Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics

11 November 2019 13:02

• Formal definition of symmetry requires some operation to be performed.

• Symmetry refers to the property of a system such that it remains invariant under some
transformation.
• In QM, the property is the Hamiltonian of the system.
• Examples of symmetry operations: translation, rotation, time-translation, etc.
• Lagrange's equation of motion: .
• Hamiltonian equations of motion: and .

• In Lagrangian mechanics, when Lagrangian does not depend explicitly on a given coordinate,
i.e., under change in coordinate, the does not change, i.e., , the Lagrange's equations:

. Thus the momentum is conserved.

• In Hamiltonian mechanics, when the Hamiltonian does not change under the change of a given
coordinate, it does not appear in the Hamiltonian and hence , which in turn, implies that
.

• In the above instances, one may think that the operation performed was translation
through space in which the translation does not change the Lagrangian or Hamiltonian.
• Let be an eigenstate of with an eigenvalue : . The time evolution
of the state is given by the time-evolution operator : .
• The exact form of the time-evolution operator is: .
• If , it is easily shown that the ket is also an eigenket of with the same
eigenvalue.
• Thus, we have as the constant of motion.
• Thus, if the generator of an operation on a system commutes with the Hamiltonian, the
corresponding operator is a constant of motion. The underlying symmetry is associated with the
operation under concern.
• For those operations that differ infinitesimally from the identity operation, the symmetry
operator may be written as: , is a Hermitian operator. The indicates the
infinitesimal displacement.
• The operator could stand for the momentum operator, the asociated symmetry being
homogeneity in space, or it could stand for the angular momentum operator with the
associated symmetry as the isotropy in space.
• If the Hamiltonian is invariant under , it would mean that commutes with . Therefore,
is a constant of motion.
• It also turns out that if the symmetry operation generates a state that is different from the
original state (non-collinear state vectors), then the states are said to be degenerate.
Suppose, in a certain system (example: hydrogen atom), the Hamiltonian is rotationally

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• Suppose, in a certain system (example: hydrogen atom), the Hamiltonian is rotationally
invariant. Then, the rotation operator commutes with the Hamiltonian: .
Since for infintesimal rotation through an angle , we have
. Also, . Since the operator generates states, each of which is
characterized by the same energy, there is a degeneracy.
• Mathematically, we have . The coefficients of the RHS are
the matrix elements: .
• The examples of discrete symmetry are:
○ Reflection/Space inversion: Parity
○ Time reversal
○ Lattice translation
• Space inversion refers to an operation characterized by an operator such that
.
• In hydrogen atom, ,

where and . The parity of

this wave function is given by .

• Defining as unitary ensures that the length of the vector remains the same: .
• Successive operation of twice indicates that the eigenvalue of is .
• Since , it turns out that . Since , we have . Thus, is unitary.
• . Therefore, . Also, . Therefoe, : The
parity operator anticommutes with .
• ,
where the second last step follows from the fact that . Substituting
for , we have . The solution of this equation is given by

.
• . Also, . Therefore, we have .
• Since , one sees that .
• The operators that commute with are even (e.g., ) and those anti-commuting with are odd
( and ).
• Since is defined in terms of the rotation operator ( being the
geneator of rotation), and since the rotation matrices commute with parrity matrix

, we have .

• Since , we have .
• States turning positive or negative under parity transformation is even or odd respectively. They
have definite eigenvalues for parity operator ( ). Other states are referred to have no definite
parity.

• Let us define two operators in terms of :

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• Let us define two operators in terms of :

• These operators have the following properties:

• Using these expressions it is easy to show that any arbitrary state vector can be written as a
sum of state vectors of definite parity [Prove it]. [Hint:
and evaluate ].

• The state vector in a space spanned by position vectors , say, can then be
decomposed into two eigenvectors of , belonging to the orthogonal subspaces .

• For an operator even under parity (e.g., ), i.e., .

• Consider two states and which are of opposite parity:

• The matrix element of between the two states which

is possible only if the matrix element vanishes.

• Similarly, for an odd operator under parity: , one can show that the matrix element
between two states of similar parity ( )

which implies that the matrix element vanishes.

• Selection rule 1: Matrix elements of an even operator are zero between state vectors of
opposite parity.

• Selection rule 2: Matrix elements of an odd operator are zero between state vectors of same
parity.

• Show that

• Show that

• Let be eigenvalue of an even operator under parity ( ) corresponding to a state

. If is nondegenerate, the state must be of definite parity since it is an eigenket of ,
and must be equal to within a constant factor. In other words, is a state of definite
parity.

• If is degenerate, the need not be equal to within a constant factor. Then the state
vectors need not to have definite parity.

• If the Hamiltonian is invariant under parity operation: , then the is a conserved.

Example: Hamiltonian of a hydrogen atom, square well, infinite potential well, harmonic
oscillator, etc.

• Parity is not conserved in weak interaction.

• The symmetry of time reversal in quantum mechanics is defined in terms of processes running
backward in time. It is associated with replacing by and the reversal of motion.

• Let us consider the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass in a potential
:

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• is a solution of the equation, but not , since replacing by in the equation
reverses the sign of the L.H.S., owing to the fact that the equation is first order in time
derivative. However, if we take the complex conjugate of the whole equation, we see that the
is indeed a solution.

• Thus the process of time reversal ( ) in quantum mechanics is a symmetry operation only
when it is accompanied by complex conjugation.

• In fact, the time reversal is to be interpreted as motion reversal, which will lead to change in
sign of the momentum and consequently the sign of angular momentum .

• Let be defined as the motion reversal operator: , where is the momentum.

• Let us now look the time evolution of a state under the time-evolution
operator

• The motion-reversed state evolves under the time evolution as follows (provided motion
obeys symmetry under time reversal):

• If you are confused (very likely!), read the above equation as follows: represents motion-
reversed state, say, representing a particle moving in a direction opposite to that of the particle
represented by . The application of on at will yield
. Now, this state is also motion-reversed, and hence the result is .

• This is equivalent to writing:

• Comparing the last two equations, we have:

• Thus, it turns out that must be chosen to be antiunitary [ ] in order to maintain the
sign of the energy (e.g. one cannot have a free particle with negative energy values). [Assume
is unitary, then, . For an energy eigenket , then ].

• Therefore, by choosing to be antiunitary, we have

• Let us now consider the behaviour of other operators under time reversal. Considering two
arbitrary state kets and : and

Since is an antiunitary operator, , but

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• Since is an antiunitary operator, , but

• Define: , which implies: , where is an arbitrary operator (can be non-

Hermitian):

• Therefore,

• The identity connects the matrix element of an operator with

that in the time-reversed scenario.

• Consider a Hermitian operator for which . The sign corresponds

to even operator under time reversal, whereas the sign corresponds to odd operator under
time reversal.

• Thus we have,

• For expectation values:

• The expectation value of the momentum operator reverses sign under time reversal (motion
reversal):

• This would imply:

• Therefore,

• Thus we see that the time reversed state is an eigenket of with eigenvalue .

• Since the position is not affected by the time reversal, we require that .
Thus it turns out that
and .

• Show that the commutation relation is invariant under time reversal.

• Show that if the commutation relation has to be invariant under

time reversal.

• Suppose at a time , a spinless particle is found in the state . The action

of the time reversal operator on the state leads to: .

• Thus we have under time reversal.

• Since the Hamiltonian commutes with the time reversal operator , the energy
eigenkets are the eigenkets of as well. If the energy eigen ket is nondegenerate, then
and must be the same and have the same energy eigenvalue.

• The wave function for is and that for is .

• For nondegenerate states implying that the energy eigenfunctions of a non-

denegerate system whose Hamiltonian under time reversal is invariant are real.

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