow which will cover
one acre to a depth of one inch.

Acre :( 43560 sq. ft) an area of land about 220 feet long and 198 feet wide.

Adiabatic: A condition in which heat is neither gained nor dissipated.

Adobe soil: These soils are formed by the broken material of rocks transported by both wind and
water.

Agar: A substance made from seed weed and used in the solid culture.

Agriculture: It is an art, science and business of raising crops and rearing of animals through
exploring the natural resources with the coordination of socio economic infrastructure to meet
the basic necessities of life .i.e. .food, feed, fiber and shelter.

Allelopathy: Phenomenon involving the release of certain chemicals from plant parts into the
environment which may when present in sufficient amounts, inhibit or suppress the germination
or growth of the plants in the neighborhood. Alluvial soil: These are the soils which are formed
by the deposition of broken material of rocks transported and deposited by water of streams and
rivers.
Altitude: Height from sea level

Application losses: Water losses through percolation or run off.

Arable farming: The term arable farming refers to system in which only crops that require
cultivation of the soil are grown.

Arboriculture: Intensive cultivation of individual trees possibly for fruits gums and resins.

Arid region: The region where total rain fall is less than natural evapo – transpiration rate.

Aridity: It is the characteristic of a region where there is low average rain fall or 100% available
water. It is permanent feature of region.

Available water: The water retained in a soil which represents the difference between field
capacity and the permanent wilting percentage is called available water.

Barani soil :When the source of irrigation to crop is only the rain water that is known as Barani
soil.

Base period: Period of time in days from the first watering of crop before sowing and the last
watering before harvesting.

Basic seed :Is the progeny of pre – basic seed produced so as to maintain genetic purity and
identity.

Basin : Flat area of land surrounded by low ridges or bunds

Biological yield :It is the total dry matter produced by a plant as a result of photosynthesis and
nutrient uptake minus that lost by respiration.

Blind hoeing :Hoeing before a crop germinates.

Botanical variety :When a group of plant occurring in nature is different from the general
species originally described and the botanical binomial name is not enough to identify it is called
as botanical variety.

Broadcasting :Manual spreading of seed in the field and mixing of the spread seed by ploughing
or planking the field.

C3 plants :Plants which fix CO2 in three C molecule and do not use temperature and water as
efficiently as C4 plant. e.g wheat, rice, cotton.

C4 plant :: Plants which fix CO2 in to a four C molecules .e.g sugarcane, maize, sorghum.
Capillary Water :It is the soil water in excess of hygroscopic water. This exists in the pore
space of the soil by surface tension or molecular attraction against gravitational forces. It is only
water available for plant growth and development.

Capillary Water :It is that water which is held by surface forces (adhesion, cohesion, surface
tension) or films around the particles in angles between them and in capillary pores.

Catchment’s Area :The area which drains the rain water falling on it, via streams and rivers,
eventually to the sea or into a lake.

Cereal Crops :: A cereal is defined as crop grown for its edible seed. These crops are also
known as grain crops e.g. wheat , Rice, Maize etc.

Certified Seed :It is the progeny of basic seed and is produced by registered growers of seed
producing agencies.

Clayey Soil :A soil is known as clayey which contain at least 30% clay particles and in most
cases not less than 40% ,usually it contain 45% clay , 30% silt and 25% sand.

Climate :Aggregate of atmospheric condition over a long period of time.

Clone : A cultivar propagated by vegetative method is called a clone.

Colluvial Soil :Are those which are form from the material transported by the force of gravity.

Command Area :Area which can be economically irrigated by an irrigation system.

Commercial Farming System :In this type of farming system, crops are raised on a commercial
scale for marketing.

Companion Crops :The two crops grown together are called companion crops. e.g. Berseem
and barley.

Condiment Crops :Crops which are grown and consumed as condiments e.g. coriander, mint.

Conidia :One celled asexual spores in certain fungi.

Consumptive Use of Water :Evapo-transpiration plus the water assimilated by various plant
metabolic processes. As the water consumed in plant metabolism is very small, consumptive use
and evapo-transpiration are considered almost equal.

Cover Crops :The crops, which are planted to cover the ground and to reduce the soil erosion
and nutrients losses by leaching. e.g grasses and rye.

Crassulation Acid Metabolism (CAM) Plants :CAM plants fix CO2 in four carbonic acid as
do the C4 plants e.g pine apple.
Critical Period of Competition :During the crop period there is a certain time when crop plants
are most sensitive to competition by weeds, this time is known as the critical period of
competition.

Critical Threshold Level (CTL) : A weed, insect pest density capable of causing significant
damage to crop is termed as critical threshold level.

Crop Rotation :Is the strategy of raising crops from a piece of land in such an order or
succession that the fertility of land suffers minimally and the farmer’s profits are not reduced.

Crop Water Requirement :The amount of water required to raise a crop to maturity with in a
given period of time.

Crop :A crop is a community of plants grown under field condition for its economic value.

Cropping Intensity :The term cropping intensity refers to the ratio of actual cultivated area to
total farm area over a year.

Cropping Pattern :It is a general cropping system followed or practiced by the farmers in an
ecological zone.

Cropping Scheme :Allocation of an area to different crops being grown on a particular farm in a
year.

Cultivator :Which only cut and stirr the soil.

Define Necrosis :Death of organs of a plant, either as blight or death of tissue in localized areas,
usually inside fruit and stems or die back or death of stems or branches.

Define Olericulture :Branch of horticulture which deals with cultivation of vegetables.

Delta of Water :The depth of irrigation water required for the full crop period.

Determinate Plants :Those plant which initiate their reproductive stage after completing
vegetative growth, e.g. wheat, barley.

Dicots :Dicots have two cotyledons and reticulate leaf venation.

Diversified Farming :This is an expanded type of farming system in which varieties of crops
are produced and many types of animals are reared.

Dobari Crops :A crop grown on residual moisture after the harvest of rice.

Dormancy :Seed dormancy is the state of inhibited germination of seeds with viable embryos in
condition conducive to plant growth.
Drainage :It is the removal of excess surface or ground water from the root zone of a crop by
means of surface or sub – surface drains.

Dry farming: In which crops and livestock are raised on land which does not receive sufficient
rainfall for water intensive crops and no irrigation facilities are available fall into this category.

Duty of water: The relationship between irrigation water flow and its commanded area where
crops mature fully with that amount of water within a base period is called duty of water.

Earthing up: The operation of pulling up soil from the center of crop rows to the bottom of the
plants, this helps in uprooting weeds and supporting to plants.
Economic yield: The economically important part for which a particular crop is grown.
Effective rainfall: It is the part of the rainfall which forms a portion of the water requirement of
a crop or which can be used by crop.
Eolian soil: The soil which is formed by the material transported by winds from one place to
another is called eolian soil.
Epigeal germination: It is derived from two words epi “above” and geas “earth”. In this type of
germination the cotyledons come out above the soil surface and generally turn green and act as
first foliage leaves. e.g. bean,cotton.
Evapotranspiration:It is the total loss of water due to its evaporation from land, plant and water
surfaces and transpiration by vegetation per unit area per unit time.
Exhaustive crops: Crops, which feed heavily on the soil and deplete soil nutrients e.g. sorghum,
tobacco.
Extensive farming: In this type of farming large areas are used with minimum expenditure or
attention to efficient use of other resources.
Fiber crops: The crops, which are grown for their fiber and are used in making textiles, ropes.
e.g. jute, sun hemp, cotton.
Field capacity: The amount of water retained by soil after drainage of saturated soil by
gravitational force is called field capacity.
Field carrying capacity: It is the field capacity. It is also called normal moisture capacity.
Forage crops: Those crops, which are grazed by animals and harvested for green chop, hay,
silage are classified as forage crops e.g. maize and sorghum.
Fruit farming: In which orchards are planted and the objectives are to maximize fruit
production, enhance quality and increase income.
Functional Allelopathy: It is the case when the chemicals are toxic after being transformed by
microorganism.
Garden crops: Vegetable crops, which are grown for their edible leaves, shoots, flowers, fruit
and seed. e.g cabbage and okra.
Germination: Is the emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential
structures which, for the kind of seed provided, indicate the ability to produce a normal plant
under favourable conditions.
Grassland farming: These systems are mainly concerned with growing grasses for consumption
by livestock kept for milk or meat production.
Gravitational potential: It is produced by gravitational forces operating on soil water.
Gravitational water:Is the water in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water that percolates
through the soil under the action of gravity if favourable conditions for water drainage are
provided.
Green manure crops: Some crops are grown and ploughed in the soil in green form in order to
improve soil fertility e.g. Berseem , Guara,Dhaincha etc
Hard pan: A hard semi impervious layer usually developed due to continuous ploughing to a
depth of about 15 cm, with cultivators, or with continuous deposition of salts due to soil or
surface irrigation water.
Herbaceous: Plants with soft and easily vulnerable body parts.
Herbs: Are plants of small to medium height and canopy.
Hydrophyte: Plant which grows in water, or which loves water.
Hygroscopic water:Water attached to soil particles by loose chemical bonds and does not move
by the action of gravity or capillary force.
Ideotype: An ideal plant type developed through breeding.
Indeterminate plants:In these plants, the vegetative and reproductive stages continue
simultaneously e.g. okra, tomato. Soybean is the only crop, which has determinate and
indeterminate as well as semi – determinate growing types.
Inoculant: The bacteria containing material used to introduce N – fixing Rhizobium bacteria
into soil.
Integrated weed management: The concept of IWM involves the planned use of all possible
direct and indirect measures rather than relying on a single method to combat weeds.
Inter cropping: Growing of two or more crops together on the same field, where one crop (main
crop) planted in rows first and then another crop (intercrop) is planted in between the rows.
These crops remain in association for a shorter time. These crops may or may not be planted and
harvested at the same time e.g in Sugar cane planting of onion, garlic etc
Interception: When the drops of rainfall or precipitation are intercepted by plant leaves it is
called interception.
Irrigated soil: The soil, which receives irrigation water from well and tube wells, are known as
irrigated or chahi soil.
Irrigation efficiency: It is a term used to indicate how efficiently the available water supply is
being used for crop production.
Irrigation scheduling: It refers to the number of irrigations for a crop and their timing.
Irrigation water requirement: The quantity of water required for successful crop production
exclusive of precipitation, ground water and other natural resources.
Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil or crop plants to assist crop
production.
Kera: Manual sowing of seeds in lines in furrows.
Kharif crops: Those crops, which are planted in the summer month from the March to July and
harvested in autumn and winter, are called Kharif crops e.g. rice and cotton.
Lacustrine soil: When the material transported by streams and river, if deposited in lakes the
soils are called Lacustrine soil.
Latitude: The angular distance north or south of earth equator.
Line: A cultivar propagated by seed is called a line.
Livestock and poultry farming: This category includes farming system in which various kinds
of livestock are reared for meat, milk, wool and eggs.
Loamy soil: The soil is more or less than midway clay and sandy soil and ideal loam soil may
defined as a mixture of sand , silt and clay particles which shows the properties of sandy, silt and
clayey in equal proportion.
Lodging: The bending or breaking over of a plant before harvesting.
Long day plants: Plants which change vegetative to reproductive stage by producing flowers
and fruits, when the days become longer. e.g. Carrot, Radish etc.
Matric potential: It is produced by capillary and surface forces.
Maximum potential soil moisture deficit: Is the greatest value of potential soil moisture deficit
attained during the growth of a crop.
Monocots: These plants have one cotyledon and parallel leaf venation.
Muck soil: If the quantity of organic matter exceeds 20 % but less than 50% are called muck
soil.
Mulch: Any material or practice which is used to check the loss of water by evaporation is
called mulch.
Multiple cropping: It is growing of two or more crops in a year from the same piece of land
Narcotic or drug crops: This category includes those crops, which have some narcotic and drug
value e.g. poppy, tobacco.
Natural erosion: The erosion of the soil under natural condition.
Natural soil: Strictly speaking a soil having pH of 7, in practice a soil having PH 6.6 and 7.3.
Net plot: Area from which yield and other characteristics are measure. It is also known as the
net area of the plot.
No tillage crop(zero tillage crop): Crop grown with out any tillage to prepare seed bed
or row.
Node A slightly enlarge portion of stem where leaves and bud arises and where branches
originate.
Nucleus seed: Seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety which needs
to be purified and multiplied in such a way as to maintain its genetic purity.
Nut cycle: The regeneration/cycling of nutrients.
Nutrients budget: A quantitative data of the major nut flowing to retained within the discharge
from the system.
Nutrients: The food for microbial and plant life mainly composed of nitrogen and
phosphorous but also of potassium , Mg , Fe , Ca ,Co ,Cu , Zn and others elements.
Oil seed crops: These are the crops, which are grown for the purpose of extracting oil from their
seed e.g. mustard and groundnut.
On – farm water management: The planned use of irrigation water at the farm level or
more efficient utilization in agriculture.
Osmotic potential: It is also called solute potential. It is produced by various solutes in
soil water.
Peat soil: If the quantity of organic matter is more than 50% is called peat soil.
Percolation: Downward movement of water with in the soil profile.
Permanent wilting percentage: The soil water content at which plants can no longer extract
sufficient water from the soil for their growth is called permanent wilting percentage.
Plant development: Plant development is the progress of plant from germination to maturity
through a series of stages.
Plant growth: It is the increase in the dry weight of a plant over time mainly as a consequence
of photosynthesis.
Plough pan: A dense, compacted layer about 5 to 7 cm thick formed beneath the surface soil by
repeated ploughing in the same path.
Plough: Its function is to cut, stirr, invert, and pulverize the soil.
Pore space: It is a space between soil particles occupied by air and water; it is largely controlled
by the texture of soil.
Potential Evapotranspiration: Is defined as the amount of evaporation occurring from an
extensive area of a short, green growing crop completely covering the ground and well supplied
with water.
Potential soil moisture deficit: It is the difference between a crop potential evapotranspiration
and the amount of rainfall received by a crop plus the quantity of water delivered to it in
irrigation.
Pre – basic seed: It is the progeny of nucleus seed, and is handled so as to maintain specific
genetic purity and identity as completely as possible.
Pressure potential: It is produced by actual hydrostatic pressure.
Puddling: Ploughing in standing water to create a shallow hard pan at a 10 to 15 cm depth,
which helps to increase water-holding capacity and reduce moisture losses by percolation.
Pulses or grain legumes: The crops belonging to Leguminoseae family are grown for their
edible seed e.g chick pea, lobia.
Rabi crops: These crops are planted in winter from October to December and harvested in
summer from March to May e.g. wheat,
Readily available water The portion of the available water that is most easily extracted by a
plant is called readily available water.
Regular and trade winds e.g. monsoon winds
Relay crops: A relay crops is one which is planted as a second crop after the first crop has
reached its reproductive stage of growth but before it is ready for harvest. e.g. planting of sugar
cane in sugar beet.
Relief: When rising ground or mountains running at right angle to the prevailing wind.
Root and tuber crops: These are vegetable crops grown for their under ground parts like roots,
bulbs, rhizomes, corms and stem tubers e.g. carrot and onion.
Rumber: The process in which planker or leveler is used to conserve moisture at watter
condition before the preparation of land after rauni.
Run off: When water flows out the field by breaking the bunds of the field or flows to the sloppy
areas from the high level is called run off..
Sandy soil: the soil which contains 2.00 to 0.2 mm diameter soil particles , it contain 85% sand
, and >15% , silt and clay. These soils are poor in plant material.
Saturation capacity:This term refers to the amount of water present in the soil when it is
completely saturated with water.
Scarification: Any physical or chemical treatment that makes the seed coat permeable is known
as scarification.
Seed certification: Is the process to secure, maintain and make available high quality seed and
propagating materials of superior crop varieties, so grown and distributed as to ensure desirable
standards of genetic identity, physical purity and quality attributes.
Seedling A young plant that has grown from a seed
Seeling: Mechanical weeding process carried out by ploughing with bullocks or tractors.
Seepage: Losses through the beds and banks of canals and water channels take place
mainly by unlined canals.
Sett: A piece of seed cane with two – four buds(eyes).
Short day plants: Plants which changes from vegetative to reproductive stage and produces
flowers and fruits , when the days become shorter.
Shrubs: Are bushy plants with medium to tall height and canopy.
Silage crops: Those crops, which are harvested when still green and succulent and are fed
directly to animals with out curing, are called silage crops. e.g. Berseem, Shaftal, maize.
Soil: A natural body developed from variable mixtures of broken and weathered minerals and
decaying organic matter which covers the earth crust in thin layers and supplies proper amount
of nutrients and air water and mechanical support to plants.
Stratification: Is the practice of exposing imbibed seeds to cool temperature conditions for a
few days prior to germination in order to break their dormancy.
Subsistence farming: In which basic necessities like food, clothing, and shelter are produced for
the family to live on.
Sugar crops: These are the crops, which are grown for sugar purposes. e.g. sugar cane and sugar
beet.
Tell the share of wheat crop in total cropped area of
Pakistan: 37.01% under wheat.
Temporary wilting percentage: Soil water content at which plants wilt during the hot windy
part of the day but regain turgidity during the cooler part of the day is called TWP.
Tillage: It is usually defined as the mechanical manipulation of the soil aimed at improving its
physical condition.
Tiller: To put forth shoots other than the mother shoot from roots axis.
Tilth: The physical condition of soil is called Tilth.
Topping: Topping in tobacco is the removal of the terminal bud with or without some of the
small top leaves just before or after the appearance of the flower head.
Transpiration ratio:It is the ratio of the weight or volume of water transpired by the plant
during its growth period to the weight of dry matter produced by the plant.
Transpiration: It is the process of loss of water from living plants.
Truck farming: It refers to the system in which the bulk of the out puts are produced and
marketed.
True Allelopathy: When the allelochemical is toxic in their original form is called true
Allelopathy.
Variety: In general the term variety has been used to refer to a group of similar plant with in a
particular species that is distinguished by one or more then one character and given the name.
Vernalization and chilling: Many biennials and temperate annuals, as well as certain fruit trees,
require exposure to cold temperature before they can flowers. This is known as Vernalization
requirement for annuals and biennials and chilling requirement for fruit trees.
Vines: Are plants, which have tender stems, and requires some support for upward growth.
Water holding capacity: Ability of soil to retain water.
Water potential: Refers to the chemical potential of water.
Watter: Describes the condition when soil moisture level is suitable for cultivation.
Weather: It is a state of atmosphere at any time; it is combined effect of many things such as
heat, cold.
Weed: any plant growing out of its proper place.
Harvest index
It is the ratio of economic yield to biological yield. It is expressed in percentage in
H.I. = economic yield x 100 / Biological yield

Biological yield
It is the total dry matter produced by the crops after synthesis minus respiration losses.
Economic yield
That part of the crop for which crop is grown e.g. stem in sugarcane, root in the case of sugar
beet.
Monocropping
Raising of only one crop in a year when there is seasonal supply of water is called
Monocropping, monoculture or specialized farming.
Multiple cropping
Raisingof two or more crops in the same field or in a year is called diversified multiple cropping
or simple multiple cropping.
Tilth
It is the final condition of soil when all the tillage operations are carried.
What is composite variety? A mixture of genotype from general sources maintained by normal
pollination.
What are the compounds which act as buffer in soil? Clay organic matter and such
compounds as carbonates and phosphates which make the soil to resist appreciable change in pH
value.
What is arid? A term applied to land that is dry also means deficient in rainfall.
What is compost? A manure derived from decomposed plant remains usually made by
fermentation, waste plant material under controlled conditions. Compost usually used in green
houses to enrich the soil either dungs as surface.
What is contact herbicide ? Which kill only those parts of plant with which they come into
contact and used mostly to control annual weeds when seedling, they have little residual effect.
What is crop rotation ? A definite succession of crops following one an other in a specific
order.
What is drought resistance? Characteristics of plants which are suitable for cultivation in dry
condition regardless of the inherent mechanism that provides resistance.
What is effective rainfall? Precipitation which falls during the growing period of the crop and is
available to meet the Evapotranspiration requirements of crops .
What is Gibberellins ? Plant growth stimulating chemicals which are able to induce a number
of effects on plants.
What is harvest index? The ratio of grain weight to total plant weight in a cereal crop.
What is hybrid vigour ? Qualities in a hybrid not present in either parent.
What is malathion ? An Organophosphorus insecticide and acaricide available either alone or in
mixture used in liquid or dust form.
What is meant by autotrophe? Organism able to manufacture their own food from inorganic
materials. Using energy from outside sources. Most green plants are completely autotrophe.’
What is meant by bolting? Formation of elongated stem or seed stalk, it is usually takes
place during the second season of the growth in biennial plants.
What is meant by cropping intensity ? Refers to the no. of crops which are raised during the
year.
What is meant by F1 and F2 generation? Genetic terms for the off spring generations
produced by a parental generation of plants or animals.

What is meant by layerage? Methods of plant propagation by asexual means in which a

portion of stem, shoot or branch has covered with soil or some other medium in which root can
develop , after which the rooted portion get detached from the parent plant.
What is meant by soiling crops? Crops harvested when green and succulent condition are fed
to animals shortly after cutting , it is neither dried nor stored for future feeding.
What is organic farming? System of farming which avoid the use of artificial fertilizers ,
pesticides or herbicides, and concentrate on methods of crop rotation and the use of home
growth feed , organic fertilizer.
What is pasteurization? Process of killing organisms in a product, commonly milk by heating
to a controlled temperature.
What is pedology? The study of soil.
What is planker? Implement used to crush clods on land where a roller can be used consisting
of number of fixed over lapping plates, showed with iron bars along the working edges which is
pulled over the land.
What is seed certification? Refers to the system of maintaining the genetic purity and quality of
seed.
What is seed dressing? The chemical treatment of seeds particularly cereals, with fungicides
and some time insecticides to protect them against soil and seed borne disease and pest.
What is truch gardening ? Growing of crops like potato onion and cabbage on large scale for
distinct market.
What is trench layering ? An asexual reproductive method of plant propagation involving
laying down the whole stem, the new shoots are thus forced to push their way through a layer of
soil which prevents the bark from coloring and favors root formation.
What is weathering? The process by which soil disintegrates and decomposes, eventually
producing soil particles by exposure to the physical and chemical effects of atmospheric agents.
Wilting point: The point at which the water content of a soil reaches such a level that it is firmly
held by soil and unavailable to plant roots, so that the plants wilt permanently and die.
Zaid Kharif crops: These are the crops, which are planted in August to September and
harvested in December to January e.g. toria.
Zaid rabi crops: These are crops, which are planted in February and harvested in May-June e.g.
tobacco.

CROP CLASSIFICATION BASED ON AGRONOMIC USE:

The major agronomic crops are grouped according to their use. In this regards the crops can be
classified into the follows:
1. Cereal Crops (also known as Grain Crops)
These are the grasses grown for their edible seeds. Examples include wheat, rice, maize, barley,
oat, sorghum, millet and others.
2. Forage Crops
These are the crops which are cultivate…d for green chop, hay, silage or soiling, or they are
grazed by animals. In terms of dry matter, these crops have over 25% fiber contents. Forage
crops belong to the Graminae and Leguminosae families like clovers and grasses respectively.
The crops like sorghum, maize and other coarse crops when harvested as whole and used to feed
animals, these are termed as Fodder crops

3. Oilseed Crops
These are crops cultivated specifically for the purpose of extracting oils from their seeds. For
example, mustard, rapeseed, canola, soybean, sunflower, safflower, sesame, castor bean, linseed
and flax.

4. Fiber Crops
These crops are specially grown to extract fiber. This fiber is used to make clother, ropes, bags
etc. For example cotton, jute, flax, sunhemp, kenaf, sisal and sunkukra.

5. Sugar Crops
Edible sugar is made from the juice extracted from these crops. For example, sugarcane, sugar
beet and sweet sorghum.

6. Pulses or Grain Crops

These are the members Leguminosae which are cultivated for their edible seeds. For example,
chickpea, mung bean, mash bean, lentil, cowpea, faba bean, lima bean, and pigeon pea.

7. Root and Tuber Crops

These crops are grown for their underground economical part like rhizome, bulb, tuber, corms
and stem tubers. For example, onion, garlic, groundnut, potato, radish, carrot and turnip.

8. Vegetable or Garden Crops

Crops which are grown for their edible leaf, shoot, fruits and seeds. For example, cabbage,
spinach, garden pea, squash, pumpkin, tomato, eggplant, okra, lady finger, broccoli, aspargus,
cauliflower and cucumber etc.

9. Condiment Crops
Corriander, mint and chillies are cultivated and used as condiments.

10. Narcortic or Drug Crops

Tobacco, poppy, tea, coffee and pepper-mint are the crops which find their use as narcotic or
drug crops.

.No. 1: What is World Trade Organization (WTO)?

Ans . World Trade Organization is an international body that promotes and enforces trade laws and polices free
trade agreements, oversee world trade practices and settle disputes among member states. It was established in 1994.
When the members of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed a new trade pact. The WTO
replaced and expanded the GATT agreement, which regulated trade in goods only to include trade in services and
protection for intellectual property right. The WTO is based in Geneva (Switzerland) and is controlled by a general
council composed of member states’ ambassadors.

Q. No. 2: What are the main objectives of WTO ?

WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION

(WTO)
Q.No. 1: What is World Trade Organization (WTO)?

Ans . World Trade Organization is an international body that promotes and enforces trade laws and polices free
trade agreements, oversee world trade practices and settle disputes among member states. It was established in 1994.
When the members of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed a new trade pact. The WTO
replaced and expanded the GATT agreement, which regulated trade in goods only to include trade in services and
protection for intellectual property right. The WTO is based in Geneva (Switzerland) and is controlled by a general
council composed of member states’ ambassadors.

Q. No. 2: What are the main objectives of WTO ?

Ans . The main objectives of WTO are

1. to raise standard of living;

2. to ensure full employment;

3. to promote the steady growth of real income and effective demand;

4. To expand the production of and trade in goods and services! And ;

5. Sustainable development and environment protection.

Q. No. 3: Mention the main function of WTO.

Ans . The main functions of WTO include.

1. administering WTO trade agreements;

2. forum for trade negotiations;

3. handling trade disputes;

4. monitoring assistance and training for developing countries and ;

5. Cooperation with other international organization.

Q. No. 4: Which are one four basic principles of WTO?

Ans. The four basic principles on which main functions of WTO is based are
 1. trade without discrimination;

2. growing access to markets;

3. promoting fair competition;

4. Encouraging development and economics reforms.

Q. No. 5: Enlist the main agreements of WTO?

Ans . The WTO is a home to series of agreements among the member states on different issues. Some of the
important agreements are as follows.

1. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1994;

2. Agreement on Agriculture (AOA);

3. Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phyto – Sanitary Measures (SPS);

4. Agreement on Textile and Clothing (ATC);

5. Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT);

6. Agreement on Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIM);

7. Agreement on Pre-shipment Inspection;

8. Agreement on Rules of Origin;

9. Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures;

10. Agreement on Safeguard;

11. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS);

12. Agreement in Government Procurement;

13. International Dairy Agreement;

14. International Bovine Meat Agreement.

Q. No. 6: Which agreements of WTO are likely to have severe impact on Pakistan’s agriculture?

Ans. The agriculture sector of Pakistan is likely to be affected with the implementation of following agreements of
WTO.

1. Agreement of Agriculture (AOA);

2. Agreement on the Application of Sanity and Phyto-sanitary Measures (SPS);

3. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

Q. No. 7: Briefly give the salient features of Agreement on Agriculture (AOA).

Ans. Agreement on Agriculture

The Agreement on Agriculture (AOA) was made an important part of the earlier document of GATT during the
Uruguay Round. The principal aim of the AOA pertains to improved market access through reduction of tariffs,
reduction of domestic support and finally, the total elimination of trade distorting export subsides. It came into force
on 1st January, 1995 but the implementation period is depending to countries specific commitment up to six year,
however, developing countries has relaxation in implementation over a period of up to 10 years. The binding date
for Pakistan is 1st

January 2005. the terms of AOA are:

1) Market Access: For greater access to member countries, the quotas, controls and tariffs be replaced by simple
tariffs. Developed countries have reduced the tariff by 24% on an average.

2) Domestic Support: the purpose is to discipline and reduce domestic support by 20% for developed countries
and 13.3% for developing countries.

3) Export Subsidy: the value of export subsidies be reduced by 36% for developed countries and 24% for
developing countries. The volume of export subsidized quantities must also be reduced by 21% for
developed countries and 14% for developing countries with base period 1986-90.

Q. No. 8: Write short notes on.

1) Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)

2) Agreement on Trade- related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

Ans. Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

The agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures considered in parallel with the negotiation
on AOA. The agreement deals with:

1) Food safety;

2) Animal health standards; and

3) Plants health standards

The SPS agreement itself does not set any standards for the Members but it encourages using international
standards devised by the international organizations and also encourages the Member states to frame their
own rules. However, the agreement discourages the Member countries to use SPS measures as
protectionism in disguise.

Agreement on Trade – Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

Agreement is a new dimension of international system for protecting intellectual

Property rights and to bring non – discrimination and transparency in the system.
 It gives trade and investments concept to ideas and creativity by framing the rules about copyrights ,
patents. trademarks, geographical names and identify products,

Industrial design, integrated circuit layout – designs and undisclosed information such as trade secrets etc.

Q. No. 9: What is the main key to be a gainer nation in WTO regime?

Ans. Competition in terms of price and quality is the only key to be a successful country in the WTO regime.

Q. No. 10: When WTO will fully come into play?

Ans. WTO will fully come into play on 1st January 2005.

Q.No. 11. Briefly give some major implications of WTO for agriculture of Pakistan.

Ans. Under the WTO. Support to frames in terms of price is to be reduced and market forces will determine the
prices of the commodities on wards. In the absence of strong market forces and proper information system, small
medium farmers are likely to be affected seriously and thereby it is expected that poverty will further escalate.

Due to the SPS agreement, Pakistan’s agriculture export will face major challenges as in Pakistan quality culture is
rarely given due consideration. Owing to TRIPS, payments will have to be made to multinational companies
(MNCS) for the use of patents. This will be a major burden on the national exchequer.

Q. No. 12. What Pakistan should do to face the challenges passed by WTO?

Ans. In order to cope with the challenges posed by WTO, following steps are required to be undertaken.

1. To create awareness, conferences, seminars and talks on electronic and print media should be
arranged to educate the scientists’ policy makers, farmers and the other stakeholders about
various aspects of WTO.

2. More resources should be allocated for undertaking research on commodities a) where Pakistan has
comparative advantage and b) for commodities which have the potential to be exported.

3. Pakistan should harmonies the equality of its products to internationally accepted standards,
information dissemination to farmers on higher standards should be promoted, financial
assistance extended and training imported to them on methods of attaining these standards.

4. Diversification of export both in terms of product and market should be undertaken.

5. Pakistan faces series challenges in the application of SPS and TRIPS. For this there is need to frame
domestic laws on urgent basis.

6. Permittable domestic support under the WTO rules should be explored to the benefit of large
majority of small and medium farmers.

7. Pakistan should actively participate in the future WTO negotiations so that its own agenda is
ultimately incorporated into various agreements. In this regard, Pakistan can benefit by
making alliances with other countries having common interests.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

SHORT QUESTIONS

(1) What is Agricultural Extension?

Ans:- The most logical, scientific and systematic method of disseminating new
knowledge and skills to farmers to aid them in successfully adopting and making a more
efficient use of their land and allied resources.

(2) What is adult education?

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

SHORT QUESTIONS

(1) What is Agricultural Extension?

Ans:- The most logical, scientific and systematic method of disseminating new
knowledge and skills to farmers to aid them in successfully adopting and making a more
efficient use of their land and allied resources.

(2) What is adult education?

Ans:- A process of bringing desirable or positive change in the behavior of adults or

positive change in the behavior of adults.

(3) What is continuing education?

Ans:- Continuing education is a type of education which is meant for those who are
already educated.

(4) What is technical and vocational education?

Ans:- It involves a system of education designed to impact training in different skills.

(5) What is attitude?

Ans:- A predisposition of an individual to act in a particular way, may either be positive

or negative toward a given object.
(6) What is individual contact method?

Ans:- The Extension method in which contact is individual to individual is known as

individual contact method.

(7) What is group contact method?

Ans:- The method in which contact is personal to group or group to group.

(8) What is mass contact method?

Ans:- The contact of farmers and Extension workers by radio, television print media and
on Exhibition is called mass contact method.

(9) What is formal education:-

Ans:- It is the type of education which is given in the four walls of an educational
institution. There are many formalities like admission, attendance, dues, examination,
etc.

(10) What is informal education?

Ans:- It is the type of education which is given outside the four walls of an educational
institution. People participate voluntarily according to their interest.

(11) What is Agricultural development?

Ans:- Any effort to make our agriculture more productive is called Agri-development.

(12) What is rural development?

Ans:- Any effort to improve the rural area’s life and living is called Rural development.

(13) What is process of communication?

Ans:- The transfer of information from one person to another is called the process of
communication.

(14) What is fidelity?

Ans:- It is the accuracy with which the source communicates the message or the
receiver receives it.

(15) What is Noise?

Ans:- Noise is the factor in each of elements of communication that can reduce its
effectiveness.

(16) What is the adoption process?

Ans:- The mental process through which an individual passes from first hearing about
an innovation to its final adoption is called the adoption process.

(17) What are the steps in adoption process?

Ans:- (1) Awareness (2) Interest

(3) Evaluation (4) Trial

(5) Adoption

(18) What is Diffusion?

Ans:-The process of spreading innovations with in a community of farmers is called

diffusion process?

(19) Whose farmers are innovators?

Ans:- The innovators are the first farmers in a locality to adopt an innovation.

(20) Whose Farmers are early adopters?

Ans:- Early adopters are those who quickly follow the lead step by the innovators.

(21) Whose Farmers called early majority?

Ans:- The early majority is made up of those who watch the innovators and Early
adopters and consequently when impressed by their success, adopt the innovation.

(22) Whose Farmers Called Late majority?

Ans:- The Late majority is composed of those who are conservative more then normally
careful and who do not adopt the new practices until most of their neighbors have
already made the change.

(23) Whose Farmers are laggards?

Ans:- Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation.

 AGRI ECONOMICS

SHORT QUESTIONS

1. Econometrics.

Social science in which the tools of economic theory, mathematics and statistical inference are applied to
the analysis of economic phenomena.

2. Regression analysis.

It is concerned with the study of dependence of one variable, the dependent variable, on one or more other
variables, the explanatory variables, with a view to estimating and predicting the (population) mean or
average value of the former in terms of the known or fixed values of the latter.

3. Correlation analysis.

AGRI ECONOMICS

SHORT QUESTIONS

1. Econometrics.

Social science in which the tools of economic theory, mathematics and statistical inference are applied to
the analysis of economic phenomena.

2. Regression analysis.

It is concerned with the study of dependence of one variable, the dependent variable, on one or more other
variables, the explanatory variables, with a view to estimating and predicting the (population) mean or
average value of the former in terms of the known or fixed values of the latter.

3. Correlation analysis.

Closely related to regression analysis but here the primary objective is to measure the strength or degree of
linear association between the two variables

4. Co-efficient of determination.

In two or multiple regression R2 is a summary measure that tells how well the sample regression line fits the
data.

5. Variation & variance.

Variations mean the sum of squares of the deviation of a variable from its mean value. Variance is this sum
of squares divided by the appropriate degrees of freedom

Variation

Variance = ——————————– d. f

6. Regression through the origin,

Regression analysis in which the intercept term is absent or zero.

7. Marginal propensity to consume. (MPC)

The rate of change of consumption for a unit change in income is greater than zero but less than one.

8. Constant:

A symbol which during discussion keeps the same value is called constant. These are normally expressed by
the first letters. e.g., a, b, c, etc.

9. Variable:

A symbol which during the discussion may assume different values. Normally expressed by the letters x, y,
z.

10. Independent variable.

When the value of a variable is assumed in a given discussion, it is called an independent variable. e.g. we
assume national income (Y)as an independent variable.

11. Market:

An aggregate composed of potential buyers and sellers that bring to focus the conditions and forces which
determine prices.

12. Marketing.

It is total system of interacting business activities designed to plan, price , promote and distribute want
satisfying goods and services to household consumers and industrial users.

13. Middlemen.

Middlemen are those individuals who specialize in performing the various marketing functions involved in the
purchase and sale of goods as they are moved from producers to consumers. e.g. merchant middlemen,
agent middlemen and speculative middlemen.

14. Marketable surplus.

The surplus produce which is theoretically available for disposal by the producer after meeting his genuine
requirements for family consumption.
15. Marketed surplus.

Marketed surplus represents that portion of marketable surplus which is actually marketed and placed at the
disposal of non-producers.

16. Percentage share of crops.(area wise)

Of the total cropped area of about 20 million ha, food grains account for about 56%, cash crops 16%, fodder
crops 15%, pulses 7%, fruits & vegetables 3%, oil seeds 2%.

17. A centralized marketing channel.

The farmer’s produce is brought in large central markets. There they are purchased by processors or
wholesalers from commission men who act as the farmer’s selling agents. e.g. our normal (traditional
)commodities channel.

18. A decentralized marketing channel.

It does not utilize established large market facilities. Instead processors or other wholesalers purchase either
directly from the farmers or at small production areas selling points. e.g. PASSCO, sugar mills etc.

19. Marketing channels.

A channel of distribution consists of specialized marketing institutions that are related to each other as buyers
and sellers. It is a pipeline for the flow of goods from manufacturers or producers to consumers and plays
an important role in structuring agencies in marketing process.

20. Market integration.

Grouping additional agencies or functions under one management.

21. Marketing boards.

Public bodies set up by Govt. action and delegated legal powers of compulsion over producers and handlers
of primary or processed agricultural products.

22. Marketing efficiency.

Any change that reduces the input cost of performing a particular marketing service, without reducing
consumer satisfaction with the output of goods & services.

23. Economic efficiency.

Manner in which markets create and transmit signals to buyers and sellers on how to allocate resources.

24. Technical efficiency.

It is concerned with the effectiveness with which the physical functions of marketing are carried
out.
25. Marketing margins.

A difference between the price paid by consumers and that obtained by producers.

26. Support price.

It is the minimum but guaranteed price for the growers during the post harvest period. It is not meant to
replace the market system but to correct the shortcomings and failures of market system.

27. Organization.

Organization means bringing together various factors of production in order to carry out the process of
production more successfully.

28. Individual entrepreneur.

The single individual owns and controls the business organization and bears all the risks. The single
entrepreneur has limited ability and liability to carry on all the functions of the production.

29. Partnership.

Joint contribution of labor or property, or both, by the partners, joint control of the operations and a division
of resulting profits or losses.

30. Profit-type Corporation.

A legal entity (based on profit motive) chartered by a state or the federal Govt. which is distinct and separate
from the individuals who own it

31. Co-operative.

Business voluntarily organized, operating at cost, which is owned, capitalized and controlled by member
patrons as users, sharing risks and benefits proportional to their participation.

32. Budget deficit

The amount by which the expenditures of the federal Government exceed its revenues in any year.

33. Budget line

A line which shows the different combinations of products a consumer can purchase with a specific money
income, given the products prices.

34. Capital flight

The transfer of savings from developing countries to industrially advanced countries to avoid Government
expropriation , taxation, and high rates of inflation or to realize better investment opportunities.

35. Ceiling price

A legally established maximum price for a good or service.

36. Declining industry

An industry in which economic profits are negative (losses are incurred) and which will, therefore, decrease
its output as firms leave it.

37. .Decreasing –cost industry

An industry in which expansion through the entry of firms decreases the prices, firms in the industry must
pay for resources and therefore decreases their production cost.

38. Developing countries

Many countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America which are characterized by lack of capital goods, use of no
advanced technologies, low literacy rate, high unemployment, rapid population growth, and labor forces
heavily committed to agriculture.

39. Direct foreign investment

The building of new factories (or the purchase of existing capital)in a particular nation by corporations of
other nations .

40. Dumping

The sale of products below cost in a foreign country or below prices charged at home.

41. Economic growth

(1) An outward shift in the production possibilities curve which results from an increase in resource quantity
or quality or an improvement in technology;

(2) An increase either in real output (gross domestic product)or in real output per capita

42. Economics of scale

Reductions in the average total cost of producing a product as the firm expands the size of plant (its output
)in the long run; the economics of mass production.

43. Elastic demand

Product or resource demand; whose price elasticity is grater than 1; means the resulting change in quantity
demanded is greater than the percentage change in price.

44. Explicit cost

The monetary payment a firm must make to an outsider to obtain a resource.

45. Factors of production.

Economic resources, land, capital, labor, and entrepreneurial ability.

46. Firm

An organization which employs resources to produce a good or service for profit and owns and operates one
or more plants.

47. Fiscal policy

Changes in government spending and tax collections designed to achieve a full- employment and non-
inflationary domestic output; also called discretionary fiscal policy.

48. Fixed cost

Any cost which in total does not change when the firm changes its output; the cost of fixed resources.

49. Free trade

The absence of artificial (Government-imposed) barriers to trade among individuals and firms in different
nations.

50. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT)

The international agreement reached in 1947 in which 23 nations agreed to give equal and nondiscriminatory
treatment to the other nations, to reduce tariff rates by multi-national negotiations, and to eliminate import
quotas. Now includes most nations and has become the World Trade Organization.

51. Implicit cost

The monetary income a firm sacrifices when it uses a resource it owns rather than supplying the resource in
the market; equal to what the resource could have earned in the best-paying alternative employment.

52. Indifference curve

A curve showing the different combinations of two products which give a consumer the same satisfaction or
utility

53. Industry

A group of (one or more) firms which produces identical or similar produt

54. Inflation.

A rise in the general level of prices in an economy.

55. Infrastructure

The capital goods usually provided by the public sector for the use of its citizens and firms (for example,
highways, bridges, transit systems, waste water treatment facilities, municipal water systems, and airports).

56. Interest rate

The annual rate at which interest is paid; a percentage of the borrowed amount.

57. Lump-sum tax

A tax which is a constant amount (the tax revenue of Government is same) at all levels of GDP.

58. Marginal cost

The extra (additional) cost of producing one more unit of output; equal to the change in total cost divided by
the change in output (and in the short run to the change in total variable cost divide by the change in output).

59. Marginal propensity to consume

The fraction of any change in disposable income spent for consumer goods; equal to the change in
consumption divided by the change in disposable income.

60. Marginal propensity to save

The fraction of any change in disposable income which households save; equal to the change in saving
divided by the change in disposable income.

61. Monopoly

A market structure in which the number of sellers is so small that each seller is able to influence the total
supply and the price of the good or service.

62. Patent

An exclusive right to inventors to produce and sell a new product or machine for a set period of
time.

63. Per capita income

A nation’s total income per person; the average income of a population.

64. Perfectly elastic demand

Product or resource demand in which quantity demanded can be of any amount at a particular price; graphs
as a horizontal demand curve.

65. Perfectly elastic supply

Product or resource supply in which quantity supplied can be of any amount at a particular price; graphs as
a horizontal supply curve.

66. Perfectly inelastic demand

Product or resource demand in which price can be of any amount at a particular quantity of the product or
resource demanded; quantity demanded does not respond to a change in price; graphs as a vertical demand
curve.
67. Plant

A physical establishment which performs one or more functions in the production, fabrication, and distribution
of goods and services.

68. Poverty

A situation in which the basic needs of an individual or family exceed the means to satisfy them.

69. Price ceiling

A legally established maximum price for a good or service.

70. Price floor

A legally determined price above the equilibrium price.

71. Price index

An index number which shows how the weighted average price of a “market basket” of goods changes
through time.

72. Productivity

A measure of average output or real output per unit of input. For example, the productivity of labor may be
found by dividing real output by hours of work.

73. Private sector

The households and business firms of the economy.

74. Product market

A market in which products are sold by firms and bought by households.

75. Public sector

The part of the economy which contains all government entities..

76. Pure capitalism

An economic system in which property resources are privately owned and markets and prices are used to
direct and coordinate economic activities.

Quantity demanded

The amount of a good or service buyers (or a buyer) desire to purchase at a particular price during some
period.

77. Resource market

A market in which households sell and firms buy resources or the services of resources.

78. Speculation

The activity of buying or selling with the motive of later reselling or re buying for profit.

79. Subsidy

A payment of funds (or goods and services) by a government, firm or household for which it receives no
good or service in return; when made by a government, it is a government transfer payment.

80. Supply

A schedule showing the amounts of a good or service sellers (or a seller) will offer at various prices during
some period.

81. Tariff

A tax imposed by a nation on an imported good.

82. Trade deficit

The amount by which a nation’s imports of goods (or goods and services) exceed its exports of goods (or
goods and services).

83. Trade surplus

The amount by which a nation’s exports of goods (or goods and services) exceed its imports of goods (or
goods and services).

84. Trade mark

A legal protection which; gives the originators of a product an exclusive right to use the brand
name.

85. Value added

The value of the products sold by a firm less the value of the products (materials) purchased and used by
the firm to produce the product.

86. Variable cost

A cost which in total increases when the firm increases its output and decreases when it reduces its output.

87. National income

Total income earned by resource suppliers for their contributions to gross national product; equal to the gross
domestic products minus non income charges, minus net foreign factor income.

Consumption would be dependent variable

88. Perfectly inelastic supply product or resource supply in which price can be of any amount at a
particular quantity of the product or resource demanded ;quantity supplied does not respond to a change in
price; graphs as a vertical supply curve .

VETERINARY SCIENCES

SHORT QUESTIONS

1. What is Vaccine?

Ans: It is a pathogenic organism that is killed or inactivated and injected to cause antibody production.

2. What is the importance of Parasitology?

Ans: Parasites compete with the animal for food and thus animal comes under a stress that directly
effects the production & efficiency of animals.

VETERINARY SCIENCES

SHORT QUESTIONS

1. What is Vaccine?

Ans: It is a pathogenic organism that is killed or inactivated and injected to cause antibody production.

2. What is the importance of Parasitology?

Ans: Parasites compete with the animal for food and thus animal comes under a stress that directly
effects the production & efficiency of animals.

3. Name two species of Fasciola?

Ans. 1) Fasciola hepatica

2) Fasciola gigantica.

4. What is end to end anastomosis?

Ans; The necrosed/dead position of intestine is removed and the two live portions are again joined.

5. Name two commonly used anticoagulants?

Ans: EDTA, Heparin

6. What is choke?
Ans: Obstruction of oesophagus

7. How the coccidiosis is confirmed in poultry?

Ans: By making a slide from the wall of intestine & observing coccidial

cysts.

8. What is holophytic nutrition in parasites?

Ans: In which they can synthesize their food due to presence of chromatophores having chlorophyll.

9. What is holozoic nutrition in Parasites?

Ans: In which the parasites ingest food through temporary or permanent

mouth.

10. What is puberty?

Ans: It is the state at which animal is able to reproduce.

11. Name two skin glands?

Ans: a) Sweat glands b) Sebaceous glands

12. What is Catgut?

Ans: It is a thread used for internal suturing.

13. What is the use of silk in surgery?

Ans: It is a thread used to suture the outermost skin.

14. What is difference b/w wound & ulcer?

Ans: Ulcer is deeper than wound and involves much layers of tissues.

15. What is Coitus?

Ans: The mating of male & female is called coitus when the penis is in

vagina.

16. What are the venereal diseases?

Ans: Which are transmitted during copulation/coitus.

17. Name two viral diseases in Cats?

Ans: a) Feline Pan leukopenia b) Leukemia

18. What is autogenous Vaccine?

Ans: Vaccine that is prepared by taking the tissue from the infected animal and is injected the same
animal for treatment.

19. What are the three forms of glanders?

Ans: 1) Nasal 2) Cutaneous 3) Respiratory

20. Define Microbiology

Ans: Study of microorganisms

21. What is a Vector?

Ans: It is an organism that transmits the disease from one animal to the

other animal.

22. What is Anatomy?

Ans: Study of internal Structure of the body.

23. What is Vasectomy?

Ans: It is the removal of a piece of vas deference.

24. What is Castration?

Ans: Removal of testes making the male unable to continue generation.

25. Name two metabolic diseases?

Ans: a)Ketosis b) Milk fever

26. What are the two uses of levamisol?

Ans: a)Immune stimulant b)Anthelmentic

27. What are NSAIDS?

Ans: These are Non Steroidal Anti Inflammatory Drugs.

28. Name few life threatening disease of dogs?

Ans: a) Canine distemper b)Canine hepatitis

c)Parvo virus

29. What is milk fever?

Ans: it is a condition in cow after parturition in which animal is unable to stand due to deficiency of
Ca++.

30. What is active ingredient of Oncovin?

Ans: Vincrystin Sulphate

31. What is the mode of action of anticancerous drugs?

Ans: Antimitotic

32. What is EPG?

Ans: It is egg per gram of faeces measured to diagnose the extent of

infection.

33. Can the heart be beaten outside the body? if yes, why?

Ans: Yes, because it has its own intrinsic nervous system.

34. Name few organs of abdominal cavity?

Ans: Liver, Spleen, Stomach, Intestine.

35. Name organs of Pelvic cavity?

Ans: Uterus, bladder, Ovaries.

36. Name organ of thoracic cavity?

Ans: Heart, Lungs.

37. What is the fluid for transportation in insects?

Ans: Haemolymph.

38. What is cleft palate?

Ans: When the palate is divided into two halves through a cleft. It is called cleft palate. It is mostly
congenital.

39. What is hare lip?

Ans: It is a condition in which the lips are cut and divided into two parts just like hare.
40. What is metastasis?

Ans: It is a process in which the cancer cells spread to different tissues from one site through blood
& lymph.

41. What is the intermediate host?

Ans: It is the organism/animal in which few developmental stages of parasite take place for the
completion of the life cycle. The parasite may or may not be harmful to the intermediate host.

42. What is Mechanical & Biological Vector?

Ans: Vector in which the few developmental stages of parasite take place is called biological vector.
While the vector which simply transmits the parasite without any developmental stage to take place
in it is called Mechanical Vector.

43. Why we define cancer as PPP?

Ans: PPP stands for Persistent purposeless proliferation we say this because in cancer
growth/proliferation is continuous without any purpose.

44. What is myasis?

Ans: When the wound is filled with the larvae of different flies due to unhygienic measures we call
this condition as myasis.

45. Name three flies important in Vet. Parasitism?

Ans: a) Tsetse fly b) Warble fly c) Horse fly

46. What are “bots”

Ans: Larvae of Gastrophilus species of flies are called “bots”.

47. What is culture media?

Ans: It is the environment that we provide to the microorganisms (including temperature, pH, nutrition
etc) to grow.

48. What is PCR?

Ans: It stands for polymerase chain reaction. It is a diagnostic test with the help of which we can
detect even a minute piece of viral DNA in a sample. It involves polymerase enzyme transcription
media.

49. What is blood brain barrier?

Ans: some drugs are lipophillic (fat loving) and others are hydrophilic (Water loving) the former has
ability to pass from blood to brain tissue (nerves) because of receptors and latter cannot do so.
This selective barrier between blood and brain is called blood brain barrier.
50. What is electron microscope?

Ans: Microscope which uses a beam of electron instead of light to make the visible image. It can
resolve thing less than 0.2u(micron) in diameter.

51. What is veterinarius?

It is Latin word which means animal’s doctor.

52. What is veterinarian?

One who treats the diseases and injuries of animals.

53. Define veterinary anatomy?

It is the study of form, shape, construction

and development of
animals. 54. What is veterinary
pharmacology?

It is the science of drugs and their effects

55. What is pharmacokinetics?

It deals with the fate of drugs in the body.

on the body of living system.

57. What is toxicology?

It is the study of poisons and poisonings.

56. What is pharmacy or pharmaceutics?

It deals with preparation, compounding and dispensing of drugs.

58. What is chemotherapy?

It deals with the use of drugs to destroy invading organisms.

59. Define antibiotic?

It is a chemical substance produced by a micro-organism.

60. What is veterinary physiology?

It is the science which treats with function of the animals.

61. Define veterinary pathology?

It is the branch of medicine which deals with diseases of animals.

62. Define veterinary parasitology?

It is scientific study of parasites and parasitism.

63. What is veterinary medicine?

It deals with the diagnosis, treatment and control of diseases of

animals.

64. What is veterinary surgery?

It is the branch of medicine which deals with diseases, injuries by

manual and operative methods.

65. Define neurology?

It is the study of nervous system.

66. What is theriogenology?

It is study of veterinary obstetrics and genital diseases in male and

female
animals. 67. Wha
t is disease?

It is the condition in which an individual shows an anatomical,

chemical or physiological deviation from normal.

68. Define sign?

It is the objective evidence of a diseases.

69. What is clinical diagnosis?

It is made on the basis of history as narrated by the owner and

observations.

70. Define splanchnology?

It is description of visceral organs.

71. What is angiology?

It is the study of organs of circulation.

72. What is anemia?

It is the decrease in oxygen carrying capacity of blood cells.

73. What is glanders?

It is the bacterial disease of horses.

74. What is Chronic respiratory disease (CRD)

It is slow spreading respiratory disease of poultry

75. What is hypothermia?

Lowering of body temperature than normal.

76. Toxlmia?

Presence of toxins in blood.

77. What is septicemia?

Presence of pathogenic organisms and toxins in the blood.

78. Define hypersensitivity?

It is state of increased body reaction to any foreign substance

(allergens).

79. What is syncope?

It is the sudden collapse and loss of consciousness.

80. What is edema?

Abnormal accumulation of fluid in the body cavities.

81. What is cynosis?

It is coloration of skin due to incomplete oxygenation of blood.

82. What is pneumonia?

It is an inflammation of pulmonary parenchyma.

83. Define dermatitis?

It is the inflammation of skin.

84. What is urtcaria?

It is the allergic condition characterized by swelling on skin.

85. What is posology?

It deals with doses of drugs.

86. What are anticoagulant drugs?

These are the agents which prevent the clotting of blood. e.g.

heparine, EDTA.

87. What are styptics?

These are the substances used by local application to arrest

bleeding.

89. What is histamine?

It is pharmacologically potent biogenic amine which is found in

skin.

90. Define histology?

It is the study of minute structure, composition and function of

tissues.

91. What is epidemiology?

It is the study of frequency distribution and determination of

disease or health in a population.

92. What is disease?

An attraction of the boby function at the cellular level causing

malfunction of systems or organs.

93. What is pathogen?

Disease producing agent.

94. What is an infection?

To enter or invade another organism and disturb the normal body

function.

95. What is contamination?

To be covered or soiled by infections, toxic or foreign agents.

96. What is lesion?

Damage or injury to body tissue that may or may not cause

malfunction.

97. What are toxins?

Poisonous substances.

98. What are anti-toxins?

Antibodies formed within the animal to neutralize toxins.

99. What is antigen?

Disease causing agent, toxins or foreign material that stimulates

immune response. e.g. the actual disease or a vaccine.

100. Define inflammation?

The body response to an irritant or injury.

101. What is contagious?

Infectious agent spread by contact susceptible with sick.

102. Define dehydration?

State of being critically low on body fluids, water.

103. What is asympomatic?

No apparent signs or symploms.

104. What an interferon?

A natural antiviral agent produced by living cells in response to

viral infection.

105. What is hemorrhage?

 The escape of blood from vessels.

106. What is lactation?

Production of milk.

PLANT BREEDING AND

GENETICS

DEFINITIONS

Acrocentric chromosome: A chromosome whose Centromere lies very near one end.

Active site: The part of an enzyme where actual enzymatic function is performed.

Allele: Alternative form of a gene.

Allelic exclusion: A process whereby only one immunoglobulin light chain and one heavy chain gene
are transcribed in any one cell; other genes are repressed.

Allo polyploidy: Polyploidy produced by the hybridization of two different species.

PLANT BREEDING AND

GENETICS

DEFINITIONS

Acrocentric chromosome: A chromosome whose Centromere lies very near one end.

Active site: The part of an enzyme where actual enzymatic function is performed.

Allele: Alternative form of a gene.

Allelic exclusion: A process whereby only one immunoglobulin light chain and one heavy chain gene
are transcribed in any one cell; other genes are repressed.

Allo polyploidy: Polyploidy produced by the hybridization of two different species.

Anaphase: The stage of mitosis and meiosis in which sister chromatids or homologous chromosomes
are separated by spindle fibers from centromeres.

Aneuploids: Individuals or cells exhibiting aneuploidy.

Aneuploidy: The condition of the cell or of an organism that has additions or deletions of whole
chromosomes from the expected, balanced number of chromosomes.

Angiosperms: Plants whose seeds are enclosed in an ovary. Flowering plants.

Antibody: A foreign substance capable of triggering an immune response in an organism.

Ascospores: Haploid spores found in the asci of Ascomycete fungi.

Autogamy: Nuclear reorganization in a single Paramecium cell similar to the changes that occur during
conjugation.

Auto polyploidy: Polyploidy in which all chromosomes come from same species.

Autotrophs: Organisms that can utilize carbon dioxide as a carbon source.

Back mutation: The process that causes reversion of mutation. A change in a nucleotide pair in a
mutant gene that restores original sequence and hence the original phenotype.

Backcross: The cross of an individual with one of its parents or an organism with the same genotype
as a parent.

Binary fission: Simple cell division in single-celled organisms.

Blastopore: The embryonic opening of the future gut.

Blastula: The first developmental stage of a developing embryo.

Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being permanently
changed.

Centrioles: Cylindrical organelles, found in eukaryotes (except in higher plants), that organize the
formation of the spindle.

Centromeres: Primary constrictions in eukaryotic chromosomes in which the kinetochores lie.

Chiasmata: X-shaped configurations seen in tetrads during the latter stages of prophase I of meiosis.
They represent physical crossovers. (Singular; chiasma.)

Chi-square distribution: The sampling distribution of the chi-square statistic. A family of curves whose
shapes depend on degree of freedom.

Chloroplast: The organelle that carries out photosynthesis.

Chromatids: The subunits of a chromosome prior to anaphase of mitosis. At anaphase of meiosis II or

mitosis, when the centromeres divide and the sister chromatids separate, each chromatid is then a
chromosome.

Chromatin: The nucleoprotein material of the eukaryotic chromosome.

Chromomeres: Dark regions of chromatin condensation in eukaryotic chromosomes at meiosis or
mitosis.

Chromosome: The form of the genetic material in viruses and cells. A circle of DNA in prokaryotes; a
DNA or an RNA molecule in viruses; a linear nucleoprotein complex in eukaryotes.

Clone: A group of cells arising from a single ancestor.

Coding strand: The DNA strand with the same sequence as the transcribed mRNA (given U in RNA and
T in DNA).

Complementary DNA (cDNA): DNA synthesized by reverse transcriptase using RNA as a template.

Coupling: Allele arrangement in which mutants are on the same chromosome and wild-type alleles on
the homologue.

Covariance: A statistical value measuring the simultancous deviations of variables from their means.

Criss-cross pattern of inheritance: The phenotypic pattern of inheritance controlled by {-linked

recessive alleles.

Crossbreed: Fertilization between separate individuals..

Crossing over: A process in which homologous chromosomes exchange parts by a breakage- and-
reunion process.

Cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm of a cell into two daughter cells.

Deletion chromosome: A chromosome with part deleted.

Denatured: Loss of natural configuration (of a molecule) through heat or other treatment. Denatured
DNA is single-stranded.

Diakinesis: The final stage of prophase I of meiosis when chiasmata terminalize.

Dihybrid: An organism heterozygous at two loci or for two pairs of allelsss.

Diploid: The state of having each chromosome in two copies per nucleus or cell.

Discontinuous variation: Variation that falls into discrete categories (e.g., the color of garden peas).

DNA-RNA hybridization: When a mixture of DNA and RNA is heated and then cooled, RNA can
hybridize (form a double helix) with DNA that has a complementary nucleotide sequence.

Dominant: An allele that expresses itself even when heterozygous. Also the trait controlled by that
allele.

Double helix: The normal structural configuration of DNA consisting of two helices rotating about the
same axis.
Dyad: Two sister chromatids attached to the same centromere.

Enhancer: A eukaryotic DNA sequence that increases transcription of a region even if the enhancer is
distant from the region being transcribed.

Euploidy: The condition of a cell or organism that has one or more complete sets of chromosomes.

Evolution: In Darwinian terms, a gradual change in phenotypic frequencies in a population that results
in individuals with improved reproductive success.

Exon: A region of a gene that has intervening sequences (introns) that is actually translated or
expressed.

Frequency-dependent selection: A selection whereby a genotype is at an advantage when rare and

at a disadvantage when common.

Functional alleles: Mutants that fail to complement each other in a cis-trans complementation test.

Gametophyte: The haploid stage of a plant life cycle that produces gametes (by meiosis). It alternates
with a diploid, sporophyte generation.

Gene cloning: Production of large number of a piece of DNA after that piece of DNA is inserted into a
vector and taken up by a cell. Cloning occurs as the vector replicates.

Gene family: A group of genes that has arisen by duplication of an ancestral gene. The genes in the
family may or may not have diverged from each other.

Gene pool: All of the alleles available among the reproductive members of a population from which
gametes can be drawn.

Genetic code: The linear sequences of nucleotides that specify the amino acids during the process of
translation at the ribosome.

Genetic engineering: Popular term for recombinant DNA technology..

Genome: The entire genetic complement of a prokaryote or virus or the haploid genetic complement of
a eukaryotic species.

Genotype: The genes that an organism possesses.

Germ-line theory: A theory to account for the high degree of antibody variability found. The germ-line
theory suggests that every B lymphocyte has all genes for every type of immunoglobin but transcribes
only one.

Guide RNA (gRNA) RNA that guides the insertion of uridines (RNA editing) into mRNAs in
trypanosomes. found in transcripts from minicircles and maxicircles of DNA in kinetoplasts.

Haplodiploidy: The sex-determining mechanism found in some insect groups among which males are
haploid and females are diploid.
Heritability: A measure of the degree to which the variance in the distribution of a phenotype is due to
genetic causes. In the broad sense it is measured by the total genetic variance divided by the total
phenotypic variance. In the narrow sense it is measured by the genetic variance due to additive genes
divided by the total phenotypic variance.

Hermaphrodite: An individual with both male and female genitalia.

Heterogametic: The sex with heteromorphic sex chromosomes: during meiosis, it produces different
kinds of gametes in regard to these sex chromosomes.

Heteromorphic chromosomes: Chromosomes of which during meiosis, it produces different kinds of

gametes in regard to these sex chromosomes.

Heteromorphic chromosomes: Chromosomes of which the members of a homologous pair are not
morphologically identical (e.g., the sex chromosomes).

Heterozygote: A diploid or polyploid with different alleles at a particular locus.

Homogametic: The sex with homomorphic sex chromosomes; it produces only one kind of gamete in
regard to the sex chromosomes.

Homothallic: A botanical term used for groups whose individuals are not of different sexes.

Hormones: Chemicals that are secreted by one type of cell and act on a second type of cell.

Hybrid DNA DNA whose two strands have different origins.

Hybrid: Offspring of unlike parents.

Immunity: The ability of an organism to resist infection. .

In vitro: Biological or chemical work done in the test tube (literally. “in glass”) rather than in living
systems.

Incomplete dominance: The situation in which both alleles of the heterozygote influence the
phenotype. The phenotype is usually intermediate between the two homozygous forms.

Induction: Regarding temperate phages, the process of causing a prophage to become virulent.

Interkinesis: The abbreviated interphase that occurs between meiosis I and II. No. DNA replication
occurs here.

Intragenic suppression: A second change within a mutant gene that results in an apparent restoration
of the original phenotype.

Inversion: The replacement of a section of chromosome in reverse orientation.

Isochromosome: A chromosome with two genetically and morphologically identical arms.

Isozymes: Different electrophoretic forms of the same enzyme. Unlike allozymes, isozymes are due to
differing subunit configurations rather than allelic differences.

Leptonema (leptotene stage): The first stage of prophase I of meiosis in which chromosomes become
distinct.

Level of significance: The probability value in statistics used to reject the null hypothesis.

Locus: The position of a gene on a chromosome. (Plural: loci.)

Lysis: The breaking open of a cell by the destruction of its wall or membrane.

Mapping of gene: The study of the position of genes on chromosomes.

Marker: A locus or allele whose phenotype provides information about a chromosome or chromosomal
segment during genetic analysis.

Meiosis: The nuclear process in diploid eukaryotes that results in gametes or spores with only one
member of each original homologous pair of chromosomes per nucleus.

Metacentric chromosome: chromosome whose centromere is located in middle.

Metaphase: The stage of mitosis-meiosis in which spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores and the
chromosomes are positioned in the equatorial plane of cell.

Metastasis: The migration of cancerous cells to other parts of the body.

Missense mutation: Mutations that change a codon for one amino acid into a codon for a different
amino acid.

Mitochondrion: The eukaryotic cellular organelle in which the Krebs cycle and electron transport
reactions take place.

Mitosis: The nuclear division producing two daughter nuclei identical to the original nucleus.

Molecular imprinting: The phenomenon in which there is differential expression of a gene depending
on whether it was maternally or paternally inherited.

Monohybrids: Offspring of parents that differ in only one genetic characteristic. Usually implies
heterozygosity at a single locus under study.

Monosomic: A diploid cell missing a single chromosome.

Mosaics: Individuals made up of two or more cell lines.

mRNA: Messenger RNA; the basic function of the nucleotide sequence of mRNA is to determine the
amino acids sequence in proteins.

Multihybrid: An organism heterozygous at numerous loci.

Mutability: The ability to change.

Mutants: The end result of mutation.

Mutation rate: The proportion of mutants per cell division in bacteria or single-celled organisms or the
proportion of mutations per gamete in higher organisms.

Neoplasm: New growth of abnormal tissue.

Neutral gene hypothesis: The hypothesis that most genetic variation in natural populations is not
maintained by selection.

Nondisjunction: The failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.

Nonhistone proteins: The proteins remaining chromatin after the histones are removed. The scaffold
structure is made of nonhistone proteins.

Nonrecormbinants: In mapping studies, offspring that have alleles arranged as in the original parents.

Nuclear transplantation: The technique of placing a nucleus from another source into an enucleated
cell.

Nuclease: One of the several classes of enzymes that degrade nucleic acid.

nucleoprotein: The globular, nuclear organelle formed at the nucleolar organizer. Site of ribosome
construction.

Nucleosomes: Arrangements of DNA and histones forming regular spherical structures in eukaryotic
chromatin.

Nullisomic: A diploid cell missing both copies of the same chromosome.

One-gene-enzyme hypothesis: Hypothesis of Beadle and Tatum that one gene controls the
production of one enzyme. Later modified to the concept that one ciston controls the production of one
polypeptide.

Oogenesis: The process of ovum formation in female animals.

Oogonia: Cells in females that produce primary oocytes by mitosis.

Outbreeding: The mating of genetically unrelated individuals.

Outside markers: Loci on either side of another locus or specified region.

Ovum Egg: The one functional product of each meiosis in female animals.

Pachynema (pachytene stage): The stage of prophase I of meiosis in which chromatids are first
distinctly visible.

Parameters: Measurements of attributes of a population; denoted by Greek letters.

Parthenogenesis: The development of an individual from an unfertilized egg that did not arise by
meiotic chromosome reduction. .

Passenger DNA: Foreign DNA incorporated into a plasmid.

Pedigree: A representation of ancestry of an individual or family; a family tree.

Phenocopy: A phenotype that is not genetically controlled but looks like a genetically controlled
phenotype.

Phenotype: The observable attributes of an organism.

Pheromone: A chemical signal, analogous to a hormone that passes information between individuals.

Plasmid: An autonomous, self-replicating genetic particle, usually of double-stranded DNA.

Plastid: A chloroplast prior to the development of chlorophyll.

Polar bodies: The small cells (which eventually disintegrate) that are the by-products of meiosis in
female animals. One functional ovum and potentially three polar bodies result from meiosis of each
primary oocyte.

Polarity: Meaning “directionality” and referring either to an effect seen in only one direction from a point
of origin or to the fact that linear entities (such as a single strand of DNA) have ends that differ from
each other.

Pollen grain: The male gametophyte in higher plants.

Polynucleotide phosphorylase: An enzyme that can polymerize diphosphate nucleotides without the
need for a primer. The function of this enzyme in vivo is probably in its reverse role as an RNA
exonuclease.

Polyploids: Organisms with greater than two chromosome sets.

Polysome: The configuration of several ribosomes simultaneously translating the same mRNA.

Population: A group of organisms of the same species relatively isolated from other groups of the same
species..

Primary structure: The sequence of polymerized amino in male animals.

Primase: An enzyme that creates an mRNA primer for Okazaki fragment initiation.

Probability: The expectation of the occurrence of a particular event.

Progeny testing: Breeding of offspring to determine their genotypes and that of their parents.

Prokaryotes: Organisms that lack true nuclei.

Prophase: The initial stage of mitosis or meiosis in which chromosomes become visible and the spindle
apparatus forms.

Pseudoallels: Alleles that are functionally but not structurally allelic. Within gene families, pseudoalleles
are alleles that are not expressed.

Quantitative inheritance: The mechanism of genetic control of traits showing continuous variation.

Quaternary structure: The association of polypeptide subunits to form the final structure of a protein.

RAM mutants: Ribosomal ambiguity mutants that allow incorrect tRNAs to be incorporated into the
translation process.

Random mating: The mating of individuals in a population such that the union of individuals with the
trait under study occurs according to the product rule of probability.

Recessive: An allele that does not express itself in the heterozygous condition.

Reciprocal cross: A cross with the phenotype of each sex reversed as compared with the original cross.
Made to test the role of parental sex on inheritance pattern.

Recombinant DNA technology: Techniques of gene cloning. Recombinant DNA refers to the hybrid
of foreign and vector DNA..

Recombination: The nonparental arrangement of alleles in progeny that can result from either
independent assortment or crossing over.

Regulator gene: A gene primarily involved in control of the production of another gene’s product.

Relaxed mutant: A mutant that does not exhibit the stringent response under amino acid starvation.

Repetitive DNA: DNA made up of copies of the same nucleotide sequence.

Replication: The process of copying.

Repulsion: Allelic arrangement in which each homologous chromosome has mutant and wild-type
alleles.

Ribosomes: Organelles at which translation takes place. They are made up of two subunits consisting
of RNA and proteins. .

RNA editing: The insertion of uridines into mRNAs after transcription is completed; controlled by guide
RNA. May also involve insertion of cytidines in some organisms, or possible deletions of bases.

r RNA: Ribosomal RNA. RNA components of the subunits of the ribosomes.

Satellite DNA: Highly repetitive eukaryotic DNA primarily located around centromeres. Satellite DNA
usually has a different buoyant density than the rest of the cell’s DNA.
Scaffold: The eukaryotic chromosome structure remaining when DNA and histones have been removed;
made from nonhistone proteins.

Secondary Oocytes: The cells formed by meiosis I in female animals.

Self-fertilization: Fertilization in which the two gametes are from the same individual.

Selfish DNA: A segment of the genome with no apparent function although it can control its own copy
number.

Semisterility: Non availability of a proportion of gametes or zygotes.

Sex chromosomes: Heteromorphic chromosomes whose distribution in a zygote determines the sex of
the organism.

Sex-controlled traits: Traits that appear more often in one sex than in another.

Sex-determining region Y (SRY): The sex switch, or testis-determining factor, in human beings,
located on the Y chromosome. (Sry in mice.).

Sex-limited traits: Traits expressed in only one sex. They may be controlled by sex-linked or autosomal
loci.

Species: A group of organisms belong to the same species if they are capable of interbreeding to produce
fertile offspring.

Spindle: The microtubule apparatus that controls chromosome movement during mitosis and meiosis.

Sporophyte: The stage of a plant life cycle that produces spores by meiosis and alternates with the
gametophyte stage.

Structural alleles: Mutant alleles that are altered at identical base pairs..

Suppressor gene: A gene that, when mutated, apparently restores the wild-type phenotype to a mutant
of another locus.

Svedberg unit; A unit of sedimentation during centrifugation. Abbreviation is S. as in 50S.

Synapsis: The point-by-point pairing of homologous chromosomes during zygotene or in certain

dipteran tissues that undergo endomitosis.

Telomerase: An enzyme that adds telomeric sequences to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. NO
template is necessary.

Telomere: The ends of linear chromosomes that are required for replication and stability.

Telophase: The terminal stage of mitosis or meiosis in which chromosomes uncoil, the spindle breaks
down, and cytokinesis usually occurs.
Temperature-sensitive mutant: An organism with an allele that is normal at a permissive temperature
but mutant at a restrictive temperature.

Test cross: The cross of an organism with a homozygous recessive organism.

Tetrads: The meiotic configuration of four chromatids first seen in pachytene. There is one tetrad
(bivalent) per homologous pair of chromosomes.

Tetraploids: Organisms with four whole sets of chromosomes.

Topoisomers: Forms of DNA with the same sequence but differing in their linkage number (coiling).

Totipotent: The state of a cell that can give rise to any and all adult cell types, as compared with a
differentiated cell whose fate is determined.

Transcription: The process whereby RNA is synthesized from a DNA template.

Transduction: A process whereby a cell can gain access to and incorporate foreign DNA brought in by
a viral particle.

Transformation: A process whereby prokaryotes take up DNA from the environment and incorporate
it into their genomes, or the conversion of a eukaryotic cell into a cancerous one.

Transgenic: Eukaryotic organisms that have taken up foreign DNA.

Transition mutation: A mutation in which a purine/pyrimidine base pair is replaced with a base pair in
the same purine/pyrimidine relationship.

Translation: The process of protein synthesis wherein the primary structure of the protein is determined
by the nucleotide sequence in mRNA.

Translocation: A chromosomal configuration in which part of a chromosome becomes attached to a

different chromosome. Also a part of the translation process in which the mRNA is shifted one codon in
relation to the ribosome.

Triplodis: Organism with three whole sets of chromosomes.

Trisomic: A diploid cell with an extra chromosome.

t RNA: Transfer RNA. Small RNA molecules that carry amino acids to the ribosome for polymerization.

Tumor suppressor genes: Genes that normally control unlimited cellular growth. When both copies of
the gene are mutated, cellular transformation follows. Examples are the p53 gene and the genes for
retinoblastoma and Wilm’s tumor.

Tumor: Abnormal growth of tissue.

Unequal crossing over: Non reciprocal crossing over caused by mismatching of homologous
chromosomes. Usually occurs in regions of tandem repeats.
Unique DNA: A length of DNA with no repetitive nucleotide sequences.

Variegation: Patchiness; a type of position effect that results when particular loci are contiguous with
heterochromatin.

Wild-type: the phenotype of a particular organism when first seen in nature.

X-inactivation center (XIC): Locus on the X chromosome in mammals at which inactivation is initiated.

Y-junction: The point of active DNA replication where the double helix opens up so that each strand
can serve as a template.

Z DNA: A left-handed form of DNA found under physiological conditions in short GC segments that are
methylated. It may be important in regulating gene expression in eukaryotes.

Plant breeding and genetics

Earnst Haeckle (1870) first defined Ecology as” study of natural environment and of the relations of
organism to each other and to their surrounding. In brief ecology is th3e scientific study of interactions
between living organism and their environment.

Population

Group of individual of a species / sort in a given ecosystem is referred t as population.

Population density

Number of individuals of a species in a given area is referred to as population density.

Biomass

When the individual in a population have different sizes or distributions a better estimate would be’
total mass of the individuals present per unit area.”

Ecosystem

Biotic communities considered together with physical environment constitute what is called as
ecosystem.

Climate

An average condition of solar radiation and precipitation etc of a region prevailing throughout the year.
The average condition is usually based on information collected over a period of years.

Biomes

The natural ecological groupings of animals and plants on the basis of climate are called biomes e.g.
desert, coniferrrous, and forests. Therefore, the entire ecosystem taken together in the given
geographical area having the same type of climate is called a biome.
Species

Species is defined as a group of actually or potentially interbreeding population that is reproductively

isolated from all other kinds of organism.

Gene pool

Each individual carries a certain genetic information carried by all individuals of an interbreeding
population is the gene pool.

Genetic recombination

When members of a population interbreed, gametes combine to form new combination of

genes(genetic recombination).

Community

The various populations or organism in an area taken together form a community or biotic community.

Pollution

Pollution in general term applies to the presence of undesirable substances in the environment.

Crop plant

The term crop plant in broadcast sense means any plant utilized by people for any purpose. However,
the restricted but common sense of the term crop plant includes those useful plants that fit
economically into scheme of our work and existence.

Morphology

The study of the arrangement of various tissues into systems and structures to produce the growing
plant is called morphology.

Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two types of
pollination. In self-pollination the transfer of pf pollens from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower. in cross pollination the transfer of pollen from an anther to stigma of of a different flower.

Fertilization

Union of egg and a sperm to form zygote is known as fertilization. Self-fertilization is the union of an
egg with a sperm of the same flower or the same flower of the same plant. In cross-fertilization the
union of an egg wit a sperm from a plant of different clone.

Clone

A group of plants, which is propagated vegetatively from a single plant, is called clone.
Apomixes

Apomixes is a type of reproduction in which sexual organs or related structures take part but in which
seed s are formed without union of gamete. In apodictic spps, sexual reproduction is either suppressed
or absent.

Parthenogenesis

It means the development of an embryo directly from the egg cells.

Inflorescence

The way in which groups of flowers are arranged on the plant is termed as inflorescence.

Double fertilization

The pollen – tube pierces through the style of he gynaeceum and enters the ovule through the
micropylar end. The pollen tune ruptures and two male gametes are released one fertilizes the egg cell
to form 2 n embryo or the zygote the second male gamete fuses with the endospermic nucleus

Genetics

Te term genetics was coined by Willam Bateson in 1905. it was derived from genesis meaning to
generate or creation of something. Genetics may define a “the science of heredity and variation which
deals with resemblances and differences among individuals related by descent”.

Heredity

Heredity means similarity which progeny show to its parents and provides for the organic continuity
between generations. Heredity therefore is the genetic continuity between the parents and offspring’s
and thus preserves race by developing progeny in parental image.

Variation

The deviation from heredity is called variation.

Mendel’s law of segregation

It states that heredity characters are determined by some particulate factor, these factors occur in pairs
and at the time of gamete formation, these factors segregate at random so that only one miner of a
pair is transmitted to a particular gamete.

Mendel’s law of independent assortment

The production of these four type of gametes in equal number is possible only if the two heterozygous
gene pairs, Tt and As assort independent of each other. This phenomenon is called “law of independent
assortment”.

Phenotype
 Outward expression of a character or physical appearance of an individual is called “phenotype”.

Genotype

Complex of genetic factors controlling this expression is called “genotype”.

Allele

The alternative form of a gene is called allele.

Back cross

When F1hybrid is crossed with one of its parents, it is called back cross.

Test cross

When F1 hybrid is crossed with the recessive parent, it is called a test cross.

Phenocopy

Sometimes it is possible to bring about non-hereditary phenotypic changes by changing the

environment. These changes may apparently similar to those caused by the genes as a result of
mutation.

Major genes

Genes control the development of the major traits such as development of brain or any other major
human character are more important for a normal function and are regarded as major genes.

Minor genes

In the other hand, which controls the less important traits, e.g. production of hair a second segment of
fingers are called minor genes.

Lethal genes

The genes, which exert a drastic effect on the development of the organism as to cause4 any major
abnormality or death of the individual, are “lethal genes”.

Isoalleles

Such alleles are called isolalleles because they are alive in their homozygous effect and differences
appear only in special combinations.

Pleiotropy

Sometime a gene may have more than one affect i.e. it influences more than one character
simultaneously. This is called pleiotrop. In man skin color is due to the presence of melanin.

Linkage
The tendency of genes present on t the same chromosome, to enter the gametes in parental
combination.

Crossing over

The tendency of the genes to enter the gametes in combinations other than parental.

Autosomes

The chromosome other than sex chromosome is called as autosomes.

Heredity variation

Heredity variations are variations in size shape, color form or development in a genetically mixed
population that result from heritable causes and are transmitted to the kprogeny. Heredity ratios may be
simple and easy observe.

Heteroploidy or polyplllloidy

Change in chromosome number is known as heteroploidy. It is divided into two parts euploidy and
aneuploidy.

Translocation

When tow non-homologous chromosomes exchange their corresponding portion they are said to have
undergo translocation the translocation will be reciprocal.

Mutation

Mutation is derived from a Latin word mature i.e. to change. Thus mutation is defined as sudden
heritable change in the organism other than mendelian recombination segregation or mendelian
inheritance”.

Mutangenesis

The process of inducting mutation is mutagenesis.

Plant breeding

An art and science of changing and improving the genetic architecture of crop yield in relation to its
economic yield.

Variety

A group of similar plants that differ by structural features and performance from other plants within the
same species.

Hybridization
It means to combine desired characters from two different parents into a single variety or individual
through crossing.

Single cross

A cross between two inbred lines to reduce single cross hybrid called single cross. A x B AB.

Double cross

A cross between two single cross hybrid to produce double cross hybrid called double cross e.g. Ab x
CD ABCD

Synthetic variety

In maize it refers to the open pollinate increase from a multiple hybrid. It can also be defined as
advanced generations of open pollinated seed mixtures of a group of strains, clones or inbred or of
hybrids among them synthetic variety is formed from inbred line synthetic variety is formed from inbred
line on the basis of general or specific combining ability.

Composite variety

A mixture of genotypes from several sources maintained by normal pollination.

Flower

The flower is highly modified shoot responsible for the reproduction of seed and fruit.

Horticulture

3.2 Divisions of horticulture

3.2.1 Floriculture

3.2.2 Landscape architeccture

3.2.3 Olericulture

3.2.4 Pomology

3.2.5 Post harvest handling

3.2.6 Arboriculture

3.2.7 Viticulture

3.3 Classifications and nomenclature

 3.3.1 Plants and names

3.3.1 Systems for plant classification

3.3.1.1 Botanical classification

INTRODUCTORY HORTICULTURE

By

AMJAD FAROOQ

Ph.D. Scholar (Horticulture)

Outline

3.1 Horticulture

3.2 Divisions of horticulture

3.2.1 Floriculture

3.2.2 Landscape architeccture

3.2.3 Olericulture

3.2.4 Pomology

3.2.5 Post harvest handling

3.2.6 Arboriculture

3.2.7 Viticulture

3.3 Classifications and nomenclature

3.3.1 Plants and names

3.3.1 Systems for plant classification

3.3.1.1 Botanical classification

3.3.1.2 Horticultural classifications

3.3.1.2.1 Classification by use

3.3.1.2.2 Classification by climatic requirements

 3.3.1.2.3 Classification by stem and leaf texture

3.3.1.2.4 Classification by growth habit

3.3.1.2.5 Classification based on life span

3.4 Significance of horticulture

3.4.2 Horticultural therapy

3.4.3 Careers in horticulture

3.1 Horticulture

The word horticulture is a 17th century English adaptation of the Latin hortus (garden) and cultura (culture).
Horticulture is the art of gardening or plant growing, in contrast to Agronomy, Forestry or Agriculture. So
we can define this subject as that “Horticulture is the science and art involved in the cultivation,
propagation, processing and marketing of ornamental plants, flowers, turf, vegetables, fruits, and nuts”. It
is unique among plant sciences because it not only involves science and technology, but it also incorporates
art and principles of design.

3.2 DIVISIONS OF HORTICULTURE:

Horticulture involves eight areas of study, which can be grouped into two broad sections ornamentals and
edibles:

3.2.1 Floriculture (includes production and marketing of floral crops).

3.2.2 Landscape Architeccture (includes production, marketing and maintenance of landscape plants).

3.2.3 Olericulture includes production and marketing of vegetables).

3.2.4 Pomology (includes production and marketing of fruits)

3.2.5 Post Harvest Handling (involves maintaining quality and preventing spoilage of horticultural
crops).

3.2.6 Arboriculture the study and selection, planting, care, and removal of individual trees, shrubs, vines,
and other perennial woody plants.

3.2.7 Viticulture (includes production and marketing of grapes).

3.2.1 Floriculture

Floriculture, or flower farming, is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and
ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. The development plant
breeding of new varieties is a major occupation of floriculturists.

Floriculture crops include bedding plants, flowering plants, foliage plants or houseplants, cut cultivated
greens, and cut flowers. As distinguished from nursery crops, floriculture crops are generally herbaceous.
Bedding and garden plants consist of young flowering plants (annuals and perennials) and vegetable plants.
They are grown in cell packs (in flats or trays), in pots, or in hanging baskets, usually inside a controlled
environment, and sold largely for gardens and landscaping. Geraniums, impatiens, and petunias are the
best-selling bedding plants. Chrysanthemums are the major perennial garden plant in the United States.

Flowering plants are largely sold in pots for indoor use. The major flowering plants are poinsettias, orchids,
florist chrysanthemums, and finished florist azaleas. Foliage plants are also sold in pots and hanging baskets
for indoor and patio use, including larger specimens for office, hotel, and restaurant interiors.

Cut flowers are usually sold in bunches or as bouquets with cut foliage. The production of cut flowers is
specifically known as the cut flower industry. Farming flowers and foliage employs special aspects of
floriculture, such as spacing, training and pruning plants for optimal flower harvest; and post-harvest
treatment such as chemical treatments, storage, preservation and packaging. In Australia and the United
States some species are harvested from the wild for the cut flower market.

3.2.2 Landscape Architecture

Landscape architecture involves the investigation and designed response to the landscape. The scope of
the profession includes architectural design, sitr planning, environment restoration, town or urban planning,
urban design, parks and recreation planning. A practitioner in the field of landscape architecture is called a
landscape architect.

The history of landscape architecture is related to the history of gardening but is not coextensive. Both arts
are concerned with the composition of planting, landform, water, paving and other structures but:

Garden design is essentially concerned with enclosed private space (parks, gardens etc).

Landscape design is concerned with the design of enclosed space, as well as unenclosed space which is
open to the public (town squares, country parks, park systems, greenways etc). Through the 19th century,
urban planning became more important, and it was the combination of modern planning with the tradition
of landscape gardening that gave Landscape Architecture its unique focus. In the second half of the century,
Frederick Law Olmsted completed a series of parks which continue to have a huge influence on the practices
of Landscape Architecture today. Among these were Central Park in New York, Prospect Park in Brooklyn,
and Boston‘s so called Emerald Necklace park system.

3.2.3 Olericulture

Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants
for food. Olericulture is the production of plants for use of the edible parts. Vegetable crops can be classified
into 9 major categories:

Potherbs and greens– spinach and collards

Salad crops- lettuce, celery

Cole crops– cabbage and cauliflower

Root/tuber crops– potatoes, beets, carrots, radishes

Bulb crops– onions, leeks

Legumes– beans, peas

Cucerbits– melons, squash, cucumber

Solanaceous crops – tomatoes, peppers

Sweet Corn

Olericulture deals with the production, storage, processing and marketing of vegetables. It encompasses
crop establishment, including cultivar selection, seedbed preparation and establishment of vegetable crops
by seed and transplants. It also includes maintenance and care of vegetable crops as well commercial and
non-traditional vegetable crop production including organic, sustainable horticulture, hydroponics and
biotechnology.

3.2.4 Pomology

In Pomology, we studies and cultivates fruits.The pomological researches are mainly focused on the
development of and the cultural techniques and physiological studies in fruit trees. The goals of fruit tree
improvement include enhancement of fruit quality, regulation of production periods, and reduction of
production cost.

The introduction of new varieties required exact representations of the fruit so that plant breeders could
accurately document and disseminate their research results.

3.2.5 Post harvest Handling

Postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest, including cooling,
cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the ground, or separated from its parent
plant, it begins to deteriorate. Post-harvest treatment largely determines final quality, whether a crop is
sold for fresh consumption, or used as an ingredient in a processed food product.

The most important goals of post-harvest handling are keeping the product cool, to avoid moisture loss
and slow down undesirable chemical changes, and avoiding physical damage such as bruising, to delay
spoilage. Sanitation is also an important factor, to reduce the possibility of pathogens that could be carried
by fresh produce, for example, as residue from contaminated washing water.

After the field, post-harvest processing is usually continued in a packing house. This can be a simple shed,
providing shade and running water, or a large-scale, sophisticated, mechanized facility, with conveyor belts,
automated sorting and packing stations, walk-in coolers and the like. In mechanized harvesting, processing
may also begin as part of the actual harvest process, with initial cleaning and sorting performed by the
harvesting machinery. Initial post-harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop
has an optimum range for storage temperature and humidity. Also, certain crops cannot be effectively
stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions can result. Various methods of high-speed cooling, and
sophisticated refrigerated and atmosphere-controlled environments, are employed to prolong freshness,
particularly in large-scale operations.

Regardless of the scale of harvest, from home garden to industrialized farm, the basic principles of post-
harvest handling for most crops are the same:

1) Handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing, bruising)

2) Cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions

3) Cull (remove damaged items)

3.2.6 Arboriculture

It is the cultivation and management of trees within the landscape. This includes the study of how trees
grow and respond to cultural practices and the environment, as well as application of cultural techniques
such as selection, planting, care, and removal.

The purpose of arboriculture is generally to manage amenity trees; that is, trees that add benefits to the
landscape that humans interact with. Amenity trees are usually in garden or urban settings, and
arboriculture is the management of them for plant health and longevity, pest and pathogen control, risk
management, and aesthetic reasons. Trees offer cultural and natural heritage benefits beyond production
of wood products; for this reason, arboriculture needs to be distinguished from forestry, which is the
commercial production and use of timber and other forest products from plantations and forests.

3.2.8 Viticulture

Viticulture (from the Latin word for vine) is the science, production and study of grapes which deals with
the series of events that occur in the vineyard. When the grapes are used for winemaking, it is also known
as viniculture. It is one branch of the science of horticulture.

Duties of the viticulturist include: monitoring and controlling pests and diseases, fertilizing, irrigation,
canopy management, monitoring fruit development and characteristics, deciding when to harvest and vine
pruning during the winter months. Viticulturists are often intimately involved with winemakers, because
vineyard management and the resulting grape characteristics, provide the basis from which winemaking
can begin.

3.3 Classification and Nomenclature

Why classify and name plants?

1) To help identify them

2) To organize knowledge into a logical system

3) To store and summarize useful information

3.3.1 Plants and names

All plants have one scientific (botanical) name and one or more common names

Quercus nigra (Black oak). We may discuss its characteristics as follows:

-it is a tree (woody, perennial)

-it has deep green, glossy leaves

-the leaves have pointy lobes

-the buds and midveins are fuzzy

-it produces catkins and acorns

-it drops its leaves in winter

3.3.1 Systems for Plant Classification

Botanical – based on biological (i.e., genetic, evolutionary) relationships

Horticultural – based on use

3.3.1.1 Botanical Classification

Botanical Classification focuses on evolutionary relationships between plants. In this type of classification
we use reproductive structures (e.g. flowers) and their component parts (numbers) as a basis to group
plants.

Binomial system (2 names, both in latin)

Genus + specific epithet = species

Dianthus caryophyllus (Carnation)

3.3.1.2 Horticultural Classifications

With hundreds of thousands of plants used by mankind, it is impossible to talk about each one individually.
Plants are grouped by various common characteristics to help us communicate similar ecological adaptation
and cultural requirements. For example, the term “shade plants” indicates plants tolerant to various levels
of shade. “Xeric” groups those plants requiring less supplemental irrigation in our climate. It is important
to point out that any classification system will have plants that don’t quite fit the groupings. The following
are examples of some common classifications used in horticulture.

3.3.1.2.1 Classification by Use

I. Edibles

A. Fruits

1) Tree fruits

2) Small fruits

B. Vegetables

1) Warm season vegetables

2) Cool season vegetables

C. Herbs
1) Culinary

2) Medicinal

D. Nuts

II Ornamentals/Landscape Plants

A. Woody plants

1) Trees

2) Shrubs

3) Vines and ground covers

B. Herbaceous plants

1) Flowers

2) Vines and ground covers

C. Grass/turf

III. Potted plants, houseplants, gift plants

A. Flowering gift plants

B. Foliage plants

3.3.1.2.2 Classification by Climatic Requirements

Temperature Requirements

Tropical plants originate in tropical climates with a year-round summer-like growing season without
freezing temperatures. Examples include cocao, cashew and macadamia nuts, banana, mango, papaya,
and pineapple.

Sub-tropical plants cannot tolerate severe winter temperatures but need some winter chilling. Examples
include citrus, dates, figs, and olives.

Temperate-zone plants require a cold winter season as well as a summer growing season, and are
adapted to survive temperatures considerably below freezing. point. Examples include apples, cherries,
peaches, maples, cottonwoods, and aspen. In temperate-zones, tropical and sub-tropical plants are grown
as annuals and houseplants.

Cool season plants thrive in cool temperatures (40o to 70o daytime temperatures) and are somewhat
tolerant of light frosts. Examples include Kentucky bluegrass, peas, lettuce, and pansies.
Warm season plants thrive in warm temperatures (65o to 90o daytime temperatures) and are intolerant
of cool temperatures. Examples include corn, tomatoes, and squash. Some warm season plants are sub-
tropical and tropical plants grown as annuals in Colorado.

Tender plants are intolerant of cool temperatures, frost, and cold winds. (e.g., most summer annuals,
including impatiens, squash, and tomatoes).

Hardy plants are tolerant of cool temperatures, light frost, and cold winds (e.g. spring-flowering bulbs,
spring-flowering perennials, peas, lettuce, cole crops).

Hardiness refers to a plant’s tolerance to winter climatic conditions. Factors that influence hardiness
include minimum temperature, recent temperature patterns, water supply, wind and sun exposure,
genetic makeup, and carbohydrate reserves.

3.3.1.2.3 Classification by Stem and Leaf Texture

Herbaceous plants have non-woody stems.

Woody plants have woody stems that generally live for several years, adding new growth each year.

Deciduous plants shed all leaves at approximately the same time annually.

Evergreen plants retain some leaves longer than one growing season thus leaves are present throughout
the year. Seasonal drop of some of the oldest interior leaves is a natural part of the life cycle.

Semi-evergreen refers to plants that may retain their leaves, depending on the winter temperature and
moisture.

Broadleaf plants have a broad leaf blade (e.g. ash, maple, lilac and beans).

Narrow leaf plants have needle-like (e.g. pine, spruce) or awl-like (e.g. junipers)

Grass-like plants have narrow leaves, usually arising from the base of the plant.

The leaves may be soft (ornamental grasses) or stiff (yucca).

Reminder:

• Some evergreens are broadleaf (e.g., Oregon grape, most true hollies, and evergreen euonymus).

• Some narrow-leaf plants are deciduous (e.g., larch and bald cypress).

• Conifer refers to cone-bearing. Most conifers are narrow-leaf evergreens. A few conifers are deciduous
(larch, bald cypress).

3.3.1.2.4 Classification by Growth Habit

Growth habit refers to the genetic tendency of a plant to grow in a certain shape and to attain a certain
mature height and spread.
Trees typically have a single trunk and mature height over 12 feet.

Shrubs typically have multiple-branches from the ground and a mature height less than 12 feet.

Vines have a climbing, clasping, or self-clinging growth habit.

Note: Many landscape plants could be considered small trees or large shrubs. The term tree or shrub would
be applied based on the general appearance of the plant. Plants have vastly different growth habits. It is
important to understand growth habits in order to make knowledgeable decisions regarding plant
placement, plant selection, pruning and maintenance requirements. The species, cultivar, and/or variety
names sometimes indicates some characteristic of growth habit

3.3.1.2.5 Classification Based on Life Span

From a horticultural perspective, life span is a function of climate and usage. Many garden plants (including
tomatoes and geraniums) grown as annuals in Colorado would be perennials in climates without freezing
winter temperatures

Annuals complete their life cycle (from seedling to setting seed) within a single growing season. However,
the growing season may be from fall to summer, not just from spring to fall. These plants come back from
seeds only.

Summer annuals germinate from seed in the spring and complete flowering and seed production by fall,
followed by plant death, usually due to cold temperatures. Their growing season is from spring to fall.
Examples: marigolds, squash, and crabgrass. These are also called warm season annuals.

Winter annuals germinate from seed in the fall, with flowering and seed development the following
spring, followed by plant death. Their growing season is from fall to summer. Examples: winter wheat and
annual bluegrass. These are also referred to as cool season annuals. Many weeds in the lawn (such as
chickweed and annual bluegrass) are winter annuals

Biennials complete their life cycle within two growing seasons. Biennials germinate from seed during the
growing season and often produce an over wintering storage root or bulb the first summer. Quite often
they maintain a rosette growth habit the first season, meaning that all the leaves are basal. They flower
and develop seeds the second summer, followed by death. In the garden setting, we grow many biennials
as annuals (e.g., carrots, onions, and beets) because we are more interested in the root than the bloom.
Some biennial flowers may be grown as short-lived perennials (e.g., hollyhocks).

Perennials live through several growing seasons, and can survive a period of dormancy between growing
seasons. These plants regenerate from root systems or protected buds, in addition to seeds. Herbaceous
perennials develop over-wintering woody tissue only at the base of shoots (e.g. peony and hosta) or have
underground storage structures from which new stems are produced. (Please note: Golden Vicary Privet
can be either herbaceous or woody as grown in Colorado). Spring ephemerals have a relatively short
growing season but return next season from underground storage organs (e.g. bleeding heart,
daffodils).Woody perennials develop over-wintering tissue along woody stems and in buds (e.g. most trees
and shrubs grown in Colorado).

Combinations – Plants are usually classified as annual, biennial, or perennial on the basis of the plant part
that lives the longest. For example, raspberries have biennial canes and perennial roots.

3.4 Significance of Horticulture:

The Horticulture provides us many essential components of our daily diet and individual’s aesthetic needs.
It promotes the physical and mental health and economic prosperity of individuals and nations. The
importance of Horticulture in improving the productivity of land, generating employment, improving
economic conditions of the farmers and enhancing exports is widely acknowledged. Fruits, nuts, and
vegetables play a significant role in human nutrition, especially as sources of vitamins (C, A, B6, thiamine,
niacin, E), minerals, and dietary fiber. Fruits and vegetables also supply 16% of magnesium, 19% of iron,
and 9% of the calories. Legume vegetables, potatoes, and tree nuts (such as almond, filbert, pecan,
pistachio, and walnut) provide proteins and their proteins. Nuts are a good source of essential fatty acids,
fiber, vitamin E, and minerals. Other important nutrients supplied by fruits and vegetables include folacin,
riboflavin, zinc, calcium, potassium, and phosphorus.

A number of plants are used to make Herbal medicines to prevent illness Tea (made from ginger root) is
used to soothe an upset stomach. Tea (made from white spruce and hemlock) is used to prevent scurvy.
White willow bark is used to ease pain. kinnikinick (buffalo berry) was used to treat kidney problems. Opium
poppy’s seedpod thick milky fluid provides a powerful pain medication. Quinine, which comes from the
cinchona tree, is used to prevent malaria.

Non-traditional high value crops have proved worth worldwide. Cut flower industry is an important
component of floriculture. VALUE-added floriculture is a process of increasing the economic value and
consumer appeal of any floricultural commodity. Value-addition ensures good reward to the grower. The
value-addition for marketing flowers includes adoption of post-harvest technology and improved logistics.
Export of value-added product e.g. oil (extracted in small units set up in production zones) rather than the
raw material e.g. rose petals, can help generate substantial revenue in international market.

3.4.1 Horticulture and Environment

Plants on earth are food and oxygen factories. They clean the air for us to breath. Foliage plants taking in
carbon dioxide, improves our environment in tangible ways as well as aesthetically. Properly arranged,
foliage can shade us without stilling the breeze and thus balance our energy budgets comfortably. Plants
can also heal scarred land and scavenge pollutants from waste. Finally, we have recently learned that
foliage can take in air pollutants, and the estimated cleansing of the air is considerable. Plants give us array
of tangible and non tangible benefits as food, shade, fragrance, clean air, wood, and ecological habitat for
life.

Today we experience an alienation from nature. To keep this relationship, we travel distances to see the
areas of natural beauty. For common city dwellers parks and park-lets, gardens, plantscaped interiors,
window boxes and even dish gardening provide opportunity for sustaining this contact with nature.
Presence of Landscaped premises adds up to quality of life in cities.

It offers a range of tangible and intangible benefits to city dwellers.

In a modern society nature in its natural, naturalized, or artificial form is extending range of personal, social
and health giving benefits.

In modern city living it is evidenced that people acquire tensions related to working pressure of daily life.

Availability of nearby nature results in less perceived job pressure. It keeps people calm and provide
welcome relieve against tension and fatigue.

Green spaces provide habitat for a variety of birds, fish, animals, insects, and other organisms, while also
providing corridors and greenways to link habitats. They prevent soil erosion and absorb rainwater, thereby
improving drainage. Trees have been shown to absorb pollutants; as few as 20 trees can offset the pollution
from a car driven 60 miles per day. Community gardens also provide chemical-free food production and
gardening.

3.4.2 Horticultural Therapy

Horticultural Therapy has been defined as “the use of plants and gardens for human healing and
rehabilitation”. It is an ancient practice, but a rather new profession. Horticultural Therapy programs are
now commonplace at many different facilities in this country and abroad. Studies show that success with
plants can lead to successes in other aspects of our lives. This is important for individuals whose disabilities
or limitations might hinder their accomplishments in other pursuits.

3.4.3 Careers in Horticulture

Horticulture, As an Industry is divided on the basis of crop and plant use. For instance, horticulture can be
divided into two groups including edible plants and aesthetic plants those are grown for their beauty.
Horticulture offers three distinct areas of concentration; Ornamental, Olericulture and Pomology.
Entrepreneurial and professional employment opportunities exist in the nursery crop production industry,
installation and maintenance of outdoor/indoor landscapes, and in wholesale and retail sales. Many
students show their interest in prestigious arboretums, amusement parks and large-scale nurseries. This
option is also flexible enough to fulfill the needs of students interested in the production of fruits, nuts, and
vegetables and the allied service sector, i.e. field representatives for produce brokers/buyers, food
processors, or crop consultants. In Turfgrass Management students learn to manage golf courses, athletic
or recreational fields. Aggressive turfgrass management specialists often command some of the highest
salaries available in professional agriculture. The Science Option is for students interested in teaching
and/or research in horticulture. Most students taking this option pursue an advanced degree. They can
work in industry, government or educational institutions or private collections. They can be cropping
systems engineers, wholesale or retail business managers, propagators and tissue culture specialists (fruits,
vegetables, ornamentals, and turf), crop inspectors, crop production advisers, extension specialists, plant
breeders, research scientists, and of course, teachers.

Plant science and horticulture courses include: plant materials, plant propagation, tissue culture, crop
production, post-harvest handling, plant breeding, pollination management, crop nutrition, entomology,
plant pathology, economics, and business. Some careers in horticultural science require a masters (MS) or
doctoral (PhD) degree.

Taxonomy
The theory and practice of classifying organisms.
Phenon
Terms used for different forms of phenotype that may occur within a single population.
Taxon
A group of real organisms recognized a formal unit any level of higher archy classification.

Taxonomy
The theory and practice of classifying organisms.
Phenon
Terms used for different forms of phenotype that may occur within a single population.
Taxon
A group of real organisms recognized a formal unit any level of higher archy classification.
Category
It is a rank or level in taxonomic higher archy.
Clind
A gradually and nearly continuous range of a character in a series of continuous populations.
Clone
All offspring’s derived by asexual reproduction from a single sexually produced individual.
Allotype
A Para type of the opposite sex of halo type.
Holotype
A single specimen designated or indicated by the original author at the tie of publication original
specimen.
Paratype
A specimen to the than holotype which was before the author at the time of preparation original
description and was so designated or indicated by the original author.
Atlas
Pictorial form of material. A method of presenting taxonomic material primarily by means of
comparative illustration rather than comparative description.
Hierarchy
System of ranks in classification in descending order.
Biota
The flora and fauna of a region.
Biotype
A population composed of similar genotype.
Chorology
Geographical distribution of an organism.
Congeneric
Term applied to the species of same genus.
Conspecific
Term applied to the individual of same species.
Cyclomorphosis
Seasonal non-genetic changes in phenotype on species.
Dendrogram
Diagrammatic drawing in the form of a tree designed to indicate degree of relationships as
suggested by degrees of similarities.
Tribe
A taxonomic category intermediate the genus and sub-family.
Phylogeny
The study of the historical development of the line or lines of evolution I the group of organisms;
the origin and evolution of higher categories.
Biomagnification
The process of increase of pesticide in the food chain is called biomagnification.
Formulation
The particular form of pesticide in which it is manufactured and marketed is known a
formulation. It is always expressed in percentage and denoted by F.
Concentration
The amount of active ingredient in a given volume or weight after formulation mixture is known
as concentration.
Dose
The amount of actual poison in volume is called dose. It is measured in active ingredient.
Insecticide
The chemical, which is used to kill the insects through mortal effects, is called insecticide.
Pesticide
Chemicals are used to kill the pests called pesticides.
Chemical
The substance after the combination of two or more substances as a result of chemical reaction.

SHORT QUESTIONS :

What is entomology?
It is a branch of science, which deals with the study of insects.
What does entomon mean?
It means an insect.
What is applied entomology?
It is the study of insects, causing economic loss or benefit to human life or property, and their
control.
What is an egg?
It is an embryo enclosed in a shell.
What is an embryo?
Developing zygote is called an embryo
What is starvation?
Sufferings caused in insects due to lack of food.
What are oviparous insects?
Insects’ producing/laying eggs.
What are viviparous insects?
Insects giving birth to the young ones.
What is an oviposition?
It is the period of egg laying.
What are surface insects?
Insects, which damage very young emerging plants from, soil surface.
What are hermaphrodite insects?
Insects having both the sexes i.e. male & female
What are diurnal insects?
These are day time active insects e.g. butterfly.
What are nocturnal insects?
The insects which are active at night e.g. moth
What are crepuscular insects?
Morning or evening twilight active insects.
What is insect control?
To manipulate the insect pest population in the best interest of humanity.
How many types of embryonic development are?
Two, 1: embryonic 2: post embryonic
What is embryonic development?
Changes occurring inside the egg up to hatching.
What are post embryonic developments ?
Development and growth of an insect from hatching up to the adult stages.
What are agricultural insects ?
Few species of ants and termite which depend upon cultivated plants.
What are cosmopolitan insects?
Insects which are found everywhere. e.g. house fly.
What is parasite ?
Insects which live at the expense of other organism
Are the insect parasites always larger or smaller than host?
Parasites are always smaller than their host.
What is a predator?
Free living animals that attacks, kill and feeds on other organisms.
What is the size of predator in relation to host?
Predators are always larger than host.
What are scavanger insects?
Some beetles and flies which feed on dead organisms.
What is metamorphosis?
All changes occur in form from hatching up to maturity (adult).
What is hyper metamorphosis?
It is the marked changes in larval life, i.e. larval instars/assumes two or more distinct forms of
larvae, e.g. lemon butterfly
What is stadium?
Period between two moultings of an insect.
What is instar?
It is the shape of an insect between two moultings.
What is scutellum?
It is a triangular shield present on the thoracic notum between the bases of wings in hemiptera.
What are pseudo legs?
In immature stage of an insect abdomen posses some legs which are called pseudo legs.
Define caterpillar ?
Larvae having five pairs of prolegs, one on each of the 3rd , 4th , 5th , 6th and 10th abdominal
segments, e.g. American bollworm
Define dormancy?
Arrested or non functional periods during which development and reproduction of the insect is
suppressed.
What is diapause?
Physiological state of arrested metabolism in which development of insect is delayed.
Define obligatory diapause ?
It occurs at correct time and in univoltine sp.
What is univoltine species?
Insect species which have one generation in a year.
Define multivoltine species?
An insect having several generations in a year.
What are polyvoltine species ?
Having more than one generation in a year.
What is facultative/post embryonic diapause ?
Diapause occurring only in unfavourable conditions. It occurs in polyvoltine sp.
Define hibernation/winter sleep ?
Diapause occurring in winter or under low temperature.
Define aestivation ?
Diapause occurring in summer/drought period or at high temperature.
Define leaf roller ?
Insects which during their larval stage roll the leaf for shelter and food.
What are leaf miner ?
Insect which in their larval stage mines and feeds between the two layers of a leaf on spongy
mesophyll.
How does gall is made by insects ?
By releasing chemical secretions.
What is pupa ?
Resting , non feeding and inactive stage that occurs between larval and adult stages of
endopterygotes.
Define nymph ?
Young ones of hemimetabola which have terrestrial habitat.
Define naid ?
The young ones of exopterygotes which have aquatic habitat.
What is a grub ?
Legless larvae of some beetles and bees having tiny head and few organs , body fleshy and
rounded. Or immature of coleoptra.
Define maggot ?
Young one of fly. maggot is legless , one end is rounded , other is pointed. Or immature of
diptera.
What is imago?
Adult form of an insect.
Define tegmine?
Leathery forewings of grasshopper and cockroaches.
Elytron, what is it?
It is a hard forewing of beetle.
Define hemelytra ?
For wings of bugs having basal half hard and distal half is membranous.
Define halteres?
Hind wings of true flies are modified into a knob like structure. It acts as balming organ during
flight.
What is insect morphology?
Study of form and structure of insects.
What is insect physiology?
Study of the functions of different parts.
57 . How many parts does an insects body has?
Three: head, thorax, and abdomen.
What is an antennae?
A pair of segmented sensory organs on insect head.
Name the parts of insects antennae?
Three , scape, pedicel , flagellum.
Define tergum or notum ?
Dorsal sclerotized region of insect body.
Define sternum ?
It is a ventral sclerotized region of insect body.
What are tagmata?
Main body region of insects.
Enlist the types of egg ?
Spherical , oval , conical , elongate , stalked . sculptured , with appendages.
What are the types of pupae?
Extract, coarctate, obtect.
what are insect mouth parts?
5 parts: labrum , labium , mandible , maxillae , hypo pharynx.
Define apiculture.
The practice of scientifically commercial rearing of honeybees for the production of honey along
with secondary products like wax propilis and royal jelly is called apiculture.
Differentiate betweenapis cerana Fandapis mellifera L.
ApisceranaF: This bee is found in hilly areas of Pakistan and Azad Jammun and Kashmir.
Naturally it is found in hollow trunks of big trees, cause of mountains and some other concealed
places.
ApismelliferaL: This is called European bee. It can only be reared under modern scientific
principles in the hives. It makes parallel combs enclosure.
What is meant by swarming ?
Process of division of a colony of honeybee on its own accord, it is a natural instinct.
What is meant by sericulture?
The art of rearing of silk worm on scientific lines for the production of silk is called sericulture.
What is meant by lac culture?
The art of rearing of lac insects on scientific lines for lac production is called lac culture or lac
cultivation.
What are the important insect pests of gram?
Gram cut worm, grassy cutworm and gram aphid.
Write the name of insect pests of ornamental plants?
Rose aphid, pea leaf miner.
Write the name of the methods of pest scouting?
Diagonal method, zigzag method and Mario method.
Write the mode of damage of root borer of sugarcane.

Damage is done by larvae to the under ground portion of plants resulting in the drying of the
growing shoot.

IMPORTANT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Q.1 Briefly explain the mode of damage of Gurdaspur borer of sugarcane?

The larva destroy the canes by making spiral galleries; in the beginning it attacks in the patches
in the field, and later on it spreads to the entire field where the canes dry up. The attacked nude
portions of the canes break even by slight disturbance by air and animals.
Q.2 Define an insect?
It is a cold blooded, invertebrate, tracheal arthropod in which body is usually divided into three
regions i.e. head, thorax and abdomen. Head bears a pairs of Antennae. Thorax bears two pairs
of wings and 3 pair of legs and abdomen bears external genetalia.
Q.3 Define a pest?
Ans: In a wide sense, a pest may be defined as any organism which harms or causes damage
to man directly or indirectly. (e.g.) weeds, rodents, insects and mites etc.
Q.4 Describe about a leaf roller?
Ans: It is an insect, which in the larval stage of its life rolls a leaf, thus making a shelter in
which it feeds and rests (e.g.) A large number of moths of family Pyralidae as Cotton leaf
rollerSyleptaderogata.
Q.5 Describe about a leaf miner?
Ans: It is an insect, which in the larval stage mines and feeds between the two layers of a
leaf. They feed on spongy internal cells (mesophyll) of the leaf. Mostly, leaf miners are tiny flies
or moths, however the grubs of some beetles species are also included under the term leaf miner
(e.g.) Citrus leaf minerPhyllocnistiscitrella.
Q.6 What do you know about borers?
Ans: The borers are insects, which in their larval stage, bore in buds, leaves, fruits, seeds,
nuts, or stems etc. (e.g.) sugar cane borers, cotton boll worm complex etc.
Q.7 Define a gall?
Ans: A gall is an abnormal proliferation of plant cells resulting from outside stimulus. The
stimulus may be a mechanical irritation or injury, a fungal growth, or the activity of a nematode,
a mite, or an insect (e.g.) Gall-louse produce gall on young shoots of conifers.
Q.8 Tell the mechanism of gall making by gall-insect.
Ans: In case of insect, it is not the mechanical injury of the tissue that stimulates the plant but
the chemical secretion released by the growing larvae after hatching from the egg.
Q.9 Do you know about Cannibalism?
Ans: Cannibalism is a practice of dining on one’s own species. It is found in some species of
termites, larvae of American boll worm and lacewing etc.
Q.10 Define larvae?
Ans: The young ones of holometabola (insects having complete metamorphosis), or we can
say. It is the second stage of indirect metamorphosis. The insect larvae are free living, different
in structure and habits from their adults.
Q.11 Define an embryo?
Ans: An animal or plant in early stage of its development, is called an embryo.
Q.12 What is a nymph?
Ans: The Young one (immature stage) of hemimetabolous insects or exopterygotes, which
are terrestrial in habit. (e.g.) grasshoppers, cockroaches etc. Nymph resembles with the adult
except for the fact that wings and reproductive organs are undeveloped.
Q.13 Define facultative/post embryonic diapause?
Ans: The diapause which occurs only in unfavorable environment is called facultative or post
embryonic diapause. It occurs in polyvoltine (sp. With more than one generation in a year)
species.
Q.14 What do you know about hibernation?*
Ans: It is a type of diapause which occurs in winter. It is often known as winter sleep.
Q.15 Define aestivation?*
Ans: The type of diapause which occurs in summer or drought times, is called aestivation.
Q.16 Define dormancy?*
Ans: A not actively growing or functioning period in the life cycle, when growth
development and reproduction are suppressed.
Q.17 Define starvation?*
Ans: Suffering caused in insects due to lack of food, is called starvation.
Q.18 Describe what are the herbivorous insects?
Ans: Those insects, which feed on plants only, are called herbivorous insects (e.g.) crop pests
i.e. cotton insect pests etc.

Q.19 Describe what are the monophagous insects?

Ans: Those insects, which feed on only one type of food, are called monophagous (e.g.) Pink
Bollworm
Q.20 Define omnivorous insects?
Ans: Those insects, which feed on wide variety of food from plants to animals are called
omnivorous insects (e.g.) ants.
Q.21 Define carnivorous insects?
Ans: Those insects, which feed on animal flesh, are called carnivorous (e.g.) insect predators
as green lacewing etc.
Q.22 Define oviparous insects?
Ans: Producing eggs by females. (e.g.) beetles, bugs etc.
Q.23 Define viviparous insects?
Ans: Producing young ones by females, (e.g.) aphids.
Q.24 Tell about the oviposition?
Ans: The period of egg laying from 1st to the final egg by a female, is called oviposition.
Q.25 Define natality?
Ans: The birth rate of population, is called natality.
Q.26 Define fecundity?
Ans: The rate at which females produce eggs, is called fecundity.
Q.27 Define vivility?
Ans: The rate at which males produce sperms, is called vivility.
Q.28 Define a semilooper?
Ans: The larva having three pairs of prolegs on 5th, 6th, and 10th abdominal segments. (e.g.)
cotton semilooperTarachenotabilis.
Q.29 Define a caterpillar?*
Ans: The larva having five pairs of prolegs, one each of the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 10th
abdominal segments. (e.g.) members of family Noctuidae and Pyralidae.
Q.30 Define a looper?
Ans: The larva which makes a loop during locomotion and having two pairs of prolegs on 6th
and 10th abdominal segments. (e.g.)members of family Geometridae.
Q.31 Describe wire worms?
Ans: The wire worms are elongated ribbon like larvae of beetles. They are mostly found
damaging the roots and tubers of potato crop (e.g.) larvae of click beetle (Elatecidae) and wheat
wirewormsAgriotismancusSay.
Q.32 Define crepuscular insects?
Ans: Insects which are mainly active during evening or morning twilight, are called
crepuscular i.e active at dusk or dawn.

Q.33 Define a vector?

Ans: Organism (often an insect), that transmits a pathogenic virus, bacterium, protozoan or
fungus from one host to another (e.g.) whiteflies transmit leaf curl virus in cotton crop and
aphids transmit banana bunchy top virus.
Q.34 What do you mean by insect control?
Ans: Insect control does not mean to eradicate the insect population but, it means to check or
reduce insect population, at sub economic levels.
Q.35 Describe the embryonic development?
Ans: The changes which take place inside the egg up to the hatching and development of
insect inside the egg, is called embryonic development.
Q.36 Describe the postembryonic development?
Ans: The development and growth of an insect from the time of hatching upto the adult
stage, is called post embryonic development.
Q.37 What is scutellum?*
Ans: The scutellum is a triangular sclerite found on the thoracic notum; between the base of
wings.
Q.38 Define a Parasite?*
Ans: It is an organism which lives on or within another living organism. Parasites are always
smaller and weaker than their hosts (e.g.) warble flies.
Q.39 Define a Predator?
Ans: A free living animal that attacks and feeds on other organism(s), is known as predator.
Predators are mostly powerful, larger in size than their prey (e.g.) Chrysopa Cornea (green
lacewing).
Q.40 Briefly explain a parasitoid?
Ans: The term is applied for those insects such as Ichneumon flies which ultimately kill their
host, in contrast to true parasites such as warble flies which do not. Besides, parasitoid are
parasitic only in certain stages of their life cycle.
Q.41 Define Scavengers?*
Ans: Scavengers are some beetles and flies, which feed on dead organisms (decaying
vegetables or animal matter) (e.g.) members of Carabidae family.
Q.42 Describe hyper metamorphosis?*
Ans: A type of complex metamorphosis in which larval instars assumes the distinct form of
two or more types of larvae, in their development. In simple words hyper metamorphosis is the
marked changes in larval life (e.g.) blister beetles (Meloidae).

Q.43 Define instar?

Ans: It is the shape of insect during the stadium or stage between two moults. The number of
larval instars varies from three to about thirty.
Q.44 Define agricultural insects?
Ans: A few species of ants and termites, which depend on cultivated plants, are called
agricultural insects. (e.g.) leaf cutter ants cut pieces out of leaves and carry them down to their
nests as a medium on which they grow fungi.
Q.45 Define cosmopolitan insects”*
Ans: Those insects which are found every where, are called cosmopolitan. 1% of all the
insects are probably cosmopolitan. Many of them are parasites of man, like human lice, fleas,
houseflies, cockroaches etc.

Q.46 Tell about the social insects?

Ans: Those insects which live in organized colonies or possess cast system are called “social
insects. ”. (e.g.) ants and honey bees etc.
Q. 47 Write down the characters of true social insects?
Ans: Social insects live in groups; they cooperate with each other to the point of a definite
division of labour; they care for their young ones, feeding them progressively; they often practice
trophallaxis, and they build nests. In respect of each characteristic there is a tremendous variation
within each group.
Q.48 Define wild bees?
Ans: The bees which are not reared for commercial purpose are called wild bees.

Q.49 What do you know about the domestic bees?

Ans: The bees which are reared artificially as commercial business are called domestic bees.
(e.g.)Apis mellifera.
Q.50 Tell the castes of an insect society?
Ans: Basically, there are two main castes: reproductive individuals, males and queen; and
non-reproductive ones, workers.
Q.51 Write down the common species of honey bee?
Ans: The common species of honey bee are following
Apiscerana
A.florae
A.mellifera
A.dorsata

Q.52 What is Royal chamber?

Ans: The queen lives in a specialized portion of the hive, called as royal chamber.
Q.53 What thing distinguishes a female honey bee larva to develop into a worker or a
queen?
Ans: Quality of food. Each larva is fed by the workers on royal jelly for at least three days. If
it receives this during its entire larval life it develops into a queen. But if, after the first three
days the larva is fed bee bread, it develops into a worker. Queen larvae are reared in large cells,
worker larvae in small cells.
Q.54 Tell the difference between body of a worker and a queen bee.
Ans: The body of queen possesses 15 – 20 mm abdomen, which is five times larger than
abdomen of a worker bee.
Q.55 Tell the difference between the drones and workers?
Ans: The drones are males, the workers are sterile females. Drones are heavier bodied,
having large eyes and do not possess sting and special pollen comb and basket.
Q.56 Define nuptial flight?
Ans: Nuptial means marriage. The special flight undertaken at night by queen and a number
of drones in which mating of queen takes place.
Q.57 Define wagging dance?
Ans: In wagging dance wagging straight run gives the direction of the food. The angle of the
straight made vertical is the same as the angle between feeding place, hive and sun.

Q.58 Define pheromone?

Ans: Pheromone is a chemical, secreted outside by an insect male or female for specific
behaviour within the same species.

Q.59 Write down the types of the pheromones?

Ans: The types of pheromones are following:

1. Alarm pheromone———– To be alert for danger

2. Aggregation pheromone————– To get together for food & mating
3. Sex pheromone————- To attract the opposite sex
4. Trail marking pheromone———- To follow each other

Q.60 Define chemical control of pest?

Ans: The control by toxic chemicals including pesticides, sterilants, semi chemicals, growth
regulators etc., to check pest population, is called chemical control.
Q.61 Define pesticide?
Ans: The chemical used to control the pest is called pesticide.
Q.62 What is active ingredient?
Ans: It is the ingredient of pesticide formulation responsible for toxic effect.
Q.63 Tell the types of pesticides according to pest they control?
Ans: The pesticides may be classified into following classes.

1. Ovicide:

The chemical, which is used for killing or controlling the eggs of insects.

1. Avicide:

(Derived from class Aves).chemical used for killing or controlling birds.

1. Pesticide:

The chemical, which is used for controlling of the pest.

1. Fungicide:

The chemical, which is used for controlling fungi. (e.g.) Benlate (50 WP) etc.

1. Molluscicide:

The chemical, which is used for controlling snails and slugs.

1. Rodenticide:
The chemical, which is used for the control of gnawing animals, i.e: rodents. (e.g.) Zinc
phosphide, Aluminium phosphide, Coumatetralyl etc.

1. Nematicide:

The chemical, which is used for the control of nematodes. (e.g.) Basamid (G), Furadon (3%G)
etc.

1. Herbicide:

The chemical, which is used for the control of herbs and shrubs.

1. Weedicide:

The chemical, which is used for the control of weeds. (e.g.) Dicuran-MA (60 WP), Alrelon (75
WP) etc.

1. Acaricide/Miticide:

The chemical, which is used for the control of mites. (e.g.) Sanmite, Nissorun, Ethion etc.

1. Insecticide:

It is the chemical, which is used for the control of the insect (e.g.) Polytrin C, Thiodan (35 EC),
Karate (2.5 EC) etc.

1. Repellent:

Those substances or chemicals, which keep away the pest by their offensive appearance or
odour.
Q.64 What are inorganic pesticides?
Ans: Inorganic pesticides are derived from naturally occurring elements and do not contain
carbon. (e.g.) Bordeaux mixture, calcium cyanide, sodium cyanide, boric acid etc.

Q.65 What are organic pesticides?

Ans: Organic pesticides are man made, consisting of carbon, hydrogen and one or more other
elements such as chlorine, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen etc.
Q.66 What are the things required for safe application of pesticide?
Ans: For safe application goggles, respirator, overalls, gloves, head covers, and gum boots
are required.
Q.67 Define antidote?
Ans: The treatment given to counteract the effects of a poison is called antidote.
Q.68 Define swath?
Ans: The width of the area treated in one pass by a sprayer of other applicator.
Q.69 Tell about the surveillance/pest scouting.
Ans: The watch kept on a pest for determination of population density, dispersion and
dynamic is called surveillance or pest scouting. A grower gets knowledge of pests population
only through pest scouting. On the basis of which he may see that pest has reached economic
injury level or not. In other words, it is time to spray or not.
Q.70 Enlist the kinds of Pests?
Ans: The main kinds of pests are mentioned below.

1. Major Pest: Any pest, which causes more loss to our crop, it is marked as major pest.
(e.g.) cotton bollworms, sugarcane borers etc.
2. Minor Pest: When damage cause by pest is slight, such pest is referred as a minor pest.
(e.g.) sugarcane black bug.
3. Key Pest:Key pests are perennially persistent species that dominate control practices.
The pest population usually remain themselves above economic injury level. (e.g.) jassid,
mango hopper etc. in simple words key pest may also be defined as, an insect pest or
disease normally present at some time during the growing season that causes economic
damage to a crop.
4. Occasional Pest:It causes economic damage only in certain places or at certain times.
Such pests have usually adequate biological or environmental control (e.g.) hairy
caterpillar.
5. Potential Pest/Secondary Pest: It causes no significant damage but due to injurious use
of chemicals or cultural practices they cause significant loss. (e.g.) hairy caterpillar.
6. Migrant Pest: Migrant pests are non resistant of agroecosystem that enter periodically
for short period of time. (e.g.) Desert locust and other four types of locusts, army worms
etc.

Q.71 What is the mode of action of Nerve poisons?

Most convential insecticide act as nerve poisons. These affect the insect nervous system mostly
as narcotics, axonic poisons, or synaptic poisons.
Q.72 What is the mode of action of Axonic poisons?
These act primarily by interrupting normal axonic transmission of the nervous system.
Q.73 What is the mode of action of muscle poisons?
Muscle poisons have a diret influence on muscle tissue.
Q.74 What are Physical toxicants?
Physical poisons block a metabolic process by physical rather than chemical, means.

What is Plant Pathology? Plant Pathology is defined as the study of the organisms and
environmental conditions that cause disease in plants, the mechanisms by which this occurs, the
interactions between these causal agents and the plant (effects on plant growth, yield and
quality), and the methods of managing or controlling plant disease. It also interfaces knowledge
from other scientific fields such as mycology, microbiology, virology, biochemistry, bio-
informatics, etc.

What is Plant Pathology? Plant Pathology is defined as the study of the organisms and environmental conditions
that cause disease in plants, the mechanisms by which this occurs, the interactions between these causal agents and
the plant (effects on plant growth, yield and quality), and the methods of managing or controlling plant disease. It also
interfaces knowledge from other scientific fields such as mycology, microbiology, virology, biochemistry, bio-
informatics, etc.

Abiogenesis: The concept of the living from non-living matter.

Abiotic: Disease not due to any microorganism but due to abiotic factors: also known as
physiological or non-pathological disease.

Acervulus: A saucer shaped asexual fruiting body in Deuteromycetes producing conidia on

conidiophores.

Acropetal Arrangement :Development of spores from the base to upward , with the youngest at
the apex.

Acquired Resistance :Non-inherited or adapted resistance.

Acquistion Feeding :The period for which a vector after feeding on a virus affected plant
becomes viruliferous or infective.

Actinomycetes :A group of bacteria, forming branching filaments, mostly Gram + ve and

anaerobic.

Adsorption :Process by which the liquid is imbibed to and held on the surface.

Adult Plant Resistance: Resistance expressed at the adult plant stage and not expressed by
seedlings.

Agro – Ecosystem: An agricultural area sufficiently large to permit long term interactions
between all living organisms and their non-living environment.

Air – Borne :Organisms transported from place to place through air.

Alleloparasitism :When partners change their role while living together.

Alternate Host :Host other than parent host to complete life cycle of the parasite.

Alternation of Generation :The occurrence of two or more distinct forms or generations in the
life cycle of an organism.

Anaerobic Respiration :Respiration in the absence of oxygen.

Anaerobic Fermentation: Fermentation in the absence of oxygen strictly by anaerobic bacteria

or yeasts.

Anamorph :Asexual or imperfect or conidial state or stage of a fungus.

Anisogametes :Motile gametes similar in structure or morphology but differing in size.

Anisogamy :Union of two morphologically similar planogametes but differing in size.

Antheridium :The male sexual organ or male gametangium present in some fungi.
Anthracnose :A disease characterized by black, sunken lesions on stems, twigs, leaves or fruits.

Antibody :A protein produced by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign body.

Antibiosis :The inhibiting effect of a volatile or non-volatile toxic compound and active against
competing fungi.

Antibiotic :A substance produced by one microorganism and inhibiting or killing the other
microorganism.

Antidote :A substance used to counteract the effects of a poison.

Apoplastic movement :Movement in the direction of the transpiration stream, also called as
acropetal or upward movement.

Apothecium :An open saucer shaped ascocarp in Discomycetes , bearing asci and ascospores.

Appresorium :The swollen flattened tip of hypha that helps in the attachment to host surface
and later penetration by the fungus.

Arthrospore :A spore resulting from the fragmentation of a hypha at the septum.

Ascocarp :Fruiting body in Ascomycetes containing or bearing asci.

Ascogonium :The female gametangium or sexual organ in Ascomycetes.

Ascogenous hypha :A specialized hypha which gives rise to asci.

Ascus :An elongated sac like structure usually containing eight ascospores produced by free cell
formation.

Assimilation :Utilization by a living organism of absorbed food material for different processes
such as growth , reproduction and repair.

Atrophy :Degeneration or under development of a plant part or an organ.

Atropine :An antidote used for the treatment of organophosphate and carbamate poisoning.

Autoecious Fungus :Fungus completing its entire cycle on the same host.

Axenic culture :Micro-organisms growing in the absence of the host.

Auxin :Hormonal substances responsible for growth promotion, by cell enlargement.

Azotobactor :Free living aerobic nitrogen fixing bacteria.

Bacteria :Unicellular prokaryotic organisms usually lack chlorophyll and multiply by fission.

Bacteriophage :A virus that is parasitic within bacterium.

Bacteriocin :Substance produced by certain bacteria and active against one or more strains of
the same or closely related species.
Bacteriostatic :An agent that prevents multiplication of bacteria without killing them.
Basipetal :Development of spores with the oldest at the apex.
Basidiocarp :The entire fructification of Basidiomycetes bearing basidia.
Basidium :A structure bearing on its surface a definite number of basidiospores , those are
usually formed following karyogamy and meiosis.
Binomial nomenclature :A system of classification introduced by Linnaeous, composing of two
names, the first as genus and second the species.
Binal viruses :Viruses having polyhedral head with helical tail.
Biocide :A chemical toxic to a living organism.
Biotroph :An organism that can live and multiply only on another living organism.
Black heart :A storage disease due to the lack of oxygen in poor ventilation conditions.
Blight :General and rapid killing of leaves , flowers or stems.
Blister :A raised lesion on the leaf surface , which opens to expose spores.
Blotch :A disease characterized by large irregular spots or blots on leaves , shoots or stems.
Botanical pesticide :A pesticide obtained from plants.
Bromoviruses :Viruses having rounded particles.
Brown rot :When hemicellulose and celluloses in the wood are decomposed except lignin,
giving brown colour.
Budding :A bubble like structure protruding from the hypha and separated by constriction of
wall from the parent hypha.
Canker :A necrotic often sunken lesion on a stem , branch , twig or fruit , arising from
destruction of epidermal or cortical tissues.
Capsid :The protein coat covering nucleic acid in case of viruses.
Capsule :A layer of polysaccharides around bacterial cell for protection from adverse
environment.
Carcinogen :A substance capable of producing cancer.
Carrier :A liquid or solid material added to a chemical compound to prepare a proper
formulation. A source of infection for other plants.
Caulimovirus :Virus containing circular double stranded DNA.
Cell :Mass of protoplasm bounded by a wall or membrane. It is the basic unit of structure of all
living organisms except viruses.
Cellulose :The main constituent of cell wall. A polysaccharide composed of glucose units linked
by glycosidic bonds.
Chemotherapeutant :Fungicides those act on the pathogen by entering into plant system.
Chitin :Nitrogen containing compound found in cell walls of fungi.
Chlorosis :Yellowing of normally green tissues due to destruction of chlorophyll or failure of
chlorophyll formation.
Chromosome map :Map showing relative position of genes.
Clamp connection :Outgrowth of hyphae those form bridges around septa , thus connecting two
cells.
Coenocytic :Not septate ; refering to the fact that the nuclei are embeded in the cytoplasm
without being separated by cross walls.
Collar rot :Rotting of stem or main axis at or about the level of soil.
Commensalism :A type of symbiosis in which two species live in close association when one
member benefits but with no harm to the partner.
Compound interest disease :when there are many generations of the pathogen in the life of the
crop and disease is generally widespread.
Constitutional dormancy :A condition where in the development is delayed due to an innate
property of dormant stage.
Cultural control :Method of pest control by means of skillful combination of agronomic
practices.
Cyst nematode :A carcass of dead females containing viable eggs in genus like Heterodera.
Damping off :Sudden collapse , death and rotting of seedlings at soil level resulting from the
attack of Pythium spp.
Deficiency disease :A disease caused by inadequate intake of any essential macro or
micronutrient.
Dermatomycosis :A fungus infection of animal or human skin.

Die back :Progressive death of shoots from tip and progressing backward towards the main
stem.

ELIZA : It is the abbreviation of Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay; an important

biological test for the valid identification of plant viruses and bacteria.

Gene cloning : Isolation and multiplication of an individual gene or gene sequence by inserting
into a bacterium or yeast cell for replication.

Gene :Unit of hereditary present on a chromosome in a bead like structure.

Genetic engineering : Transfer of a specific gene between organisms.

Genetic recombination :Variation in genetic make up of an offspring.

Genome : The entire genetic information of an organism.

Genotype : The genetic constitution of an organism.

Genus : A taxonomic category including a number of species.

Germination : Ability of seed to develop into a normal plant under favourable conditions.

Germ tube : A thread like structure coming out of the germinating spore.

Gibberellins : A group of plant growth regulating substances with a variety of functions.

Girdling : Surrounding stem and completely cutting off water supply and causing death.
Growth regulator : A natural substance that regulates the enlargement , division or activation of
plant cells.

Gamete : A male or female reproductive cell.

Gummosis : Production of gum by or in a plant tissue.

Guttation : Exudation of water partially along leaf margins.

Halophytes : Plants able to tolerate high salinity.

Hectare :An area of land equal to 2.47 acres.

Hemibiotrophs : Organisms those attack living tissues but may continue to sporulate after the
tissue is dead.

Heterotrophic : Requiring an organic source of energy , not producing their food of their own
but depend on other host for getting nutrition.

Histology : Science dealing with tissues and their organization.

Homothallic : A fungus producing male and female gametes on the same mycelium.

Host range : The number of hosts attacked by a pathogen.

Pandemic : A wide spread and destructive outbreak of disease simultaneously in several

countries.

Parasitism : A type of symbiosis , in which a parasite depend on the host for essential food.

Pathogen : Any organism capable of causing a disease.

Pathogenesis : The sequence of events with the start of infection till the completion of disease.

Pathogenicity : Ability of the pathogen to cause a disease and the degree of pahtogenicity is
termed as virulence.

Perthotrophs : Organism which kills the host in advance of penetration.

Physiologic race : A group of micro-organism similar in morphology but differ genetically.

Physiologic specialization : Existence of number of races or forms of one species of a pathogen.

Phytoalexin : A substance produced in plants as a result of chemical, biological or physical

stimuli , inhibiting growth of certain micro-organisms.
Plasmogamy : Fusion of protoplasm of two haploid cells without fusion of nuclei.

Polycyclic : Response of a plant to repeated cycles of infection under field conditions.

Polymorphic : Occurrence of more than one spore forms in the life cycle of a micro- organism.

Primary host : The host upon which the telial stage of a rust fungus is produced.

Primary inoculum : The inoculum produced as a result primary infection , that later becomes a
source of secondary infection to other plants.

Prokaryote : Organisms lacking true nucleus (Bacteria and MLO).

Propagative virus : A virus that multiplies in its insect vector.

Protectant: A substance that protects an organism against infection by a pathogen.

Pustule: A small blister like elevation of epidermis.

Race: A group of biotypes with similar virulence on a particular host.

Receptive hypha: Hypha in a pycnium of a rust fungus with a female sexual function ,fertilized
by a male pycniospore.

Respiration: A biochemical phenomenon where there is breakdown of carbohydrates into

carbondioxide and water.

Retrovirus: An RNA virus that uses reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA and RNA.

Rhizoids: A root like structure of thin hypha growing toward substrate.

Rickettsia: Organisms intermediate between bacteria and viruses with ability to multiply only in
living plant cells.

Ring spot: A circular area of chlorosis with a green center.

Roguing: Removal of undesirable plants from the growing crop.

Rot: Softening , discoloration and often disintegration of a succulent plant tissue as a result of
fungal or bacterial infection.

Scorch: Burning of leaf margins as a result of infection or unfavourable environments.

Seed pathology: Science dealing with seed-borne diseases and their management.

Seed: A mature ovule with a miniature or rudimentary plant.

Selective medium: A culture medium suitable for culturing a specific pathogen.

Shot hole: A symptom in which small diseased fragments of leaf fall off leaving small holes in
the lamina or leaf.

Soft rot: Softening and disintegration of plant tissues by enzymes , produced in case of fungal or
bacterial infection.

Soil amendments: Any substance added into soil for improving its physical or chemical
properties.

Soil drenching: A pesticide used for application to the soil surface before or after plant
emergence.

Soil-borne:Micro-organisms living and surviving in soil.

Spawn: The secondary mycelium used in the commercial production of mushrooms.

Spawning: Placement of spawn into the substrate upon which mushrooms grow.

Species: A group of closely related individuals resembling each other in inherited characteristics.

Spiroplasma: A prokaryote with helical shape and lacking cell wall.

Sporadic disease: Diseases those occur at very irregular intervals and locations and in relatively
a few instances.

Spore: A single to many celled small reproductive unit in fungi with no preformed embryo.

Sporodochium: A compact cushion like fruiting structure with short condiophores in cluster.

Sterilization: Elimination of pathogen from the surface with chemical or heat.

Stipe: The stalk of a stipitate basidiocarp or ascocarp.

Substratum: The substance on which the fungus grows.

Sun scald: Burning effect due to high sun heat.

Suppressive soil: Soils in which certain diseases are suppressed because of the presence of
antagonists.

Susceptibility: Inability of the plant to resist the effect of a pahtogen.

Symptom: Visible reaction or expression on a plant due to abiotic or biotic factors.

Syndrome: Disease picture , a group of signs and symptoms those occur together.

Synergism: Healthy association of two organism not damaging each other.

Systemic: Spreading internally throughout the plant parts.

Systemic fungicide: A fungicide translocated within the plant away from the site of application.

Thermal death point: Temperature at which all the bacterial cells in a suspension are killed
after exposure for 10 minutes.

Thermophilic: Organisms those tolerate high temperature (45-65 oC).

Tinsel flagellum: A flagellum that bears hairs at the flagellar membrane.

Toxin: A compound produced by a microorganism and being toxic to a plant or animal.

Transformation: It is the transfer of genetic material.

Tumor: An uncontrolled overgrowth of tissues.

Unilateral: Hymenium found on only one side of the basidiocarp.

Variegation: Regular colour changes particularly in flower petals and leaves.

Vascular bundle: Conducting tissues consisting of primary xylem.

Vector: Insect able to transmit a virus.

Vein clearing: Destruction of chlorophyll adjacent or in the vein tissues mostly as a result of
virus infection or an increased translucency or whitening of veinal system in a leaf.

Viricide: A substance capable of inactivating or suppressing the multiplication of a virus.

Viroid: Single stranded small circular naked RNA (virus particles without protein coat)
replicating in host nucleus.

Virulence: Organism having a high capacity to produce disease.

Viruliferous: Insect vector with virus in its body and being capable of introducing it into a
susceptible host.

Virus: Submicroscopic strictly obligate parasite filterable infective entities nucleo-protein in

nature.
Vivotoxin: The toxin that can produce disease symptoms in the host plant , usually host non-
specific.

Wart: Abnormal growth on the epidermis or any surface.

Wet rot: Rapid and complete disintegration of the tissues with the release of water from dead
cells.

Xylem: Plant tissues in the root for upward conduction of water and minerals.

Zoosporangium: A sporangium containing zoospore.

Zoospore or swarm spores: A spore capable of moving by cilia or flagella.

Soil science : It is a science, which deals with soils and natural resource on the surface of earth, including chemical,
biological and fertility properties of soil and these properties in relation to their management for the growth of plants to
clean the environment.

Soil science : It is a science, which deals with soils and natural resource on the surface of earth,
including chemical, biological and fertility properties of soil and these properties in relation to
their management for the growth of plants to clean the environment.

Earth : This term is used by engineers as a general name for unconsolidated masses that can be
dug, moved or compacted and formed by equipment. It can come from shallow or deep layers of
earth’s mantle.

Land : It is a general term used to describe the non – water portion of earth usually in reference
to a large surface area, but it is sometimes used synonymously for soil.

Soil : The unconsolidated mineral and organic matter on the immediate surface of the ear that
serves as a natural medium for the growth of the land plants.

Soil chemistry : It deals with the study of chemical composition of soil and chemical reactions
occurring in soil.

Soil genesis : It is the study of mode of origin of soil with special regrernce to the processes or
soil forming factors responsible for the development of the solum from the unconsolidated parent
material.

Soil morphology : It is the study of the soil including the texture, structure, consistency, color
and other physical, chemical and biological properties of the various soil horizons that make up
the soil profile.

Soil classification : The systemic arrangement of soils into groups or categories on the basis of
their characteristics .
Soil conservation : The protection, improvement and use of soil according to principles that will
ensure their highest economic and social benefits.

Soil physics : It deals wit the physical processes of soil a s well as with the measurement,
prediction control of the physical process take place in and through the soil.

Soil fertility : It deals with the inherent capacity of a soil to supplement of the nutrient s in
adequate amount and suitable proportion essential for plant growth.

Soil biology : It is the branch of soil science concerned with soil inhabiting organisms and their
functions and activities.

Soil mineralogy : It deals with the study of structural chemistry of solid phase or it is the study
of mineral occurring in the soil.

Soil salinity : It deals with the study of salt – affected soil and their effect on plant growth.

Soil survey : The systemic examination description classification and mapping of soils in an area
soils are classified according to kind and intensity of field examination.

Atmosphere : The atmosphere is a mixture of gases held to earth by gravity.

Hydrosphere : It is the potion of the earth that includes oceans, seas, lakes and rivers together
with water that has soaked into the grounds and occupies the opening in lithosphere.
Lithosphere : It is the solid or rock portion of the earth.

Mineral : Naturally occurring inorganic substance with characteristic internal structure and
chemical composition having physical properties that are either uniform or variable within
definite limits. All minerals except water and mercury are solids at normal temperature.

Rock : Rock is an assemble of mineral grains.

Cleavage and fracture :Cleavage is the tendency of the minerals to split along definite planes,
where as fracture is the way of mineral breaks when it is not following a cleavage plane.

Hardness : Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to stretching or abrasion.

Luster : Luster is the general appearance of a mineral in reflected light.

Streak : Streak is the color of the powdered mineral.

Specific gravity : This is the weight of the mineral compared to the weight of an equal amount
of water.

Diaphaneity : It is the property of transmitting light.

Tenacity : Tenacity is the behavior of mineral towards attempts to crush, cut , hammer, bend,
tear or break it.

Crystal : The definite shape of the mineral is called crystal.

Primary minerals : Minerals that have not been altered chemical since deposition and
crystallization from molten lava.

Secondary minerals : Minerals resulting from the decomposition of a primary mineral or from
the reprecipitation of the products of decomposition of primary minerals.

Igneous rocks : Rocks formed by cooling and solidifying of extremely hot molten material. The
word igneous meaning fire, which provides a clue to the origin of the rocks.

Sedimentary rocks : Sedimentary rocks as the name implies, has formed from layers of
accumulated sediment.

Metamorphic rocks : Metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks already in existence are
subjected to intensive heating, fluid impregnation of pressure.

Weathering : All physical and chemical changes produced in rocks at or near the earth is
surface, by atmospheric agents is weathering.

Hydrolysis : It is a mineral weathering reaction that adds H+ ions to a mineral structure.

Hydration : It is the addition of water molecules in chemical combination with a mineral to

form hydrated compounds.

Dissolution : When the solute is dissolved in the solvent, this process is called dissolution.

Parent material : Unconsolidated products of weathering from which soil develop.

Loess : Transportation of silty material through wind is called loess.

Sand dunes :The coarse particle remains near the source and accumulate in the form of sand
dunes.

Adobe : It is similar to loess but calcareous in nature.

Volcanic ash : Fine material of rock that is carried away wind from active volcanoes settles
often in layers to become soil parent material. It is not important in our country but is found in
Japan, Mexico etc.

Soil formation : Soil formation means both the production of parent material by weathering
process and the soil profile development.
Process of soil formation : Addition, loess, transformations and translocations these four steps
are known as process of soil formation.

Topography : The earth’s surface contour is called its topography. It relates to the configuration
of land surface and described in terms of difference in elevation slope and so on. Soil
morphology is the visual observation of soil structure, shapes e.g. the arrangements of soil
components in the soil profile. This can be studied in the field by naked eye with the aid of land
lens and binocular stereoscope material with the electron microscopy. Soil profile : A vertical
section of the soil through its various layers and extending into the C- horizon.

O horizon : The o group is comprised of organic horizons that form above the mineral soil.

H horizons : Horizons composed of mineral soil material, but strongly darkened by hum field
organic matter intimately mixed with mineral fraction. The horizons import a darker colors that
of lower horizon.

E horizon : Mineral horizons from which silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combinations of
these have an elevated leaving a usually light colored horizon. In which sand or silt sized quartz
or other resistant mineral have been constructed.

B-horizon : Horizons that form below and A, E or O horizon and show illuviation of materials
has taken place from above and even from below.

C-horizon : Mineral horizon or layers relatively unaffected by pedagogic processes and lacking
properties of A, O, E or B-horizons. May be like or unlike the parent material of any overlying
slum in the same soil.

R layers : Layers composed of hard bed rocks, not practically dig able with a spade and shows
little evidence of weathering.

Horizons : Soil horizons are commonly considered to bee more or less parallel to the surface of
the earth, but some horizons are irregular in shapes. Horizon is material that shows pedological
organization.

Pedon : A three dimensional body of soil with lateral diminish large enough to permit the study
of horizon shapes and relations.

Pedogenesis : Means mode of formation of a pedon, i.e “ a soil”. Pedogenic process these are the
internal soil building processes “the combination or sequence of event for the rearrangement of
matter that intimately affects the soil formation in which it oprates to give rise a particular type
of morphology.

Calcification : A process where by accumulation of CaCO3, to Cca horizon in soil profile, takes
space.
Decalcification : Reaction that remove CaCO3 from one or more soil horizons or eluviation of
carbonates within a soil body.

Pedzolization / silication : The chemical migration of Al and Fe and organic matter , resulting
in the accumulation of silica in the layer eluviated or development of E horizon. Pedozilization is
defined a stew process by which sesquioxides are Tran located in a soil profile.

Desilication (laterization) : The chemical migration of silica out of the soil slum and thus the
accumulation of sesquioxides in solum with or without formation of ironstone and concretions.

Gleization : The reduction of iron under anaerobic ´waterlogged´ soil conditions with the
production of bluish to greenish gray matrix colors, with or without yellowish brown, brown and
black mottles and ferric and manganisgerous concretios.

Salination : The accumulation of soluble salts such as So4 and Cl’s fo Ca, Mg, Na ad K
resulting in slaty or salic horizon. desalination. The removal of soluble parts from salic or salty
soul horizon.

Sodication : It involves the accumulation of sodium ion son the exchange site sin a soil.

Desodication : The removal of sodium ions and salts from nitric horizons.

Soil texture : It refers to the relative portions of the three soil separates in a < 2 mm soil. Soil
structure : The term structure relates to the clustering or arrangement of primary soil particles
into secondary soil particles or units called peds or aggregates, which are separated from the each
other by surfaced of weakness.

Particle density : Particle density refers to the retio of the total and mass of the solid particle to
their total volume excluding pore spaces between particles.

Bulk density : It is defined as mass of dry soil solid per unit bulk volume. Bulk volume means
volume of soil particles plus pore space.

Pore space : The pre space of a soil is the proportions of soil bulk volume occupied by soil
pores.

Soil aeration : It is the process by which air in the soil is replaced by air from atmosphere.

Soil water potential : The difference between free energy of soil water and that two pure, free
water in a standard reference state is known as soil water potential.Gravitational water present in
excess of field capacity or water held at potential greater than –33 kPa is called gravitational
water.

Field capacity : The content of water remaining in a soil two or three days after having been
saturated with water and after the free water has been allowed to drain away is called field
capacity.
Permanent wilting percentage : It is the largest water content of soil at which plants growing in
that soil will wilt and not recover when placed in a humid chamber. It is estimated at about –
1500 Kpa water potential or less.

Soil consistency : It is a term used to describe the resistance of soil material to crushing and its
ability to be molded or changed in shape.

Ion exchange : It is the interchange of ions between colloids and solution phases and or between
the solid phases if they are in close contact with each other.

Cation exchange
It is defined as the interchange between a cation in soil solution and another cation on the surface
of any surface active soil particles such as clay colloid or organic colloid between two colloids if
they are in close contact with each other.
Ctaion exchange capacity
The total of exchangeable cations that a soil cans absorb at a specific pH. It is usually reported in
comes or charge per kg dry soil;
Anion exchange
The positively charged sites may also be present on the soil colloid though in lesser number than
the negative charge. Certain acid tropical soils contain colloids. with a net positive charge. These
charge attract and exchange soluble anions just as negatively attract.
Anion exchange capacity
The sum total of exchangeable anions that a soil can adsorb is called anion exchange capacity.
Soil pH
Soil pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity in a soil or
The hydrogen ion activity of a soil expressed by a set of –ve logarithmic values. The term pH is
from the French pouvoir hdrgeheor” hydrogen power”.
Soil reaction
Soil reaction is an indication of the dire of acidity of alkaline of a soil and is determined by a
glass or other suitable electrode or indicator at a specific water content or soil water ratio
Buffer solution
Chemically a buffer solution is defined as one that represent a change in pH on addition of acid
or alkali. In soils the clay and humic fractions act as a buffer system.
Soil buffer compounds.
The solid and solution phase components of soils that resist marked pH changes in the soil
solution are carbonates, phosphates, phyllosilicates, oxides and some organic materials.
Humus
Humus is colloidal, complex, and resistant to decomposition brown to black amorphous mixture
of organic substances that result from microbial decomposition and synthesis and has physical
and chemic al properties of great significance at soil and plant.
Green manuring
A growing crop that is ploughed under and fixed with the soil to enrich it with organic matter is
called green manure. The practice of turning into soil undecomposed green plant is called green
manuring.
FYM
FYM consist of excreta of animals, litter, feed wastage, other plant debris and microorganism.
Composting
Composting is the microbial decomposition of piled organic materials into partially decomposed
reduce, which are called composts or humus.
Essential element
For elements be considered essential plant nutrient, three criteria must be meet:
1- A deficiency of the element makes it impossible for the plant to complete its vegetative or
reproductive stage of its life.
2- The deficiency symptoms of the element make it in question can be prevented or corrected
only by supplying the element.
3- The element is directly involved in the nutrition of the plant quite apart from its possible effect
in correcting some microbiological or chemical condition dim soil or culture medium.

SHORT QUESTIONS

What is the atmosphere?

The blanket of gases surrounding the earth that enables life to exist. There are different types of
atmosphere.
Troposphere…In, which we live.
Stratosphere…it contains a layer of ozone.
Mesosphere…it is a freezing sphere, which ranges from 50 to 80m above ground level.
Thermosphere…it is hot sphere, which ranges from 80 – 480K.
Exosphere…It is outer atmosphere where space shuttle revolves.

.What is difference between Evaporation and

Condensation?
Evaporation is a process by which liquid becomes gas and Condensation is a process by which
gas becomes liquid.

What is difference between Crust and Core?

Crust is a thin, rocky outer most layer of the earth while Core is the inner most portion of earth.
Average thickness of Crust is about 30 Km beneath the continent and about 10m beneath the
oceans.
What are Fossils?
The ancient remains or traces of once living things, usually found preserved in rocks.
What is difference between Magma and Lava?
Magma is hot melted or molten rock that is formed mainly in the Earth’s upper mantle but also
deep in crust and when it has reached the Earth’s surface through volcanoes called Lava.
What is a Nutrient?
A vital chemical substance that all living things need to
live and grow.
What is a Mineral?
. Mineral is an inorganic crystalline substance, rocks are made up of minerals. Minerals are the
most common solid materials found on the Earth.
What are Igneous Rocks?
A type of rock formed from magma that has cooled and
hardened.
What are Sedimentary Rocks?
A type of rock that is formed by the pressing together of rock fragments or the remains of living
things.
sWhat are Metamorphic Rocks?
A rock that has changed due to intense pressure or heat. Metamorphic rocks can form from
Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks or other Metamorphic Rocks.
What is eluviation?
Movement of material out of a portion of a soil profile.
What is illuviation?
Movement of material into a portion of soil profile.
What is erosion?
Removal of material from the surface layer of a soil.
What is cumulization?
Eolian (movement through wind), hydrologic and human made additions of mineral particles to
the surface of a soil solum.
What is decomposition?
Break down of mineral and organic materials with some chemical or biochemical changes
What is the synthesis?
The formation of new particles of mineral and organic
species.
What is solonization?
The accumulation of sodium ions on exchange sites in a
soil.
What is podzolization?
The chemical migration of aluminum and iron and organic matter into the eluviated soils
What is melanization?
The darkening of light colored unconsolidated, initial materials by admixture of organic matter.
What is the term loosening?
Increase in the volume of voids (pores) by activity of plants, animals, humans and by freezing ,
thawing , other physical processes and removal of material by leaching.

What is the term hardening?

Decrease in the volume of voids by collapse and compaction and by filling of some pores with
the fine earth, carbonates, silica and other materials.
What is soil?
The un-consolidated mineral or organic upper part of earth’s crust that serve as a natural medium
for the growth of land plants.
Define the term soil fertility?
The ability of a soil to supply the nutrients essential to
plant growth.
Define the term soil productivity?
The capacity of a soil to produce a certain yield of crops with optimum management.
What is soil structure ?
The arrangement or grouping of soil particles into clumps
or aggregates.
What is soil texture?
The relative proportion of soil particles(sand ,silt, clay) in
the soil.
What are alluvial soil?
Soils which are formed by deposition through water flood

What are colluvial soils?

Soils which are deposited by gravity.
What are loess?
Soil particles which are deposited by wind. they are silt
sized particles.
What is the term mass flow?
Movement of nutrients with the overall flow of water to
plant roots.
What are cutan?
When clay particles are coated by some material called
cutan.
What are primary nutrients?
Primary nutrients elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
What are the secondary nutrients?
These are calcium, magnesium, Sulphur.
What are micronutrients?
Those nutrients which are required in conc. > 100 ug/g of plant dry matter are known as micro-
nutrients.
How we can determine soil nutrient status and fertilizer requirement for crops?

1. nutrient deficiency symptoms

2. field experimentation
3. Green house pot experiment.
4. Soil testing.
5. Plant analysis.

What is the main cause of salinity and sodicity in Pakistan?

It is reported that 70 – 75% of pumped water is brackish and their continuous use making the soil
saline and sodic.
It is reported that 3 million hectare have developed surface salinity or sodicity due to use of poor
quality water.

How many area of cultivated soils is under water logging in Pakistan?

About 13% of the area in Pakistan has a high water table. Which enlarges to 26% after rain.
What is the criteria for the fitness of irrigation water?
We consider the water fit for irrigation which have total soluble salts less than 15 me/L, residual
sodium carbonate less than 2.25 me/L and sodium adsorption ratio less than 10 (m mole/L)½.
What is the major role of organic matter in soil productivity?
Soil organic matter serves not only as a reservoir of all the required plant nutrients but it also
gives structure to the soil and provides energy for the microbial activity which is essential for the
recycling of nutrients thus maintain the productivity of the soil.
What are the major cations present in the soil?
Major cations present in our soils are calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium.
Ca > Mg > K > Na
(40 – 60 %) (20 – 40 %) (10 _ 20 %)
What is salinization?
The accumulation of soluble salts such as chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates of Na, Ca, Mg
and K in the soil.

Fertilizer use in different countries (Kg/acre)

Countries Nitrogen Phosphorous Potash Total

Holland 165 28 32 225

Korea 93 44 52 189
China 83 31 21 135
Japan 53 64 44 161
India (Punjab) 54 14 0.8 69
Egypt 105 15 3 123
Pakistan 36 9 0.4 46

List of Nutrient removal by crops in Kg/acre (Production of one Ton)

Crop Nitrogen Phosphorous Potash

Wheat 25 9 33
Rice 20 11 30
Cotton 62 14 60
Sugarcane 1.2 0.5 1.4
Maize 20 8 20

What is Agronomy?

Agronomy is the science of crop production. It incorporates the basic sciences (Biology,
Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Microbiology, etc.) into an applied science which is the foundation
for most agriculture.

What is Agronomy?

Agronomy is the science of crop production. It incorporates the basic sciences (Biology,
Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Microbiology, etc.) into an applied science which is the foundation
for most agriculture.

Absorption Losses :Loss of water from a canal or a reservoir by capillary action and percolation
and in caseof cananl during the process of delivery.
Acid soil :A soil which is deficient in available bases, particularly Ca and which give an acid
reaction when tested by a standard method.

Acre foot water :The amount of water that would cover an area of land to a depth of one foot
assuming no seepage evaporation and run off.

Acre inch day :Term used principally in irrigated section of united state for measuring quantity
of flow of water. It is equal to a flow which will cover one acre to a depth of one inch in a 24 hours
period or 0.042 cubic feet per second.

Acre inch :It is a measure of quantity of flow of water and is equal to the flow which will cover
one acre to a depth of one inch.

Acre :(43560 sq.ft) an area of land about 220 feet long and 198 feet wide.

Adiabatic :A condition in which heat is neither gained nor dissipated.

Adobe soil :These soil are formed by the broken material of rocks transported by both wind and
water.

Agar :A substance made from seed weed and used in the solid culture.

Agriculture :It is an art, science and business of raising crops and rearing of animals through
exploring the natural resources with the coordination of socio economic infrastructure to meet the
basic necessities of life .i.e. .food, feed, fiber and shelter.

Allelopathy :Phenomenon involving the release of certain chemicals from plant parts into the
environment which may when present in sufficient amounts, inhibit or suppress the germination
or growth of the plants in the neighborhood. Alluvial soil: These are the soils which are formed by
the deposition of broken material of rocks transported and deposited by water of streams and rivers.

Altitude :Height from sea level

Application losses :Water losses through percolation or run off.

Arable farming :The term arable farming refers to system in which only crops that require
cultivation of the soil are grown.

Arboriculture :Intensive cultivation of individual trees possibly for fruits,gums and resins.

Arid region :The region where total rain fall is less than natural evapo – transpiration rate.

Aridity :It is the characteristic of a region where there is low average rain fall or 100% available
water. It is permanent feature of region.
Available water :The water retained in a soil which represents the difference between field
capacity and the permanent wilting percentage is called available water.

Barani soil :When the source of irrigation to crop is only the rain water that is known as Barani
soil.

Base period :Period of time in days from the first watering of crop before sowing and the last
watering before harvesting.

Basic seed :Is the progeny of pre – basic seed produced so as to maintain genetic purity and
identity.

Basin :Flat area of land surrounded by low ridges or bunds

Biological yield :It is the total dry matter produced by a plant as a result of photosynthesis and
nutrient uptake minus that lost by respiration.

Blind hoeing :Hoeing before a crop germinates.

Botanical variety :When a group of plant occurring in nature is different from the general species
originally described and the botanical binomial name is not enough to identify it is called as
botanical variety.

Broadcasting :Manual spreading of seed in the field and mixing of the spread seed by ploughing
or planking the field.

C3 plants :Plants which fix CO2 in three C molecule and do not use temperature and water as
efficiently as C4 plant. e.g wheat, rice, cotton.

C4 plant :: Plants which fix CO2 in to a four C molecules .e.g sugarcane, maize, sorghum.

Capillary Water :It is the soil water in excess of hygroscopic water. This exists in the pore space
of the soil by surface tension or molecular attraction against gravitational forces. It is only water
available for plant growth and development.

Capillary Water :It is that water which is held by surface forces (adhesion, cohesion, surface
tension) or films around the particles in angles between them and in capillary pores.

Catchment’s Area :The area which drains the rain water falling on it, via streams and rivers,
eventually to the sea or into a lake.

Cereal Crops :: A cereal is defined as crop grown for its edible seed. These crops are also known
as grain crops e.g. wheat , Rice, Maize etc.

Certified Seed :It is the progeny of basic seed and is produced by registered growers of seed
producing agencies.
Clayey Soil :A soil is known as clayey which contain at least 30% clay particles and in most cases
not less than 40% ,usually it contain 45% clay , 30% silt and 25% sand.

Climate :Aggregate of atmospheric condition over a long period of time.

Clone :A cultivar propagated by vegetative method is called a clone.

Colluvial Soil :Are those which are form from the material transported by the force of gravity.

Command Area :Area which can be economically irrigated by an irrigation system.

Commercial Farming System :In this type of farming system, crops are raised on a commercial
scale for marketing.

Companion Crops :The two crops grown together are called companion crops. e.g. Berseem and
barley.

Condiment Crops :Crops which are grown and consumed as condiments e.g. coriander, mint.

Conidia :One celled asexual spores in certain fungi.

Consumptive Use of Water :Evapo-transpiration plus the water assimilated by various plant
metabolic processes. As the water consumed in plant metabolism is very small, consumptive use
and evapo-transpiration are considered almost equal.

Cover Crops :The crops, which are planted to cover the ground and to reduce the soil erosion and
nutrients losses by leaching. e.g grasses and rye.

Crassulation Acid Metabolism (CAM) Plants :CAM plants fix CO2 in four carbonic acid as do
the C4 plants e.g pine apple.

Critical Period of Competition :During the crop period there is a certain time when crop plants
are most sensitive to competition by weeds, this time is known as the critical period of competition.

Critical Threshold Level (CTL) :A weed, insect pest density capable of causing significant
damage to crop is termed as critical threshold level.

Crop Rotation :Is the strategy of raising crops from a piece of land in such an order or succession
that the fertility of land suffers minimally and the farmer’s profits are not reduced.

Crop Water Requirement :The amount of water required to raise a crop to maturity with in a
given period of time.

Crop :A crop is a community of plants grown under field condition for its economic value.
Cropping Intensity :The term cropping intensity refers to the ratio of actual cultivated area to
total farm area over a year.

Cropping Pattern :It is a general cropping system followed or practiced by the farmers in an
ecological zone.

Cropping Scheme :Allocation of an area to different crops being grown on a particular farm in a
year.

Cultivator :Which only cut and stirr the soil.

Define Necrosis :Death of organs of a plant, either as blight or death of tissue in localized areas,
usually inside fruit and stems or die back or death of stems or branches.

Define Olericulture :Branch of horticulture which deals with cultivation of vegetables.

Delta of Water :The depth of irrigation water required for the full crop period.

Determinate Plants :Those plant which initiate their reproductive stage after completing
vegetative growth, e.g. wheat, barley.

Dicots :Dicots have two cotyledons and reticulate leaf venation.

Diversified Farming :This is an expanded type of farming system in which varieties of crops are
produced and many types of animals are reared.

Dobari Crops :A crop grown on residual moisture after the harvest of rice.

Dormancy :Seed dormancy is the state of inhibited germination of seeds with viable embryos in
condition conducive to plant growth.

Drainage :It is the removal of excess surface or ground water from the root zone of a crop by
means of surface or sub – surface drains.

Dry farming:In which crops and livestock are raised on land which does not receive sufficient
rainfall for water intensive crops and no irrigation facilities are available fall into this category.
Duty of water:The relationship between irrigation water flow and its commanded area where
crops mature fully with that amount of water within a base period is called duty of water.
Earthing up:The operation of pulling up soil from the center of crop rows to the bottom of the
plants, this helps in uprooting weeds and supporting to plants.
Economic yield: The economically important part for which a particular crop is grown.
Effective rainfall:It is the part of the rainfall which forms a portion of the water requirement of a
crop or which can be used by crop.
Eolian soil:The soil which is formed by the material transported by winds from one place to
another is called eolian soil.
Epigeal germination: It is derived from two words epi “above” and geas “earth”. In this type of
germination the cotyledons come out above the soil surface and generally turn green and act as
first foliage leaves. e.g. bean,cotton.
Evapotranspiration:It is the total loss of water due to its evaporation from land, plant and water
surfaces and transpiration by vegetation per unit area per unit time.
Exhaustive crops:Crops, which feed heavily on the soil and deplete soil nutrients e.g. sorghum,
tobacco.
Extensive farming:In this type of farming large areas are used with minimum expenditure or
attention to efficient use of other resources.
Fiber crops:The crops, which are grown for their fiber and are used in making textiles, ropes. e.g.
jute, sun hemp, cotton.
Field capacity:The amount of water retained by soil after drainage of saturated soil by
gravitational force is called field capacity.
Field carrying capacity:It is the field capacity. It is also called normal moisture capacity.
Forage crops:Those crops, which are grazed by animals and harvested for green chop, hay,
silage are classified as forage crops e.g. maize and sorghum.
Fruit farming:In which orchards are planted and the objectives are to maximize fruit production,
enhance quality and increase income.
Functional Allelopathy:It is the case when the chemicals are toxic after being transformed by
microorganism.
Garden crops:Vegetable crops, which are grown for their edible leaves, shoots, flowers, fruit and
seed. e.g cabbage and okra.
Germination:Is the emergence and development from the seed embryo of those essential
structures which, for the kind of seed provided, indicate the ability to produce a normal plant
under favourable conditions.
Grassland farming:These systems are mainly concerned with growing grasses for consumption
by livestock kept for milk or meat production.
Gravitational potential:It is produced by gravitational forces operating on soil water.
Gravitational water:Is the water in excess of hygroscopic and capillary water that percolates
through the soil under the action of gravity if favourable conditions for water drainage are
provided.
Green manure crops:Some crops are grown and ploughed in the soil in green form in order to
improve soil fertility e.g. Berseem , Guara,Dhaincha etc
Hard pan:A hard semi impervious layer usually developed due to continuous ploughing to a depth
of about 15 cm, with cultivators, or with continuous deposition of salts due to soil or surface
irrigation water.
Herbaceous:Plants with soft and easily vulnerable body parts.
Herbs:Are plants of small to medium height and canopy.
Hydrophyte:Plant which grows in water, or which loves water.
Hygroscopic water:Water attached to soil particles by loose chemical bonds and does not move
by the action of gravity or capillary force.
Ideotype: An ideal plant type developed through breeding.
Indeterminate plants:In these plants, the vegetative and reproductive stages continue
simultaneously e.g. okra, tomato. Soybean is the only crop, which has determinate and
indeterminate as well as semi – determinate growing types.
Inoculant:The bacteria containing material used to introduce N – fixing Rhizobium bacteria into
soil.
Integrated weed management: The concept of IWM involves the planned use of all possible
direct and indirect measures rather than relying on a single method to combat weeds.
Inter cropping:Growing of two or more crops together on the same field, where one crop (main
crop) planted in rows first and then another crop (intercrop) is planted in between the rows. These
crops remain in association for a shorter time. These crops may or may not be planted and
harvested at the same time e.g in Sugar cane planting of onion, garlic etc
Interception:When the drops of rainfall or precipitation are intercepted by plant leaves it is called
interception.
Irrigated soil:The soil, which receives irrigation water from well and tube wells, are known as
irrigated or chahi soil.
Irrigation efficiency:It is a term used to indicate how efficiently the available water supply is
being used for crop production.
Irrigation scheduling:It refers to the number of irrigation for a crop and their timing.
Irrigation water requirement:The quantity of water required for successful crop production
exclusive of precipitation, ground water and other natural resources.
Irrigation:Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil or crop plants to assist crop
production.
Kera:Manual sowing of seeds in lines in furrows.
Kharif crops:Those crops, which are planted in the summer month from the March to July and
harvested in autumn and winter, are called Kharif crops e.g. rice and cotton.
Lacustrine soil:When the material transported by streams and river, if deposited in lakes the soils
are called Lacustrine soil.
Latitude:The angular distance north or south of earth equator.
Line:A cultivar propagated by seed is called a line.
Livestock and poultry farming:This category includes farming system in which various kinds of
livestock are reared for meat, milk, wool and eggs.
Loamy soil: The soil is more or less than midway clay and sandy soil and ideal loam soil may
defined as a mixture of sand , silt and clay particles which shows the properties of sandy, silt and
clayey in equal proportion.
Lodging:The bending or breaking over of a plant before harvesting.
Long day plants:Plants which change vegetative to reproductive stage by producing flowers and
fruits, when the days become longer. e.g. Carrot, Radish etc.
Matric potential: It is produced by capillary and surface forces.
Maximum potential soil moisture deficit:Is the greatest value of potential soil moisture deficit
attained during the growth of a crop.
Monocots:These plants have one cotyledon and parallel leaf venation.
Muck soil:If the quantity of organic matter exceeds 20 % but less than 50% are called muck soil.
Mulch:Any material or practice which is used to check the loss of water by evaporation is called
mulch.
Multiple cropping: It is growing of two or more crops in a year from the same piece of land
Narcotic or drug crops:This category includes those crops, which have some narcotic and drug
value e.g. poppy, tobacco.
Natural erosion:The erosion of the soil under natural condition.
Natural soil:Strictly speaking a soil having pH of 7, in practice a soil having PH 6.6 and 7.3.
Net plot:Area from which yield and other characteristics are measure. It is also known as the net
area of the plot.
No tillage crop(zero tillage crop):Crop grown with out any tillage to prepare seed bed or row.
NodeA slightly enlarge portion of stem where leaves and bud arises and where branches originate.
Nucleus seed:Seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety which needs
to be purified and multiplied in such a way as to maintain its genetic purity.
Nut cycle:The regeneration/cycling of nutrients.
Nutrients budget:A quantitative data of the major nut flowing to retained within the discharge
from the system.
Nutrients:The food for microbial and plant life mainly composed of nitrogen and
phosphorous but also of potassium , Mg , Fe , Ca ,Co ,Cu , Zn and others elements.
Oil seed crops:These are the crops, which are grown for the purpose of extracting oil from their
seed e.g. mustard and groundnut.
On – farm water management:The planned use of irrigation water at the farm level or
more efficient utilization in agriculture.
Osmotic potential: It is also called solute potential. It is produced by various solutes in soil
water.
Peat soil:If the quantity of organic matter is more than 50% is called peat soil.
Percolation:Downward movement of water with in the soil profile.
Permanent wilting percentage: The soil water content at which plants can no longer extract
sufficient water from the soil for their growth is called permanent wilting percentage.
Plant development:Plant development is the progress of plant from germination to maturity
through a series of stages.
Plant growth:It is the increase in the dry weight of a plant over time mainly as a consequence of
photosynthesis.
Plough pan:A dense, compacted layer about 5 to 7 cm thick formed beneath the surface soil by
repeated ploughing in the same path.
Plough:Its function is to cut, stirr, invert, and pulverize the soil.
Pore space: It is a space between soil particles occupied by air and water; it is largely controlled
by the texture of soil.
Potential Evapotranspiration:Is defined as the amount of evaporation occurring from an
extensive area of a short, green growing crop completely covering the ground and well supplied
with water.
Potential soil moisture deficit:It is the difference between a crop potential evapotranspiration and
the amount of rainfall received by a crop plus the quantity of water delivered to it in irrigation.
Pre – basic seed:It is the progeny of nucleus seed, and is handled so as to maintain specific genetic
purity and identity as completely as possible.
Pressure potential:It is produced by actual hydrostatic pressure.
Puddling:Ploughing in standing water to create a shallow hard pan at a 10 to 15 cm depth, which
helps to increase water-holding capacity and reduce moisture losses by percolation.
Pulses or grain legumes: The crops belonging to Leguminoseae family are grown for their edible
seed e.g chick pea, lobia.
Rabi crops:These crops are planted in winter from October to December and harvested in
summer from March to May e.g. wheat,
Readily available waterThe portion of the available water that is most easily extracted by a plant
is called readily available water.
Regular and trade winds e.g. monsoon winds
Relay crops:A relay crops is one which is planted as a second crop after the first crop has reached
its reproductive stage of growth but before it is ready for harvest. e.g. planting of sugar cane in
sugar beet.
Relief:When rising ground or mountains running at right angle to the prevailing wind.
Root and tuber crops:These are vegetable crops grown for their under ground parts like roots,
bulbs, rhizomes, corms and stem tubers e.g. carrot and onion.
Rumber: The process in which planker or leveler is used to conserve moisture at watter condition
before the preparation of land after rauni.
Run off:When water flows out the field by breaking the bunds of the field or flows to the sloppy
areas from the high level is called run off..
Sandysoil:the soil which contains 2.00 to 0.2 mm diameter soil particles , it contain 85% sand ,
and >15% , silt and clay. These soils are poor in plant material.
Saturation capacity:This term refers to the amount of water present in the soil when it is
completely saturated with water.
Scarification:Any physical or chemical treatment that makes the seed coat permeable is known
as scarification.
Seed certification:Is the process to secure, maintain and make available high quality seed and
propagating materials of superior crop varieties, so grown and distributed as to ensure desirable
standards of genetic identity, physical purity and quality attributes.
SeedlingA young plant that has grown from a seed
Seeling:Mechanical weeding process carried out by ploughing with bullocks or tractors.
Seepage:Losses through the beds and banks of canals and water channels take place
mainly by unlined canals.
Sett:A piece of seed cane with two – four buds(eyes).
Short day plants:Plants which changes from vegetative to reproductive stage and produces
flowers and fruits , when the days become shorter.
Shrubs:Are bushy plants with medium to tall height and canopy.
Silage crops:Those crops, which are harvested when still green and succulent and are fed directly
to animals with out curing, are called silage crops. e.g. Berseem, Shaftal, maize.
Soil:A natural body developed from variable mixtures of broken and weathered minerals and
decaying organic matter which covers the earth crust in thin layers and supplies proper amount of
nutrients and air water and mechanical support to plants.
Stratification:Is the practice of exposing imbibed seeds to cool temperature conditions for a few
days prior to germination in order to break their dormancy.
Subsistence farming:In which basic necessities like food, clothing, and shelter are produced for
the family to live on.
Sugar crops:These are the crops, which are grown for sugar purposes. e.g. sugar cane and sugar
beet.
Tell the share of wheat crop in total cropped area of
Pakistan: 37.01% under wheat.
Temporary wilting percentage:Soil water content at which plants wilt during the hot windy part
of the day but regain turgidity during the cooler part of the day is called TWP.
Tillage:It is usually defined as the mechanical manipulation of the soil aimed at improving its
physical condition.
Tiller:To put forth shoots other than the mother shoot from roots axis.
Tilth:The physical condition of soil is called Tilth.
Topping:Topping in tobacco is the removal of the terminal bud with or without some of the small
top leaves just before or after the appearance of the flower head.
Transpiration ratio:It is the ratio of the weight or volume of water transpired by the plant during
its growth period to the weight of dry matter produced by the plant.
Transpiration:It is the process of loss of water from living plants.
Truck farming:It refers to the system in which the bulk of the out puts are produced and marketed.
True Allelopathy:When the allelochemical is toxic in their original form is called true
Allelopathy.
Variety:In general the term variety has been used to refer to a group of similar plant with in a
particular species that is distinguished by one or more then one character and given the name.
Vernalization and chilling:Many biennials and temperate annuals, as well as certain fruit trees,
require exposure to cold temperature before they can flowers. This is known as Vernalization
requirement for annuals and biennials and chilling requirement for fruit trees.
Vines:Are plants, which have tender stems, and requires some support for upward growth.
Water holding capacity:Ability of soil to retain water.
Water potential:Refers to the chemical potential of water.
Watter:Describes the condition when soil moisture level is suitable for cultivation.
Weather:It is a state of atmosphere at any time; it is combined effect of many things such as heat,
cold.
Weed:any plant growing out of its proper place.
Harvestindex
It is the ratio of economic yield to biological yield. It is expressed in percentage in
H.I. = economic yield x 100 / Biological yield
Biologicalyield
It is the total dry matter produced by the crops after synthesis minus respiration losses.
Economicyield
That part of the crop for which crop is grown e.g. stem in sugarcane, root in the case of sugar beet.
Monocropping
Raising of only one crop in a year when there is seasonal supply of water is called Monocropping,
monoculture or specialized farming.
Multiplecropping
Raisingof two or more crops in the same field or in a year is called diversified multiple cropping
or simple multiple cropping.
Tilth
It is the final condition of soil when all the tillage operations are carried.
What is composite variety?A mixture of genotype from general sources maintained by normal
pollination.
What are the compounds which act as buffer in soil?Clay organic matter and such compounds
as carbonates and phosphates which make the soil to resist appreciable change in pH value.
What is arid?A term applied to land that is dry also means deficient in rainfall.
What is compost?A manure derived from decomposed plant remains usually made by
fermentation, waste plant material under controlled conditions. Compost usually used in green
houses to enrich the soil either dungs as surface.
What is contact herbicide ?Which kill only those parts of plant with which they come into contact
and used mostly to control annual weeds when seedling, they have little residual effect.
What is crop rotation ?A definite succession of crops following one an other in a specific order.
What is drought resistance?Characteristics of plants which are suitable for cultivation in dry
condition regardless of the inherent mechanism that provides resistance.
What is effective rainfall?Precipitation which falls during the growing period of the crop and is
available to meet the Evapotranspiration requirements of crops .
What is Gibberellins ?Plant growth stimulating chemicals which are able to induce a number of
effects on plants.
What is harvest index?The ratio of grain weight to total plant weight in a cereal crop.
What is hybrid vigour ?Qualities in a hybrid not present in either parent.
What is malathion ?An Organophosphorus insecticide and acaricide available either alone or in
mixture used in liquid or dust form.
What is meant by autotrophe?Organism able to manufacture their own food from inorganic
materials. Using energy from outside sources. Most green plants are completely autotrophe.’
What is meant by bolting?Formation of elongated stem or seed stalk, it is usually takes place
during the second season of the growth in biennial plants.
What is meant by cropping intensity ?Refers to the no. of crops which are raised during the year.
What is meant by F1 and F2 generation?Genetic terms for the off spring generations produced
by a parental generation of plants or animals.
What is meant by layerage?Methods of plant propagation by asexual means in which a
portion of stem, shoot or branch has covered with soil or some other medium in which root can
develop , after which the rooted portion get detached from the parent plant.
What is meant by soiling crops?Crops harvested when green and succulent condition are fed to
animals shortly after cutting , it is neither dried nor stored for future feeding.
What is organic farming?System of farming which avoid the use of artificial fertilizers ,
pesticides or herbicides, and concentrate on methods of crop rotation and the use of home growth
feed , organic fertilizer.
What is pasteurization?Process of killing organisms in a product, commonly milk by heating to
a controlled temperature.
What is pedology?The study of soil.
What is planker? Implement used to crush clods on land where a roller can be used consisting
of number of fixed over lapping plates, showed with iron bars along the working edges which is
pulled over the land.
What is seed certification?Refers to the system of maintaining the genetic purity and quality of
seed.
What is seed dressing?The chemical treatment of seeds particularly cereals, with fungicides and
some time insecticides to protect them against soil and seed borne disease and pest.
What is truch gardening ?Growing of crops like potato onion and cabbage on large scale for
distinct market.
What is trench layering ?An asexual reproductive method of plant propagation involving laying
down the whole stem, the new shoots are thus forced to push their way through a layer of soil
which prevents the bark from coloring and favors root formation.
What is weathering?The process by which soil disintegrates and decomposes, eventually
producing soil particles by exposure to the physical and chemical effects of atmospheric agents.
Wilting point: The point at which the water content of a soil reaches such a level that it is firmly
held by soil and unavailable to plant roots, so that the plants wilt permanently and die.
Zaid Kharif crops:These are the crops, which are planted in August to September and harvested
in December to January e.g. toria.
Zaid rabi crops:These are crops, which are planted in February and harvested in May-June e.g.
tobacco.

Nutritional Importance of Potato

Potato is a tuberous starchy crop called as Solanum tuberosum it belongs to order solanales,
family Solanaceae, and genus solanum, in many areas of world it is basic staple food it’s the
world’s fourth flood crop potato. Pakistan have a record production of over 3.7 million tons this
year. It has great nutritional value contains energy of 322kJ(77kcal) raw potato is 79%water, 0.1
g fats, 17% carbohydrates 2% proteins when a potato is cooked contents of and vitamin C
vitamin B6 lowered with the significant change in other nutrients.

Economic Importance of Potato

This vegetable is grown as a important major crop in countries in different climatological zones
including tropics temperate and sub tropics currently the potato is grown on a significant scale in
about more than 130 countries potato is an important cash crop which gives ready cash to
farmers it produces more food per unit area than any cereal crop within short period potatoes this
crop is effected by by number of insects and disease, but common scab diseases of potato
remains a serious issue for farmers and potato growers Potato is an important staple food.
Damage to this crop cause great loose to county because it has great nutritional value it is major
cash crop the disease common scab is very serious disease and its management is very important
for the proper growth of potato crop. Common scab is caused by Streptomyces scabies belongs
to genus Streptomyces.

Symptoms of common scab of potato

Symptom are minute brownish or blackish shallow sunken lesions appear on tubers
Streptomyces scabies is soil and air borne pathogen is survived for long duration in infected
debris and soil.

Biological control for common scab of potato

Management of common scab through endophytes is one of the beneficial approach. Host plant
by preventing or pathogenic parasitizing organisms some fungal and bacterial endophytes have
proven to increases plant growth and improve defense mechanism. Some nonpathogenic species
have been reported for their power to overcome common scab with max results The
Pseudomonas has been associated with the control and management of common scab The
pseudomonas strain stops the growth of Streptomyces scabies in vitro repressed txt C txt A
expression in Scabies and protected against the disease in green house assays Common scab
symptoms are caused by Phytotoxin named produced by pathogenic Streptomyces species.
Thaxtomin interrupt the peridermal cells which is developing thus this results in the formation of
more layers of periderm and then formation of a scab lesions on the skin of potatoes tubers
underground stem and stolons appear. Biological control through organisms is useful for the
control of plant disease and for controlling of other soil borne soil plant pathogens successfully.
A strategy for searching for microbes that have ability of biocontrol of disease in plant is to look
to the microbes found on diseased plants as potential sources this strategy has led to the
commercially useful biocontrol agents from numerous Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas Strains
Nonpathogenic Streptomyces species have been used as for control of many diseases. Some
nonpathogenic Streptomyces species overcome the virulent effect of pathogenic Streptomyces
species although results have not been reproducible in number of studies in field Isolation of
Nonpathogenic Streptomyces have been obtained from potato Common Scab lesions and
nonpathogenic isolates of Streptomyces species were related with decreased of Common scab
disease.

Innovative strategies for the control of apple scab caused by Venturia Inaequalis

Authors:

 Aroma Murtaza، Safa Khalid‫ ۔‬University of Agriculture, Faisalabad‫۔‬

Apple tree is commonly called Malus domestica. Apple fruit is a delicious pomaceous fruit
which belongs to Family Rosaceae, Genus Males

Except for the seeds the whole fruit including the skin is appropriate for human consumption.
The inner core of the fruit that contains seeds, is not eaten and is discarded. Aphids and mildew
are the common insects that attack on apple. In 20014, about 84.6 million tons of apples were
produced worldwide. Pakistan is the world’s 10th largest country for apple production

Nutritional Value

Apples contain Dietary fibers and flavonoids antioxidants. Apples are rich in Iron, vitamin C and
other Important Vitamins. They help to reduce the cholesterol level and retain the skin freshness.
Apples are rich in polyphenolic compounds and vitamin B complex.

Symptoms of the Apple Scab

Olive green zones visible on the basements of leaves are the first indication of the disease.
Leaves become twisted dwarfed and drop later in the season. Around the margins of the lesions
sunken brown spores appear. Yellowing of leaves start and then they ultimately fall, cracks
appear on infected fruit and lesions on fruit are almost rough-surfaced. Early infection may occur
on the pedicel or on the calyx due to severe pedicel infection and hence, fruit drop occurs.

Disease cycle

Venturia inaequalis overwinters in diseased leaves that have fallen to the ground within the dead
leaf tissue producing fruiting bodies. On spring, these start to mature and produce spores
(ascospores) that are discharged into air and carried to apple buds when the apple buds are in
developing stage.

Management of the Apple Scab

Applying fungicides Scab infections may be prevented throughout the growing season and
sanitation can be effective for managing apple scab. Scab-resistant varieties reduce this disease
such as Purple prince and Royal rain drops. It’s important to discard or remove all dead leaves
because the apple scab fungus mostly overwinters in dead leaves. Spray of Zinc and Urea reduce
the disease incidence. Prune the tree, remove the infected or dead branches so that the air easily
passes through the tree. The antagonist Cladosporium cladosporioides H39 was found to
deliberately overcome sporulation of Venturia inaequalis during summer Scab epidemics and are
driven by conidia, produced only on apple leaves. A biological control agent H39 has been tested
in numerous European field trials during the last two years and found that it is effective against
apple Scab.

Early Blight of Tomato

Tomato a vegetable crop belonging to the family (solanaceae) grown throughout the world.
Tomato is the most consumed vegetable after the potato due to its high nutritional value. Tomato
considered as a good source of vitamin A, C, and E and also contains a valuable amount of
antioxidants. Tomato also plays an important role in the metabolic activities of human beings
due to presence of high amount of water 95.3%, calcium and niacin about 0.07% and some other
metabolic compounds. Tomato production gain high importance due to its compatibility to each
type of climate and soil.

Tomato crop is being affected by the number of biotic and abiotic factors which may causes the
reduction of the final yield. Among the biotic factors different fungal pathogens especially
Alternaria found to be responsible for blight diseases which causes heavy losses throughout the
world. The genus Alternaria is known as a soil born plant pathogen. Early blight caused by the
Alternaria solani found to be a most fatal disease of tomato crop throughout the world. Early
blight is the most devastating disease in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. There
are several factors like as high rain fall, humidity, extended period of leaf wetness found to be
most conducive for the disease development.

Symptoms: the pathogen can attack at all the growth stages of the plants. When the pathogen
attacks the seedlings small blackish colored spots produced on the leaves and stem. In case of
young plants the water soaked spots produced on the older leaves along with yellow hallow
around them which are near the soil surface. Later on these lesions coalesces together to make
concentric rings. In severe cases theses leaves turn brown and defoliation take place. The
pathogen also attacks the fruits of the plants just at the point of attachment to the branches. In
severe cases it causes the premature falling of the fruits. The affected area appeared leathery with
masses of black spores on these rings.

Epidemiology: The temperature range of 22-25 0C and the relative humidity of more than 88%
for 24 hours found to be most favorable conditions for the pathogen attack. The pathogen can
attack at all stages of growth but 1-6 week older plants found to be more susceptible for the
attack of early blight of tomato.

Control:

 The crop rotation of 3-5 years with non host crops.

 By using different types of protecting fungicides.
 Use of different chemicals especially Pyraclostrobin, Mancozeb and azoxystrobin 23%
SC along with biocontrol agents is an economic way to avoid the catastrophic effects of
disease.
 The best way to control the disease is the use of resistant varieties e.g Rio grande and
Naqeeb.

History of Zika virus:

Zika virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that was first identified in Uganda in 1947 in monkeys
through a network that monitored yellow fever. It was later identified in humans in 1952 in
Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. Outbreaks of Zika virus disease have been
recorded in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific.

From the 1960s to 1980s, human infections were found across Africa and Asia, typically
accompanied by mild illness. The first large outbreak of disease caused by Zika infection was
reported from the Island of Yap (Federated States of Micronesia) in 2007.

In July 2015 Brazil reported an association between Zika virus infection and Guillain-Barré
syndrome. In October 2015 Brazil reported an association between Zika virus infection and
microcephaly.

Signs and Symptoms:

The incubation period (the time from exposure to symptoms) of Zika virus disease is not clear,
but is likely to be a few days. The symptoms are similar to other arbovirus infections such as
dengue, and include fever, skin rashes, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise, and
headache. These symptoms are usually mild and last for 2-7 days.

Complications of Zika virus disease:

After a comprehensive review of evidence, there is scientific consensus that Zika virus is a cause
of microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Intense efforts are continuing to investigate the
link between Zika virus and a range of neurological disorders, within a rigorous research
framework.

Transmission:

Zika virus is primarily transmitted to people through the bite of an infected mosquito from
the Aedes genus, mainly Aedes aegypti in tropical regions. Aedes mosquitoes usually bite during
the day, peaking during early morning and late afternoon/evening. This is the same mosquito that
transmits dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever. Sexual transmission of Zika virus is also
possible. Other modes of transmission such as blood transfusion are being investigated.

Sexual transmission:

Zika virus can be transmitted through sexual intercourse. This is of concern due to an association
between Zika virus infection and adverse pregnancy and fetal outcomes.

Diagnosis:

Infection with Zika virus may be suspected based on symptoms and recent history of travel (e.g.
residence in or travel to an area with active Zika virus transmission). A diagnosis of Zika virus
infection can only be confirmed through laboratory tests on blood or other body fluids, such as
urine, saliva or semen.

Treatment:

Zika virus disease is usually mild and requires no specific treatment. People sick with Zika virus
should get plenty of rest, drink enough fluids, and treat pain and fever with common medicines.
If symptoms worsen, they should seek medical care and advice. There is currently no vaccine
available.

Prevention:

Control Mosquito bites

Protection against mosquito bites is a key measure to prevent Zika virus infection. This can be
done by wearing clothes (preferably light-colored) that cover as much of the body as possible;
using physical barriers such as window screens or closing doors and windows; sleeping under
mosquito nets; and using insect repellent containing DEET, IR3535 or icaridin according to the
product label instructions. Special attention and help should be given to those who may not be
able to protect themselves adequately, such as young children, the sick or elderly. Travelers and
those living in affected areas should take the basic precautions described above to protect
themselves from mosquito bites.

It is important to cover, empty or clean potential mosquito breeding sites in and around houses
such as buckets, drums, pots, gutters, and used tyres. Communities should support local
government efforts to reduce mosquitoes in their locality. Health authorities may also advise that
spraying of insecticides be carried out.

itrus is one of the world’s major fruit crop. Citrus fruit belongs to the dicotyledonous family
rutaceae and is grown in tropical and subtropical climates in more than 135 countries .It is very
famous fruit for its delicious taste and dietary importance. Citrus tree is native to the areas of
northeast India and China. Citrus cultivation is known to be started in Nippur (Mesopotamia)
area in 4000 B.C. The major Citrus producing countries are Brazil (17.91 %), USA (14.32 %),
China (11.70 %), Mexico (6.15%), Spain (5.39 %) and India (4.74 %). All these countries are
contributing more than 60% of the world citrus production (FAO, 2012).While Pakistan, Mexico,
Spain, Italy and Egypt contribute 25 % of the world total citrus production. There are many
cultivars of Citrus in Pakistan viz; grapefruit, mandarin, lime, lemon and kinnow. Among these,
Kinnow is the most important cultivar grown in our country. Pakistan produce 2 % of all fresh
fruits produces in the world (FAO, 2004). Citrus is an important fruit of Pakistan and
Pakistan ranks at 10th position in citrus production in the world (Sabir et al., 2010). Citrus is
growing on an area of 204.07 (000) hectares with an annual production of 2334 (000) tones
(FBS, 2012). Pakistan produces almost 12.0 million tons of fruits and vegetables annually, of
which Citrus fruit is ranked 1st in terms of production followed by mango, dates and guava.
Citrus trees are evergreen and fruits having nutritious juicy flavor due to this their cultivation is
increased all over the world. It is famous for its nutritive value and some medicinal uses .it is
important for two reasons one is fresh fruit and other one is processed products of citrus.
Pakistani citrus fruit is famous in international markets of Asian countries like Singapore
Malaysia and European zone in Britain and Germany with some export to Middle East countries.
Maximum area under citrus cultivation in Pakistan is by kinnow mandarin which is above 70 %.
Pakistan is blessed with a climate ideally suited to the farming of all kinds of fruits especially for
the citrus production which is rich in taste and juice. In Punjab province the Sargodha district is a
famous hub for citrus production in Pakistan. Citrus trees can be grown on a wide range of soils,
including deep sandy loam, loam and clay loam. Due to these reasons the Sargodha district is
famous in Punjab for citrus production. Temperature is the main factor affecting, time of
blooming, maturity, production and fruit quality of citrus.

The citrus fruit is vulnerable to different diseases by many pathogens. These diseases and
disorders are more than hundred and are caused by viral, fungal and few bacterial pathogens
from nursery level to fruit bearing stage resulting in substantial losses. Citrus scab reduces the
external quality of citrus fruits produced for the fresh market and caused 15 to 60 % percent
losses in citrus fruit especially to mandarin in India. Citrus scab (Elsinoe fawcettii Bittan. &
jenk) is an important disease prevalent in most of the citrus growing countries particularly in
U.S.A., Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, India, Ceylon and Pakistan. The disease affects the
external appearance of the fruit and later on the fruit size is reduced. Emerging leaves and
external surface of fruits are more susceptible to pustules and raised scabs. The external surface
of the fruit is also badly effected due to the raised scab. The lesions produced on fruit are dark
brown in color. Later on these lesions are converted into grayish color. Citrus scab is a major
problem in citrus growing regions of Pakistan particularly in Punjab Province locally known as
virus. The main locality in Punjab province is Sargodha district which is famous for citrus
production all over the world

INTRODUCTION

Mealy bugs are sucking insects, soft bodied, oval shape and cottony in appearance. Mealy bugs
are found on leaves, stems, roots and fruits which are covered like whitish powder. This
condition is very difficult to eradicate the mealy bugs. The mango mealy bugs suck a large
amount of sap from all parts of the tree. Recently in Pakistan the mango fruit in Punjab districts
like Multan, Bahawalpur, Muzzaffargarh, Rahim yar khan is being seriously infested with mango
mealy bugs. Mealy bugs are found in moist warm climate and also act as a vector for several
plant diseases. They attach themselves to the plant and secrete a powdery wax layer used for
protection while they suck the plant juices. Some species of mealy bug lay their eggs in the same
waxy layer used for protection in the quantities of 50-100; other species are born directly from
the female.

MODE OF TRANSFER

Juvenile mealy bugs can crawl from an infected plant to non-infected plant. The other mode of
transfer is the small ‘crawlers’ are transferred by wind, rains, birds, ants, clothing and vehicles
and settled on new plants. The wax which sticks to each egg also facilitates passive transport by
equipments, animals or people. The female mealy bug is unable to fly and not active. In fact,
humans are great friends helping in transport of mealy bug. As the infested plant back the
colonies of mealy bugs migrate from shoot tips to twigs, branches and finally down the trunk.
Ants attracted by the honeydew, have been seen carrying mealy bugs from plant to plant.

NATURE OF DAMAGE

 Heavy clustering of mealy bugs can be seen under leaf surface giving the appearance of
thick mat with waxy secretion.
 They excrete copious amount of honeydew that attracts ants and help in development of
black sooty mould which inhibits the plants ability to manufacture food.
 Nymphs and adults suck the plant sap and reduce the vigour of the plant which also
causes the withering and yellowing of the leaves.
 Fruit may drop prematurely on crop plants. Heavy infestation can cause defoliation and
even death of the plant.
 They infest the plant during flowering season and if the control measures are not taken
timely, the crop may be destroyed completely.
 Excessive and continuous draining of plant sap causes wilting and finally drying of
infested tissue.

CONTROL

1. Cultural and mechanical control

 2. Biological control

3. Chemical control

4. Integrated pest management (IPM)

5. Cultural and mechanical control

Polythene (400 gauges) bands of 25 cm width fastened around the tree trunk have been found
affective barrier to stop the ascent of nymphs to the tree. The band should be fastened well in
advance before hatching of eggs, i.e. around November-December. All crop residues in
previously infested fields should be removed and burnt. Fields borders should be free from
weeds and debris that may support mealy bugs between planting. Apply sticky bands like
‘Track-trap’ on main stem to prevent crawlers of mealy bugs reaching the bunch.

2. Biological control

Monochillus sexmaculatus, Rodolia fumida and Suminius renardi are important predators in
controlling the nymphs. The entomogenous fungus Beauveria bassiana is found to be an effective
bioagent in controlling the nymphs of the mealy bug. Foliar spray of Verticillium lecanii or
Beauveria bassiana 5g/ml per liter of water is effective during high humid months in reducing
the population of mealy bugs.

3. Chemical control

Application of 250 g per tree of Methyl Parathion dust 2 percent or Aldrin dust 10 percent in the
soil around the trunk kills the newly hatched nymphs which come in contact with the chemical.
Spraying of 0.05 percent Monocrotophos or 0.2 percent Carbaryl or 0.05 percent Methyl
Parathion have been found useful in controlling early instar nymphs of the mealy bug.
These sprays can also use to control the mango mealy bug.

 Deligate spray

It is mostly used for vegetables and fruit trees.

Quantity = 7.5ml/10L water

Active ingredients = Spintoram 250g/kg,25 % w/w

 Transform spray

Quantity = 7.5ml/10L water

Active ingredients = Sulfoxaflor 500g/kg, 50 % w/w

 Chloropyrifos spray

Quantity = 50ml10L water

Active ingredients = chloropyrifos 40% w/v

4. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

The IPM schedule of mealy bug is very important and useful if timely operations are done.
Flooding of orchards with water in the month of October kills the eggs. Ploughing the orchards
in the month of November exposes the eggs to sun’s heat. In the middle of December, 400
gauges alkathene sheet of 25 cm width may be fastened to the tree trunk besides raking the soil
around the tree trunk and mixing of 2 percent Methyl Parathion dust. The dust may also be
sprinkled below the alkathene band on the tree. The congregated nymphs below the band may be
killed by any of the suggested insecticides. The above IPM schedule holds promise to control the
mealy bug but spraying of Neem product and the spores of the fungus Beauveria bassiana will
further ensure the reduction of the pest population.
Ev ery year, agricultural producers lose vast quantities of crops to
various crop diseases. To understand how and why certain diseases strike certain crops, plant
pathologists have categorized all diseases into two general groups, infectious and non-infectious.
Once segmented into one of the categories, diseases are then described by the characteristic of
the offending pathogen or environmental cause, such as fungal, bacterial, extreme temperatures
or soil deficiency. Finally, horticulturalists further classify a disease by the part of the crop that is
affected, such as leaf diseases, root diseases and more. There are multitudes of different types of
crop diseases, but all diseases basically fall under the category of infectious and non-infectious
for further classification.

Non-infectious, or abiotic, diseases are those that are caused by unfavorable environmental
circumstances and that do not result from living organisms. Generally, non-infectious diseases
tend to weaken a plant, making the plant susceptible to the more serious infectious diseases.
Examples of non-infectious diseases include extreme temperatures, excessive or lack of water,
insects, poor soil nutrition content and toxic chemicals. These factors can weaken the entire plant
or a certain part of the plant, making the plant susceptible to infectious stem diseases, seed
diseases, pod diseases and more.

Infectious, or biotic, diseases make up the bulk of variety of crop diseases. These are caused by
living organisms that infect the crop. Fungi, such as smuts, rusts, molds and blights, are the most
common cause for crop diseases. Most fungi require very moist conditions in which to thrive and
reproduce. Some fungi develop pustules on the crops, while others produce a colony of powdery,
discolored soot.

Bacteria and viruses, which are other infectious hosts, are tiny organisms that infiltrate the plant
organs and reproduce. Some bacteria do not harm crops, but others can produce toxins or attack
the plants’ cells for food. Viruses are usually spread by insects when an insect chews through the
plant’s protective outer layer and infiltrates the inner cells. Bacterial blights and wilts often
plague wheat and barley crops as well as vegetables, such as cucumbers and beans. Crop
diseases caused by viruses can cause considerable damage, such as wheat streak mosaic virus
and potato virus diseases than can eradicate an entire crop very quickly.

Nematodes and protozoa are also classified as infectious diseases. These tiny worm-like
organisms reside in the soil, waiting for an opportunity to attack a crop weakened by non-
infectious causes. They may carry viruses, causing further damage to crops and complicating
disease treatment. Examples of these biotic diseases include the potato cyst nematode, pine wilt
and soybean cyst nematode. As ascertained from their names, these crop diseases invade the
sensitive root or vascular systems of the crops and cause cysts that stunt plant growth and sharply
decrease crop yields.
Curbing or curing crop diseases is big business. Scientists and agriculturalists have developed
myriads of fungicides, insecticides, pesticides and antibacterial solutions for crop disease control.
While advances have been made, pathogens have shown a tenacious propensity to adapt to
repellants. As the agriculture industry learns more about the various types and causes of crop
diseases it becomes better equipped to treat and prevent the many diseases that plague the
world’s crops

Ev ery year, agricultural producers lose vast quantities of crops to

various crop diseases. To understand how and why certain diseases strike certain crops, plant
pathologists have categorized all diseases into two general groups, infectious and non-infectious.
Once segmented into one of the categories, diseases are then described by the characteristic of
the offending pathogen or environmental cause, such as fungal, bacterial, extreme temperatures
or soil deficiency. Finally, horticulturalists further classify a disease by the part of the crop that is
affected, such as leaf diseases, root diseases and more. There are multitudes of different types of
crop diseases, but all diseases basically fall under the category of infectious and non-infectious
for further classification.

Non-infectious, or abiotic, diseases are those that are caused by unfavorable environmental
circumstances and that do not result from living organisms. Generally, non-infectious diseases
tend to weaken a plant, making the plant susceptible to the more serious infectious diseases.
Examples of non-infectious diseases include extreme temperatures, excessive or lack of water,
insects, poor soil nutrition content and toxic chemicals. These factors can weaken the entire plant
or a certain part of the plant, making the plant susceptible to infectious stem diseases, seed
diseases, pod diseases and more.

Infectious, or biotic, diseases make up the bulk of variety of crop diseases. These are caused by
living organisms that infect the crop. Fungi, such as smuts, rusts, molds and blights, are the most
common cause for crop diseases. Most fungi require very moist conditions in which to thrive and
reproduce. Some fungi develop pustules on the crops, while others produce a colony of powdery,
discolored soot.

Bacteria and viruses, which are other infectious hosts, are tiny organisms that infiltrate the plant
organs and reproduce. Some bacteria do not harm crops, but others can produce toxins or attack
the plants’ cells for food. Viruses are usually spread by insects when an insect chews through the
plant’s protective outer layer and infiltrates the inner cells. Bacterial blights and wilts often
plague wheat and barley crops as well as vegetables, such as cucumbers and beans. Crop
diseases caused by viruses can cause considerable damage, such as wheat streak mosaic virus
and potato virus diseases than can eradicate an entire crop very quickly.
Nematodes and protozoa are also classified as infectious diseases. These tiny worm-like
organisms reside in the soil, waiting for an opportunity to attack a crop weakened by non-
infectious causes. They may carry viruses, causing further damage to crops and complicating
disease treatment. Examples of these biotic diseases include the potato cyst nematode, pine wilt
and soybean cyst nematode. As ascertained from their names, these crop diseases invade the
sensitive root or vascular systems of the crops and cause cysts that stunt plant growth and sharply
decrease crop yields.

Curbing or curing crop diseases is big business. Scientists and agriculturalists have developed
myriads of fungicides, insecticides, pesticides and antibacterial solutions for crop disease control.
While advances have been made, pathogens have shown a tenacious propensity to adapt to
repellants. As the agriculture industry learns more about the various types and causes of crop
diseases it becomes better equipped to treat and prevent the many diseases that plague the
world’s crops.

COTTON LEAF CURL VIRUS DISEASE

(Muhammad Hamza & Muhammad Wajid Javed)

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is an important fiber and cash crop as it contributes a lot to the
national economy as it is a source of income for many people. This crop is very important in textile
industries. Cotton not only provides fiber to textile industry but its seed is used as an important
source of edible oil. Pakistan earns about 60% of the foreign exchange by the export of cotton.
Therefore, cotton holds a remarkable position in our economy.

Cotton is affected by many insect pests and diseases but Cotton Leaf Curl Virus (CLCuV) Disease
is the most destructive disease of cotton as it causes heavy losses and it is a serious threat to cotton.
This disease was first time reported in Nigeria in 1912. In 1959, it was reported in Philippines. In
Pakistan, it was first reported in 1967 at Tiba Sultan Pur near Multan district. In its early times it
was left un-noticed but in 1993 – 1995 it appeared in epidemic form in Pakistan and caused huge
losses.

Cotton Leaf Curl Virus is a single stranded DNA virus. Cotton Leaf Curl Virus is a member of
“Begomovirus” and family “Geminiviridae”. This virus is neither seed born nor soil borne. It has
some alternate hosts where it survives these alternate hosts are Tomato, Tobacco, Lehli, Dhatura,
Okra, China Rose etc. The most important means of virus transmission is whitefly (Bemisia
tabaci), some scientists also considered Bemisia argentifoli as insect vector of cotton leaf curl
virus. Whitefly has 473 different host plants. This whitefly acquires the virus from infected plant
and transmits it to the healthy ones. Ones the virus is acquired by the whitefly it remains in it
throughout its life. Cotton leaf curl virus requires 30 minutes of feeding on infected plant to acquire
the virus and a latent period of 24 hours and then 30 minutes of feeding on healthy plant to transmit
the virus leading to unnoticeable changes at the initial stage to remarkable variations in growth
patterns at later stages of cotton plant development.

Symptoms shown by cotton leaf curl virus are the upward or downward curling of leaf. Vein
thickening is shown by the leaves which are small veins thickening and main vein thickening.
Infected plants become dark green in color. Plants become stunted in growth with no proper yield
patterns and the petioles become twisted or deform to spring shape. Enation occurs on the leaf
which is a small leaf like structure forms under the leaf mainly due to tissue malformation and
sometimes due to blockage of veins and hence hindrance in food and water channels. Enation is
the main identification mark of cotton leaf curl virus disease.

Many environmental factors are responsible for the establishment of cotton leaf curl virus.
Temperature range of 28 – 40oC, relative humidity of 58 – 60%, wind speed at the rate of 6 – 12
km/h is suitable for the development of cotton leaf curl virus. Similarly, optimum environmental
conditions are important for the whitefly (Bemisia tabacii) or (B.argentifoli). These optimum
conditions are less rainfall, less humidity and optimum maximum and minimum air temperature.
Alternate hosts also provide support in the survival of the virus.

For managing cotton leaf curl virus disease, there are several methods which can be adopted to
manage this destructive lethal disease. The use of resistant varieties are an important source for
the control of cotton leaf curl virus disease but now the resistance has been broken by a strain of
cotton leaf curl virus called “Burewala strain” mainly in prominent attack noted from about in
2005 but still the use of resistant varieties cannot be left to avoid heavy and unbearable losses.
Some resistant varieties are NIAB – 884, NIBGE – 2. Field sanitation practices should be properly
adopted. Strict quarantine regulations should be imposed in order to check the incoming planting
material for any viral or insect infection. There should be no presence of alternate host near the
field where cotton is grown. Foliar application of macro nutrients and micro nutrients is very
helpful for managing this disease. If an infected plant is seen in the field, uproot that plant
immediately and burn that infected plant. Diseased plant debris should also be burned. Control of
insect vector by using insecticides like Diafenthiuron, Buperofezan, Imidacloprid. But World
Trade Organization recommends the judicious use of pesticides in order to avoid the residual
effects which pollute our environment. Biological control is another option as this is environmental
friendly. Use of laundry detergent mixed with plant derived oil is suitable for control of whitefly.
Similarly, spraying the mixture of plant derived oil in large volume of water also reduces whitefly
population which ultimately reduces cotton leaf curl virus disease. Use of furnace oil and mixture
of Nimbokil and furnace oil is also found suitable for managing cotton leaf curl virus. Neem extract
can also be used.

1. Muhammad Wajid Javed is student of B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture (Department of Agri.

Entomology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad). He is also affiliated with Agrihunt as
an author.
Mob.0313-7070047 e-mailmuhammadwajidjaved@gmail.com

2. Muhammad Hamza is student of B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture (Department of plant pathology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad.) he is also affiliated with Agrihunt as an author

Cotton, the backbone of Pakistan’s agriculture and economy is at risk due to leaf curl

virus disease. Never has a single pathogen or insect pest threatened Pakistan’s cotton culture,

as has the leaf curl virus. Numerous strategies could be adopted to combat this disease.

Leaf curl disease is caused by a Gemini group of viruses and is transmitted by whitefly

(Bemisia tabaci Genn.). In Pakistan, cotton leaf curl virus (CLCuV) was first observed on stray

plants in 1967 but appeared at epidemic level for the first time in 1989 over a limited area. CLCuV,

as a disease, was overlooked until 1992 when it devastated cotton production in the Punjab

(Pakistan). In 1993-94, about 0.89 million hectares were badly damaged resulting about two

million bales loss in production due to CLCuV. In economic term, the country had suffered a loss

of about 7.6 million bales, which costs to the tune of Rs. 71 billion since 1988 due to the infestation
of CLCuV. Yield decreased from 1.938 million metric tons in 1991 to 1.445 million metric tons

in 1992 and fell further to 1.105 million metric tons in 1993.

The CLCuV was the main force behind yield decline in these years. The first 3 years of the

disease epidemic (1992-1994) in Pakistani Punjab were the most severe in terms of disease

intensity. An International Cotton Advisory Committee’s (ICAC) analysis suggested that 25% of

the increase in 1993/1994 season average of the Cotlook-A Index was due to lower production in

Pakistan (ICAC, 1994). The epidemic of CLCuV in Pakistan is one of the best examples of the

dramatic shift in importance of a previously unimportant endemic disease. Cotton in Pakistan is

cultivated in two provinces, Punjab and Sindh. The Punjab Province that contributes about 78%

of the area and production has yet not recovered from the virus shock. The CLCuV has crossed to

the bordering Indian Punjab with more than 500,000 ha affected during 1999-2000 (ICAC, 1999).

Symptoms of the disease as observed in Pakistan begin with the thickening of small veins

visible on the lower surface of the upper young leaves. Under severe conditions, leaves curl

downwards or upwards and plants become stunted due to shortening of inter-nodal distance.

Losses due to CLCuV depend upon time and severity of infection. Appearance of the disease at

the seedling stage seriously hampers flowering, boll formation, and maturation thus reduces seed

cotton yield and fiber quality. Although cotton cultivars with field resistance to CLCuV have been

developed by cotton breeders in Pakistan and are under cultivation but they have narrow

adaptability and yield less than otherwise susceptible or tolerant cultivars. The onset of the disease

was to some extent checked by various prevailing tolerant cultivars in the past.

But recently, cotton leaf curl virus has again emerged as a key disease in the province of

the Punjab in general and Burewala area in particular. This re-emergence of virus commonly called
as Burewala Strain of Cotton Virus (BSCV) is much more hazardous version than the previous

one and could develop into a serious problem. It is suspected that previous virus strains have

mutated and resistant varieties are showing symptoms of CLCuV in the whole cotton belt of

Punjab.

Even the parent material (LRA-5166, CP-15/2, and Cedex) used to develop cotton leaf curl

virus resistant varieties have also been found susceptible in Burewala territory. The Burewala virus

disease has infested the most productive areas of southern Punjab (Khanewal, Multan Lodhran and

Vehari districts) and is expected to lower production considerably in the country during 2008/09.

The infestation of CLCuV disease has crossed the boundaries of the Punjab and entered into the

neighboring provinces with especial reference to Sindh (ICAC, 2006).

The constant use of CLCuV susceptible varieties without any program of their replacement

with the resistant blood constitutes a major risk for cotton production in Pakistan. So a premier

focus should be given to eliminate the CLCuV disease and a well-planned program of evolution

and introduction of CLCuV resistant varieties of desired characteristics must be in place to

gradually replace the existing CLCuV susceptible varieties. This is the sole, the most promising

and the least expensive method of disease suppression.

Integrated Disease Management (IDM) can be carried out to suppress this dangerous

disease. IDM is actually a combination of various cultural and chemical control mechanisms in

addition to protection through natural predators and parasites. There are various other management

strategies to combat CLCuV in addition to resistant cultivars. Weeds in and around cotton fields

should be removed carefully and cotton fields should be kept clean at all the times. Spring crops

should be sown and harvested on time in the cotton belt. If spring crops are harvested late, close
to the cotton planting season, viruses and insects will be transferred to the cotton crop. The

recommended interval between harvesting of spring crops and the sowing of the cotton crop should

be at least one month.

Natural protection may also be provided to the crop through biological control by

increasing the population of beneficial insects such as chrysopa, ladybird beetle, trichograma and

spider. The previous year’s cotton stubs must be removed from the fields because sprouts from

diseased plant stubs transmit the disease. Early sowing should not be done as it increases the

population of whitefly, which acts as a vector for the virus. Cotton should not be sown before 15th

April under any circumstances. Seed must be treated with systemic insecticides before sowing that

helps to control whitefly and other sucking insects. Intercropping of cotton in orchards and planting

of alternate hosts of cotton pests (like okra, sunkukra and sesame) on the borders of cotton fields

should be avoided to keep the disease distant from the cotton crop.

The cotton crop should not be over-nourished. Apply only the recommended quantities of

fertilizers and irrigation water. Thinning should be done at the proper time to remove weak and

virus-affected plants. The crop must be protected vigilantly against sucking insects especially

whitefly which is the main vector in the spread of the virus from plant to plant or from one crop to

another. The recommended threshold for whitefly in Pakistan is five adults or nymphs or

combination of both. However, it has been shown that even a single whitefly/leaf is enough to

transmit the disease. Whitefly is an established pest in Pakistan and it is impossible to eliminate

the entire whitefly population, however, the expert advice is that restricting the whitefly population

to a minimum is helpful to reduce the chances of CLCuV infestation. This is why farmers are

specifically advised to keep a strict watch on the whitefly population. The following measures
have been recommended to minimize the whitefly population in order to limit the danger of

Burewala virus infestation.

• Use yellow sticky traps during the earlier part of the cotton season to attract whiteflies.

• Destroy old diseased leaves to limit the population of whitefly adults and nymphs.

• Over dosing of nitrogen (beyond recommended levels) or under-dosing of phosphorus and

magnesium may increase the whitefly population. Use these fertilizers judiciously and strictly as

recommended.

• Pressure spray the crop with water on three consecutive days to destroy whitefly adults.

• Spray insect growth regulators on the underside of leaves to destroy whitefly nymphs.

It concludes that the re-emergence of CLCuV in Southern Punjab may cause devastating

effects on cotton production which ultimately will affect the country’s economy. So in addition to

the evolution of resistant cultivars various managing practices as mentioned above should be kept

under consideration for the effective control of the disease.

ombating rust in wheat

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RUSTS are fungal diseases of plants called Puccinia (family Puccinaceae). These are most
destructive diseases worldwide and have the ability to destroy the entire wheat crop. They have
the ability to form new races that can attack previously resistant cultivars, and have the capacity
to move long distances with potential to develop rapidly under optimal environmental conditions
resulting in serious yield losses.

Production of these plant parasites is affected by uncertain climatic conditions. Wheat rusts are
the most devastating and harmful of all the wheat diseases. Leaf rust, stem rust, and stripe rust
are the three rust diseases of wheat. Different ecological zones of the country are vulnerable to
different rust varieties. In the plains of Northern Pakistan, leaf rust is the most common. Since
2003, the incidence and severity of stripe rust has increased affecting wheat production all over
the country.

Wheat rust fungi are pathogens which disperse by wind over long distances. The rust spores
spread within and outside the infected field in a short span of time. After every 7-10 days new
pustules are formed, and in a favourable environment, severe rusting occurs 30-40 days after the
initial infection. Weather plays a key role in the development of rust epidemics. Cool nights
followed by warm days (55-80°F) and long periods of dew or a wet wheat canopy are ideal
conditions for rust to flourish. For all rusts, six to eight hours of free moisture on the wheat
canopy is necessary for infection.

Controlling rust is a complicated job because of constant changes in strains (races) of the
pathogens. For example, variet ies formerly rated as ‘resistant’ strains have, in recent years,
begun to show signs of susceptibility at various locations. In many situations, the varieties
remained resistant for only three to four years. Crop rotations and modified tillage practices in
most cases are not effective. Planting an early maturing variety may reduce the impact of leaf
rust and stem rust but too early varieties are damaged by frost, especially in southern Punjab.

Pathogenic activity of rusts can either be curtailed by resistance varieties or by use of chemicals.
Variety resistance is the most economical method in controlling these diseases. Two kinds of
resistances are known to occur in wheat as horizontal and vertical.

Durable or horizontal resistance, as defined by Johnson (1978), remains effective in a cultivar

during its widespread cultivation for a long period of time in an environment favourable to the
disease. Partial resistances rendered by minor genes furnish the plants with durable form of
resistance.

Slow rusting wheat exhibits moderate levels of susceptibility to rust pathogen and equip the
plants with adult plant resistance. Field life of such varieties is 15-24 years. The varieties Era and
Frontana are classical examples of durable resistance. Lyallpur73, Pavon76, Chakwal86,
Rawal87, Pasban90, GA2002, Chapio, Tukuru, Kukuna Tonichi81, Yaco, Opata85 and Parula
are slow rusting varieties.

Vertical resistance is explained by a theory known as the ‘gene for gene’ theory, which suggests
that two genes contribute to rust resistance, one in the plant and one in the rust fungi. The plant
must have the correct rust resistance gene to fight the rust pathogen and the rust must have a
gene that identifies it to the plant as an unwanted intruder. This type of complete resistance is
contributed by major gene. The resistance provided by these genes is of short duration. Varieties
with complete (vertical resistance) resistance survive for a very short duration in the field for
about five years. Inqilab91, Chenab70, WL711, Yacora70 are the varieties carrying vertical
resistance.

When there is no single variety to ensure protection as well as production growers should use the
concept of variety complementation. Variety complementation is employed when adapted
varieties that differ in parentage, maturity and disease reaction are selected. Because there is no
single perfect variety, complementation allows the producer to counter balance the potential
weaknesses in each variety. This compensation improves the opportunity for yield stability of the
entire production system. The four steps in selecting complementary varieties are:

Identify the ‘work horse’ varieties that have a history of good performance in the fields. Select
varieties that differ in parentage from the ‘work horse’ varieties and the other varieties being
considered. Select varieties that bloom either earlier or later than your ‘work horse’ varieties to
spread the risk from weather and disease, and to spread out harvest. Select varieties that have
specific characteristics needed for the production conditions or area. For example, varieties that
are leaf rust susceptible and stripe rust resistant fit well in the NWFP and Northern Punjab,
where leaf rust is not a serious problem but stripe rust can be devastating. In central Punjab, both
leaf and stripe rusts can reduce yields, so planting varieties resistant or moderately resistant to
both rusts is strongly encouraged. Southern Punjab and Sindh are the areas of leaf and stem rusts
so the varieties must have adequate resistance against them.

Use of appropriate fungicide is another effective but least employed method of disease
management. Chemical control is more effective when rust diseases are identified on susceptible
varieties early in the growing season. In fields planted with moderately resistant or resistant
varieties, a fungicide application may not be necessary even if some disease occurs. Fields
planted with moderately susceptible or susceptible varieties should be scouted regularly, and any
sign of disease may warrant a fungicide application (particularly in the case of stripe rust). In
fields planted with very susceptible varieties, two applications are necessary to achieve a
moderate level of control, but it is better not to plant very susceptible varieties, particularly to
stripe rust.

The following criteria should be employed to decide whether fungicide treatment is warranted:
What is the variety’s level of resistance to rust diseases? Varieties that are moderately resistant
(slow rusting) or resistant to stripe and leaf rusts don’t need to be treated with fungicides.
Varieties that are moderately susceptible or susceptible to one or both of the rusts should be
closely monitored. Rain-fed wheat should have a yield potential of 45-50 maunds per hectare,
and irrigated wheat should have a yield potential of 70-75 maunds per hectare in order to justify
fungicide treatment.

If cool weather slows maturity, the window for disease development is extended and the impact
on the crop is greater than if the crop is maturing early.

These diseases need moist conditions. If the forecast for March is for above average rainfall, the
disease risk is higher. Dry conditions lessen the threat to rain-fed wheat but may increase it for
irrigated wheat because of the need for more frequent irrigation.
In general, if trace amounts of rust are present on the flag leaf in the early boot stage of
development, and infection below the flag leaf is moderate or moderately severe, it’s likely that
the flag leaf will become severely infected and a fungicide application should be cost effective.

To maintain consistent and sustainable production of wheat protection against rust pathogen is
the dire need of this era, as our major wheat varieties for instance Pak81, Inqilab91, AS2002,
Bhakkar2002 all became susceptible to rust after their short stay in the field.

Amongst all the controlling strategies slow rusting wheat are providing the most effective, long-
term and cost effective control over rusts. Slow rusting wheat varieties should be developed and
released for general cultivation. In addition, extension system should be utilised to convince the
farmers to grow moderately resistant or slow rusting wheat varieties. Slow rusting wheat is the
only hope to fight these harmful fungi.

Quarantine: – The best way to control diseases is to exclude them from the area of sphere
in which the host plants are being known. This method of exclusion enforced through certain
legal measures is commonly known as quarantine. In India, Destructive Insects & Pests Act,
was enacted in 1914. Directorate of Plant Protection & Quarantine was established in Delhi.
Quarantine stations have been established in airports, seaports & selected railway stations.

Quarantine: – The best way to control diseases is to exclude them from the area of sphere
in which the host plants are being known. This method of exclusion enforced through certain
legal measures is commonly known as quarantine. In India, Destructive Insects & Pests Act,
was enacted in 1914. Directorate of Plant Protection & Quarantine was established in Delhi.
Quarantine stations have been established in airports, seaports & selected railway stations.
Plants & Plant Products to pass through these quarantines should be accompanied by a
phytosanitary certificate, as per international convention, issued by the competent authority
of the exporting country. To export the plants & plant Products from India, State Plant
Pathologists have been empowered to issue phytosanitary certificates. Some of the plant
materials have been totally banned for import into India irrespective of any certificate.
Potatoes cannot be imported to India from any wart disease and/ or golden nematode infested
areas. Unginned cotton cannot be imported. Sugarcane cuttings from Australia, Fiji &
Philippines cannot be imported. Import of cocoa from Africa & Sri Lanka is totally banned.
Rubber plant & seeds from South America & West Indies & Sunflower seeds from Argentina
& Peru are totally banned. Within India, Domestic quarantines have also been established.

Cultural Practices

By proper Cultural Practices many diseases can be controlled

1. Seeds: Loose smut of wheat (ustilago tritici), black arm of cotton (xanthomonas
compestris Pv. Mulvacearum ) and leaf crinkle of blackgram (virus) are introduced into the
field through seeds. Hence, the infected seed should not be used for sowing.
2. Vegetative Propagating Material: Banana suckers may carry the bunchy top virus,
hence suckers from diseased areas should not be used. Sugarcane setts may carry red rot
pathogen (colletrichum falcatum). Hence sugarcane setts from diseased areas should not be
used for planting.
3. Irrigation & Drainage Water: Bacterial blight of rice (xanthomonas compesteris
pv.oryzae) spreads mostly through irrigation & drainage water. Hence, care should be taken
not to irrigate a healthy filed using drainage water from an infected field.
4. Plant debris: Some of the Pathogens survive in Plant debris e.g. stem rot of rice
(scterotium oryzae & black arm of cotton (x.compestris pv. malvacearum) Hence plant debris
should be burnt or removed.
5. Equipment & Men: Pruning implements, intercultivators, etc, may carry some pathogens
e.g. tobacco mosaic virus in tobacco. Field workers also may carry the virus from infected
field to the healthy field. Hence proper sanitation is needed.
6. Weeds: Weeds serve as alternate hosts for many Pathogens e.g. rice tungro virus, rice
blast etc. Hence clean cultivation is essential for control of diseases.
7. Volunteer Plant : Self-sown volunteer plants may carry infection, which may serve, as
source of infection for the succeeding crop. E.g. cotton black arm. Volunteer Plants should be
destroyed.
8. Ratoons : Ratoon Crops normally carry many Pathogens e.g. sugarcane grassy stunt.
Ratoon crops should be avoided as far as possible.
9. Rouging infested Plants : The infected plants should be rouged out to reduce the
inoculum in the field. Rouging infected Plants can reduce yellow mosaic of green gram.
10. Pruning of infected twigs & branches : Pruning of citrus canker affected branches
reduces the disease incidence.
11. Solar Heating : When the soil is covered with Polythene sheets during hot seasons, soil
temperature increased & eliminated verticillium deuliage & fusarium oxysporium f.sp.
lycopersici in tomato field.
12. Flooding the field: Flooding the field for long time can control Fusarium wilt of banana.
13. Fallowing By fallowing, F.oxysporium specific strains can be reduced, as they do not
survive in soil for long time.
14. Date of sowing: Early sowing of Pearl millet will reduce the ergot disease. Avoiding wet
seasons for planting of rice will eliminate rice blast.
15. Avoidance of monoculture: Continuous cultivation of rice crop may result in the
appearance of new pathotypes of Puricullaria oryzae, the rice blast pathogen.
16. Multiple Cropping: Taller crops can be sown to protect a crop of lesser height from virus
vectors.
17. Intercropping Intercrops should be properly chosen so that all the crops should not
have any common pathogen.
18. Trap crop: Tagets is a trap crop for many nematodes & can be grown to reduce nematode
infection.
19. Tillage: Ploughing of rice residue to a depth of 25 to 30 cm renders a high Percentage of
inoculum of sclerotium oryzae unavailable for infection of rice subsequently sown with
flooding.
20. Soil Amendment: Potato back skurf (Rhizoctonia Solani) is less in soil amended with
wheat straw. Lucerne meal & barley straw reduce root rot of cotton caused by Macrophomina
Phaseolina.
21. Seed rate & Spacing Closer spacing favours many air-borne diseases because of high
humidity in the crop canopy. Tikka leaf spot of groundnut (cercospora arachidis) is more in
dense canopy. Damping off caused by Pythium & Phytophthora increases in crops when higher
seed rate was used.
22. Irrigation: Maintaining soil water near field capacity during tuber formation prevents
potato scab (streptomyces scabies). High soil moisture increases antagonistic bacteria
population.
23. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: Increased application of nitrogen increases many diseases.
Rice blast becomes severe in nitrogen-applied fields. Split application reduces blast & bacterial
blight of rice. Contrarily late application of nitrogen increases wheat leaf blotch (septoria
nodorum) & powdery mildew (Erysiphie graminis) Wilts (Fusarium spp.) & rots ( Rhizoctonia
spp.) are favored by ammoniacal nitrogen while verticillium wilts & root rots due to pythium
spp. are favored by nitrate nitrogen.
24. Phosphorus : Repeated application of prophetic fertilizers delays the onset & lessens the
severity of take-all disease of barley.
25. Potassium : Potassium application reduces the disease incidence in many cases probably
by increasing Phenolics synthesis in plants.
26. Calcium: Calcium application reduces bean root rot caused by Rhizoctonia Solani
probably by altering pectin metabolism of the host.
27. Molybdenum: Application of molybdenum reduces infection of potato tubers by
Phytophthora infestans & also diminishes incidence of Ascohyta blight on beans & Peas.
28. Manganese: Manganese reduces late blight of Potato.
29. Iron: Ferric Chloride controls rice brown spot.
30. Silicon: Silicon application reduces rice blast (Pyricularia oryzae)

Use of Resistant Cultivars

Several types of resistant cultivars are now available. When a variety is more resistant to
some race of pathogen than to others, the resistance is called vertical. Vertical resistance can
be preferred against pathogens, which do not have many races, or in the host, which is not
cultivated throughout the year. When host resistance is equally effective against all races of
pathogen- it is termed horizontal. Horizontal resistance will be more useful in subsistence
agriculture. Judicial management of diseases by employing different resistant varieties is the
best & cheap method of disease control.

Biological Control

Biological control of disease includes management of diseases by organisms including plants,

but excluding man. Biological control can be achieved by –
(i) Using micro organisms
(ii) Changing growth conditions of the plants (cultural practices); and
(iii) Using resistant varieties
Important Biocontrol Microbial agents: –
1. Fungi –
(a) Trichoderma spp. against damping off of peas, tomato & tobacco, root rot of groundnut.
(b) Gliocladium virens – Pythium, Sclerotium & rhizoctonia diseases.
2. Bacteria – Pseudomonas Fluorescens & P.Putida control soft rot of Potato.

Fungicides & Antibiotics

Definitions –
1. Fungicide – is a chemical, which is capable of killing fungi.
2. Antibiotic- is a chemical produced by a microorganism, which is inhibitory to other
organisms. Fungicides can be classified as protectants, eradicants & systemic fungicides.
a. Protectant- Fungicide which is effective only if applied prior to fungal infection is called
Protectant. Example – Mancozeb, Zineb.
b. Eradicant – is the one, which removes fungi from an infection court. An Eradicant can
penetrate the host tissues to a limited extent & eliminate an established infection. Example –
Lime Sulpher.
c. Systemic Fungicides- Systemic fungicides are the compounds, which are transported over
a considerable distance in plant system after-penetration. They kill fungi, which are found
remote from the point of application.

I) Sulpher Fungicides
a) Inorganic Sulpher fungicides – includes elemental Sulpher, wettable Sulpher & lime
Sulpher. Sulpher fungicides effectively control powdery mildew of different crops such as chilli,
okra, grape, rubber, mango, citrus, black gram & green gram. Sulpher controls tikka leaf spot
of groundnut & Diplocapron black spot of rose. Sulpher dust is used as seed treatment also.
b) Organic Sulpher fungicides- Dithiocarba mates are the organic Sulpher fungicides. They
are divided into-
(i) Dialkyldithiocarbamtes- Thiram, Ziram & ferban & Ziram is used as Protectant & sprayed
before the outbreak of the disease. It controls early blight of potato & tomato and anthracnose
disease of cucurbits & beans. Thiram is commonly used for seed treatment. Thiram seed
treatment controls seed-borne pathogens as well as soil borne pathogens. It controls seed
borne infection of colletotrichum capsici of chilli, root rot of groundnut, sorghum grain smut
& Helminthosporium leaf spot of rice. As seed treatment it controls soil-borne infection of
Phthium spp. of tomato, tobacco & brinjal (Damping off) Rhizoctonia solani of cotton & Sheath
blight of rice. Ferban control diseases of apple. It controls leaf spot of banana, leaf mould of
tomato & leaf spot of coffee.
(ii) Monoalkyldithio carbamates- maneb, Zineb, Mancozeb, vapam & nabam. Zineb controls
anthracnose disease of bean, chilli, & cucurbits, rust disease of wheat, sorghum & bajra,
downy mildew of grapevine, cucurbits, Onion & cabbage, cercospora leaf spot of groundnut,
cabbage, cauliflower, Alternaria leaf spot of potato, tomato singer. Mancozeb is widely used
for the control of late blight of potato, cercospora leaf spot of groundnut, cucurbits & sugar
beet. Helminthosporium leaf spot of rice, ragi, maize & sorghum, downy mildew of grapevine
& tobacco, rust disease of wheat groundnut, bajra & sorghum, Alternaria leaf spot of ginger,
potato, tomato & wheat anthracnose of chilli, grapevine, sorghum, bean & cucurbits.
Vapam controls cotton wilt & damping off of papaya, tobacco & tomato. It controls nematodes
also.

(II) Copper Fungicides

(a) Copper Sulphate Preparations – It include Bordeaux mixture, Bordeaux Paste, Burgundy
mixture, & chestnut compound. Bordeaux mixture is highly effective against late blight of
potato, downy mildew of grapevine, coffee rust, betel vine wilt, pepper wilt, tomato early &
late blights & coconut will & bud rot.
(b) Copper Carbonate Preparations- It controls many fungal diseases of apple, pear, peach,
plums & apricot.
c) Copper Oxychloride Preparations – Some formulations available in the market are Fytolan,
Blue copper, Blitox etc. They are generally effective against all diseases against which
Bordeaux mixture has been found effective.

Mercury Fungicides-

Various mercury fungicides sold in the market are ceresan, aretan, agallol, wet ceresan, Dry
ceresan etc. They are effective as seed treatment.
IV Heterocylic nitrogen compounds-
a) Captan- It is commercially marketed as Captan, orthocide, vancide etc. It is Protectant
fungicide. It controls maize helminthosporiose, chilli fruit rot & apple scab. It is mostly used
as seed treatment.
b) Folpet – It is commercially marketed as Phaltan. It controls rose black spot & apple scab.
(c) Captofol – It is marketed as Difolotan, Foltaf etc.
It effectively controls sheath rot of rice & mango anthracnose.
V) Quinone Fungicides-
a) Chloranil – It is commercially marketed as spergon. It is good seed dressing fungicide. It
controls grain smut of sorghum & damping off of beans & cotton.
b) Dichlone- The commercial name of the fungicide is phygon. It controls peach leaf curl,
apple scab & bean anthracnose.

Miscellaneous Fungicides-

a) Quintozene – Commercial names of the fungicide are Brassicol, Terraclor, PCNB & Tritisan.
It is used to control soil borne pathogens. It is effective against Rhizoctonia Solani,
Macrophomina Phaseolina & Sclerotiana Sclerotiorum.
b) Dinocap – It is marketed in the name of karthane, Arathane, Mildex etc. Dinocap is effective
in controlling powdery mildews.
c) Fenaminsosulph- it is commercially known as Dexon. It is highly effective against
phycomycetes like pythium phytophthora & Aphanomyces.
d) Dicloran_ Its trade name is Botran. It controls Botrytis infection in several crops.
e) Chlorothalonil- It is marketed as Daconil & Kavach. It controls both tikka leaf spot & rust
disease of groundnut & betelvine wilt.
Systemic Fungicides-
Some of the systemic fungicides are-
a) Carbendazim – It is marketed as Bavistin, Derosal, B-Sten etc. It controls Powdery Mildews,
smut diseases & bunts.
b) Benomyl- Benomyl is effective against Fusarium , Rhizoctonia, Macrophomina, Cercospora,
Colletotrichum, Puricularia, Verticillium, Phomopsis, Septoria, Erysiphe, Plasmodiophora,
Botrytis, Ustilago, Urocystis & Tilletia Spp.
c) Thiabendazole – It is commercially available as Tecto & Mertect. It controls wheat bunt.
d) Carboxin- it is commercially available as vitavax. It is the most effective fungicide to control
internally seed borne loose smuts of cereals.
e) Oxycarboxin- it is commercially marketed as Plantvax. It is specifically effective against
rust pathogens.
f) Pyracarbolid- it is commercially available as sicarol. It is effective against rust & smut &
Rhizoctonia Spp.
g) Metalaxyl- it is marketed as Ridomil & Apron. Metalaxyl is highly effective against
phycomyces fungi like Phytophthrora, Pythium, Scierospora, Pseudopernospora, Plasmopara,
Sclerophthora & Albugo.
h) Tride morph- its trade name is calixin. It is mainly used against powdery mildews as foliar
sprays
i) Pyroquilon- it is commercially available as Fongorene. It effectively controls rice blast.
j) Kitazin- it is commercially marketed as Kitazin. It is highly effective against rice blast.
k) Tricyclazole – it is commercially marketed as Beam. It is highly specific for the control of
rice blast.
l) Probenazole- its commercial name is oryzemate. It is also specific against rice blast.
m) Triadimefon- it is commercially market as Bayleton. It is highly effective against powdery
mildews. It also controls rust diseases.
n) Biloxazole- it is marketed as Baycor. It is effective against cercospora diseases & rusts.
o) Triademenol- The commercial name of the fungicide is Bayton. As seed treatment it
controls smut & powdery mildews.

Antibiotics-

(i) Aureofungin sol- It is a broad spectrum antibiotic produced by streptoverticillium

cinnamomeus var. terricola. Aureofungin is effective only when it is mixed with copper
sulphate. It controls Than javur will of coconut, citrus gummosis, chillies powdery mildew &
grapes downy mildew.
(ii) Streptomycin- it is produced by streptomyces griseus. It controls bacterial diseases viz.
Citrus canker, black arm of cotton & rice bacterial blight.
(iii) Tetracycline- It is produced by streptomyces sp. and effective in controlling mycoplasma
diseases like sandal spike, brinjal little leaf & gingelly phyllody.

Biotechnology –

Plant Pathology has entered into a new era. Plant Pathologists have now learnt to use the
modern tools of genetic engineering & tissue culture in management of plant disease. It is
now possible to isolate particular gene from one organism, insert them into the genome of
another organism & make them to express at right time. This technology is known as ‘Genetic
Engineering’. Cells of plants can be cultured in special nutrient medium & whole plant can be
regenerated from cultured cells. This technique of growing plants in vitro is called ‘Tissue
Culture’. The biological technique through which the laboratory experiments are converted
into practical utility materials, under field conditions is called ‘Biotechnology’.

The viruses are parasitic in nature and cause the most infectious group of diseases, of all
forms of livings (including human being, animals and plants). The viruses are very small to
that of all others and can not be seen with necked eye, nor with the help of commonly used
microscopes, hence are regarded as sub microscopic, nucleo protein articles, multiply inside
living cells. Viruses cause diseases by upsetting the metabolism of the cells, but not by
consuming cells or killing

them with toxins.

The viruses are parasitic in nature and cause the most infectious group of diseases, of all
forms of livings (including human being, animals and plants). The viruses are very small to
that of all others and can not be seen with necked eye, nor with the help of commonly used
microscopes, hence are regarded as sub microscopic, nucleo protein particles, multiply inside
living cells. Viruses cause diseases by upsetting the metabolism of the cells, but not by
consuming cells or killing them with toxins.

The total number of viruses known to date is well over a thousand, and new viruses are added
to this almost every month. More than half of all known viruses attack and cause diseases of
plants. One virus may infect one or dozens of same or different plant species, and one plant
may be attacked by one or many different viruses.

The importance of plant viruses in relation to crop production, can be realized from the fact
that among the various factors responsible for low yields, viral diseases are prominent and
cause losses in world’s crop production amounting to many million rupees, which comes next
only to losses caused by insect pests. Plant virus diseases may damage leaves, stems, roots,
fruits, seed or flowers and may cause economic losses by reduction in yield and quality of
plant products. The severity of individual virus diseases may vary with the locality, the crop
variety, and from one season to the next. On nation wide bases, the record showed that
amongst the major viral diseases of economic crops, recorded in Pakistan (Table), some virus
diseases have destroyed entire planting of certain crops in some areas, for example, cotton
leaf curl virus, banana bunchy top virus, viral diseases of chilies, tomatoes and pulse crops
are considered very serious, during different cropping seasons, at different locations of
Pakistan; and in certain cases, fields have been found to show as much as 100 percent
damage.

However, it is quite difficult to present accurate estimates of the losses due to viral diseases.
It is becoming obvious that: now, it is upon the crop protectionists including plant pathologists
and entomologists as well, to design and formulate ways or mean to combat all enemies of
the crops, so that the growers (farmers) may try to minimize the losses caused by plant
viruses to the crops.

IDENTIFICATION OF VIRAL DISEASES

Various external and or internal changes, reactions or alterations (signs) on or in the plants,
due to any abnormality as a result of the pathogen (disease causing agent) is termed as
symptoms. Actually, abnormal appearance on or in the plant is usually the first indication of
a virus infection in nature. Severe disease symptoms may occur only when virus has infected
the plant systematically. It must be remembered that a virus not only causes just one type
of symptoms. Mostly viral infection results in more than one type of symptoms. There may
be a series of symptoms as the disease persists within the plant. For example, stunted growth
and dwarfing, may be associated with necrotic symptoms and in extreme cases, the necrosis
may spread to the whole plant to cause plant death.

TABLE: MAJOR VIRAL DISEASES OF ECONOMIC CROPS.

Crop Disease Crop Disease

Wheat Yellow dwarf, Stunt Maize & Streaks, Stripe
Sorghum
Sugarcane Mosaic, Grassy shoot, Cotton Leaf curl,
Chlorotic streaks Stenosis
Mung Mosaic Mash Mosaic
Sesame Leaf curl Groundnut Rosette
Mustard Mosaic Soybean Mottling
Potato Mosaic, Leaf roll Tomato Leaf curl, Mosaic
Chilies Leaf curl Pea Mottling
Cucurbit Mosaic, Yellows Okra or Yellow vein
Bhindi
Banana Bunchy top Papaya Leaf curl, Mosaic
 Citrus Tristeza Tobacco Mosaic, Leaf curl

MOST COMMON EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS: The most obvious symptoms of virus infected
plants are usually those appearing on the foliage, but some viruses may cause striking
symptoms on the stem, fruit, and roots, with or without symptom development on the leaves.
The most common types of plant symptoms produced by virus infections are mosaic, mottle,
vein clearing, vein banding, yellows, ring spots, chlorosis, dwarfing and stunting, tumors or
galls, bunchy top, witches broom, rosette, enation and necrosis.

MOSAIC: Mosaics characterized by intermingled patches of normal and light green, yellow or
white areas of the leaves or fruits, or are whitish areas intermingled with areas of the normal
color of flowers or fruits. The mosaic depends on the intensity or particular pattern of
discoloration. The mosaic type symptoms may be described as mottling, streak, ring pattern,
line pattern, vein clearing, vein banding, chlorotic spotting, etc. The viruses causing most
mosaic diseases are mechanically transmitted and usually have aphid vectors in nature, are
generally resistant to brief heat treatments, and do not stop flowering or effect the dormancy
of buds.

MOTTLE: An irregular pattern of indistinct light and dark areas.

VEIN CLEARING: Veins become clear due to destruction of chlorophyll in the vein tissues.

VEIN BANDING: Bands of green tissue along the vein, while the tissues between vein
become chlorotic.

YELLOWS: When chlorophyll disappears completely due to chlorosis, yellowing, bronzing or

reddening, the foliage of the host becomes uniformly discolored without any spotting patterns
and become yellow, although some vein clearing may be present. Viruses causing the true
yellows diseases show a tendency to produce virescent flowers, to break the dormancy of
axillary buds and induce cessation of flowering, to be leafhopper transmitted, and to be
relatively sensitive to heat treatment.

RING SPOTS: Ring spots, characterized by the appearance of chlorotic or necrotic (usually
circular) ring spots on the leaves and sometimes also on the fruit and stem. Most ring spot
causing viruses are not transmitted by either aphids or leafhoppers, but some of them are
transmitted by nematodes.

CHLOROSIS: Yellowing of green tissues due to chlorophyll destruction.

DWARFING AND STUNTING: The plant size is reduced due to shorter internodes, smaller
leaves, fruits and various other plant parts.

TUMOR (GALLS): Unusual swelling or development or transformation produced as a result

of viral infection.

BUNCHY TOP: Leaves or branches become bunched at the top of plants.

WITCHES BROOM: Appearance of broom like growth, due to pathogen.

ROSETTE: Short, bunchy habit of plant growth.

ENATION: Malformation or tumor or leaf like out growths on the leaves and roots referred
to as enation.

NECROSIS: Death of cells or tissues.

LESS COMMON SYMPTOMS: A large number of other less common virus symptoms are also
described. These symptoms may be accompanied by other symptoms on other parts of the
same plant and include: leaf roll (e.g., Potato leaf roll), leaf and stem distortion (e.g., bean
common mosaic virus BCMV), rubbery wood (e.g., apple rubber wood), pitting of stem (e.g.,
apple stem pitting), pitting of fruit (for example, pear stony pit) and flattening and distortion
of stem (for example, apple flat limb).

COTTON

Cotton leaf curl is recorded as most destructive diseases, while, sometimes stenosis (stunt or
small leaf) also become important.

COTTON LEAF CURL VIRUS (CLCV)

This disease is also called leaf crinkle. A virus causing leaf curl of cotton was first recorded in
Nigeria (1912), Sudan (1924), Tanzania (1926), Philippine (1959). In Pakistan, this disease
was first time recorded in 1967 at Multan (Punjab) on some cotton plants. It was considered
a miner disease until 1987, but in 1991 92, it becomes severe and since 1992 93 causing a
huge production and monetary loss to the nation. In Sindh, this disease was first reported
during 1996 at Ubauro, district Ghotki, and is reached up to New Saedabad, district
Hyderabad, during 1999 2000. It is quite difficult to present accurate estimates of the losses
due to cotton leaf curl disease, because the losses vary from year to year and from one area
to the other. Sometimes the cotton fields have been found to show as much as 100 percent
damage.

PATHOGEN: The disease causing virus belongs to Gemini group, sometimes refer as
Gossypium virus 1.

DISTRIBUTION: Africa, Nigeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Philippine and Pakistan.

HOST RANGE: More than 30 different crop, weed and ornamental plants are reported as
hosts.

SERIOUSNESS: Cotton, lady’s finger, tomato, chili, cucurbit (especially water melon), beans,
sunflower, sesame, soybean, cow peas, egg plant (brinjal), sun kukra, china rose, thorn apple
(dhatura), mint (podina), holly hock (gul e khera), zinnia, AK (Calotropis), shesham (talhi)
and citrus species.

TRANSMISSION: The disease transmitted by feeding of the white fly, Bemissia tabacci within
6.5 hours. A single female, carrying virus, can infect many plants. White fly is known to
survive on as many as 53 host plant species, and is responsible for transmitting 23 crop
diseases in region. At global level, white fly infests 600 different plant species. The virus is
not transmitted by sap, seed or soil.

PERPETUATION: The disease causing virus survives in several different plant hosts, from
which it may spread.
SYMPTOMS: Upward and downward curling of leaves accompanied by small and main vein
thickening (SVT & MVT) on leaves, pronounced on underside. If a diseased leaf is viewed from
beneath against the light, thickened vein found darker green and opaque than normal. In
extreme but not in frequent cases, formation of cup shaped or leaf laminar (veins) outgrowth
called “enation” appears on the back or underside of the leaf. The newly produced leaves are
small, excessively crinkled and curled at the edge. Primary stem often tends to grow taller
than normal. The internodes being elongated and irregularly curved but sometimes the whole
plant is stunted. The flowers checked in growth and become abortive. Bolls remained small in
size and failed to open. All parts of badly hit plants are very brittle and ready broken.

CONTROL: Cultivation of resistant varieties is only safe measure. Crop rotation with non host
crop. Proper use of irrigation and fertilizers. Potassium fertilizer improves the disease resistant
power in plants. Vector, white fly must be controlled. All alternate hosts (including weeds)
must be eradicated before, during and after cotton crop. Deep plowing with short duration in
fallow lands help to control weed hosts. The disease (CLCV) is not seed transmitted but use
of healthy seed, acid delinting and chemical seed treatment is recommended as preventive
measure. Use of proper cotton production technology is economical and most effective for
management of all diseases (including this).

STENOSIS (STUNT OR SMALL LEAF)

DISTRIBUTION: Pakistan and India.

SYMPTOMS: Leaves develop in clusters, are malformed and of different shapes and sizes.
Enations are produced on lower surface of veins. Flowers may remain small with balls never
forming. Infected plants can easily pulled out of the ground, having a large number of
adventitious roots.

CONTROL: No known control.

SUGARCANE

Mosaic, grassy shoot and chlorotic streaks are considered major viral diseases of sugarcane.

MOSAIC

PATHOGEN: Sugarcane mosaic virus (SMV).

DISTRIBUTION: Wherever sugarcane is grown.

HOST RANGE: The disease causing virus has a wide range and infects a large number of
grasses.

TRANSMISSION: Aphids, Mechanical, and is seedborne in corn.

PERPETUATION: Grasses and infected sugarcane crop.

SYMPTOMS: Newly leaves are unrolled from spindle. Irregular oval or oblong, pale green
blotches of various sizes occur on leaves, with various widths. Stunted shoots, twisted and
distorted leaves in some cultivars. Mottling of stem, causing death of tissue and cankered
areas in other cultivars may also occur.
CONTROL: Plant resistant varieties. Rogue out infected plants.

GRASSY SHOOT

PATHOGEN: Sugarcane grassy shoot virus (SGSV)

DISTRIBUTION: Pakistan, India, Taiwan and Thailand.

HOST RANGE: Sugarcane and sorghum.

TRANSMISSION: Infected sugarcane seed pieces, mechanically by cutters or cutting knives

and aphids.

PERPETUATION: Infected sugarcane crop.