Unit 5 – Sculpture

Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts.
Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the
addition of material, as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials but, since Modernism,
there has been an almost complete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may
be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded or cast.

Types of Sculpture

Carving is the act of using tools to shape something from a material by scraping away portions of that
material. Carving, as a means for making sculpture, is distinct from methods using soft and malleable
materials like clay, fruit, and melted glass, which may be shaped into the desired forms while soft and
then harden into that form. Carving tends to require much more work than methods using malleable
materials.

Casting involves making a mould and then pouring a liquid material, such as molten metal, plastic,
rubber or fibreglass into the mould. A cast is a form made by this process. Many sculptures are
produced by the artist modelling a form (normally in clay, wax or plaster). This is then used to to create
a mould to cast from. A mould can be cast more than once, allowing artists to create editions of an
artwork.

Modelling is an additive process. This means a soft material is worked by the artist to build up a shape or
form (rather than scraping or material away as in carving). Also unlike carving, soft materials such as clay
and wax can be changed and reworked. Modelling a maquette can also often be the first step in the
creation of a finished sculpture.

In the twentieth century a new way of making sculpture emerged with the cubist constructions of
Picasso. These were still life subjects made from scrap (found) materials glued together. Constructed
sculpture in various forms became a major stream in modern art, including in movements such as
constructivism or techniques like assemblage. Artists have used techniques including bending, folding,
stitching, welding, bolting, tying, weaving, and balancing to construct sculptures from a wide variety of
materials and found objects.

How Sculpture Works

The sculptor must have a great deal of technical knowledge. He or she must know a good piece of stone
from a bad one and just how much force that stone can take before it cracks. The sculptor must judge
the quality of woods and learn how much water different kinds of clays need to stay workable. For
casting models, the sculptor must know the chemistry of metals and their melting points. And the
modern sculptor is frequently a competent welder, riveter, and machinist as well as an artist.

Materials

Before beginning to work, the sculptor must decide what material to use. Materials range from
something as rare and costly as ivory, which comes from elephants' tusks, to common clay. Good clay is
highly prized, but almost anyone can afford it, since it is found in many places all over the world.

The sculptor must decide between a material that is permanent and one that must be made permanent.
Each kind has its advantages and disadvantages. A stone like marble is, of course, very hard. Carving
must be done with great strength and at the same time with great delicacy. Mistakes are difficult to
repair, and too much force can cause breakage. But when a marble statue is carved and polished, the
sculptor's work is done. Clay, in contrast, is very soft. The artist can experiment a great deal, adding
pieces and remodeling sections. If a mistake is made, the error can be removed quickly. However, clay
must be kept workable. Every day the unfinished work must be covered with damp rags, and from time
to time the unused clay in the bin must be moistened with water and pounded. Moreover, when the
modeling is finished, the statue is by no means ready for exhibition, for clay does not last long.
Therefore, the statue must be converted to another kind of material. A number of systems may be used,
each requiring additional work. These systems--pointing, firing, and casting--will be described later.

Perhaps because they are permanent, stone and metal have always been important materials for the
sculptor. Other materials that have been used include wood, ivory, jade, bone, glass, and plaster. For
sculpture that is to be converted to another material, clay is by far the most frequently used substance,
but various kinds of wax have also been employed.

In modern times the sculptor has turned to new materials such as one of the plastics, fiberglass,
stainless steel, and aluminum.

Bronze is a strong material, and bronze sculptures are made by creating a mold which the bronze can be
cast into. A wax or plaster mold is common because they can be removed with ease and protect the art
piece underneath. Bronze is heated to a liquid at around 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, poured into the
mold, and allowed to cool. Afterwards, the artist carefully breaks off the mold. David by Donatello is a
famous bronze sculpture, which was made around 1440.

Pottery clay, or better known as ceramic in the art world, is one of the most popular sculpting materials.
Pottery makers love to work with ceramic clay because it is incredibly flexible, making it perfect for
beginners and advanced artists. Ceramic clay can be self-hardening, meaning it doesn't require heat, or
it can be more traditional clay that requires a firing kiln to harden the design. Ceramic can be molded
into any design that the artist can come up with, and the sculptor can use his or her hands or other tools
to craft the piece. Ancient Greeks are famous for their clay pottery, which was made on a clay wheel and
decorated with black paint.

Michelangelo's impressive Pieta, a marble statue inside St. Peter's Basilica, was carved in 1498. Marble
lends a very realistic depiction of the human body and makes it perfect for sculptures of people. To
carve a marble sculpture, an artist carves onto the original piece of marble or creates a mold to work
from. A sculptor uses a chisel and other tools to carve out the design.

Tools

Sculpting tools are an extension of the artist's hands. Some tools let a sculptor work a soft substance
easily and precisely. Other tools allow the use of materials otherwise too hard to handle.

Loops of wire held in wooden handles can drag off large sections from a mass of clay more quickly and
neatly than can a person's hands. Sticks or blades of wood, ivory, or light, flexible metals can give clean
edges and draw fine lines across the surface of wax, clay, or soft metal. Hardwood and all forms of stone
demand different kinds of tools. Hammers, mallets, chisels, and drills are needed for the process of
carving. Today sculptors often use welding torches and soldering irons to join metal together for
sculpture. Special machines that join or separate plastics with heat and pressure may also be used.

Pointing, Firing, and Casting

Many sculptors begin working from their sketches, while others work directly with their materials.
Whatever the approach, the sculptor's aim is to produce a lasting work of art.

Pointing is not used very much today, but to sculptors in the past it was a dependable system for
converting clay or wax sculpture into stone. First, the sculptor made a clay model of a statue. The
sculptor then placed points, or marks, on the model, measuring the distances between the points. Using
hundreds and sometimes thousands of points as guides, the exact proportions of the model could be
transferred to the stone.

Firing is the only system that converts clay sculpture itself into a durable object. Not all clay sculpture is
suitable for firing, for the system requires the object to be hollow and free from impurities and air
bubbles. Therefore, as a rule, only small statues are fired. After the sculpture is completed, it must be
left uncovered while the moisture in the clay evaporates. Then it is placed in a kiln, a high-temperature
oven, and fired (baked) until very hard.

Casting is the most common system of converting a clay or wax sculpture into another material. There
are many systems of casting, most of which are used in foundries. Basically, casting involves making a
mold of the clay or wax model. This mold may be made of plaster, rubber, clay, or any of several other
substances that are both workable and tough. If the sculpture is clay, the mold must be made in several
parts, so that it can be removed from the model and then reassembled. If the figure is made of wax, the
mold may be of one piece; for the mold can be heated, causing the wax to melt and run out. Hot liquid
metal--usually bronze--is poured into the mold. When the metal has hardened, the mold is broken away
and the sculpture is cleaned and finished.