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slightly smaller hole than what was experienced. For practical more energy will be dissipated in the rock and more laser
purposes, it is best to predict a smaller hole or greater energy power is needed to vaporize the rock. Therefore, a greater
requirements than what would actually be required. change in power would be needed to show a drastic change in
Figure 4 shows the comparison between the numerical and the melted depth.
experimental results for sandstone and limestone. The Figure 8 compares the effect of lasing time on drilling
numerical model predicts higher specific energy consumption speed or ROP for 10 and 100 kW. As the lasing time
than the experimental results. This is most likely due to the increases, the ROP decreases for both the 10 and 100 kW
assumption that vaporization is the only method of removing cases. There is a greater decrease in the first 20 seconds
rock. Experimentally, at shallow depths and small exposure followed after which the ROP stabilizes somewhat. This is
times, melted rock may be forced out of the hole and thus especially true for the 10 kW case where the slope becomes
there would be less energy consumed to remove a unit of rock. almost horizontal. It is expected that with an increase in time,
At greater depths, one can expect that all of the rock removal the 100 kW case will also show a horizontal slope. The initial
will be due to vaporization. Figure 5 compares the lasing time decrease in the slope is due to an increase in interaction of the
for the same drilled depths for the limestone and sandstone laser with the rock and and increase in the surface area of the
samples. It is apparent that the sandstone takes more time hole over time. With a greater interaction, more energy will
than the limestone to remove the same volume of rock. This be lost to the rock and subsequently the ROP will decrease.
result reconfirms the results of Figure 4 since the As time passes however, the surface area and rock interaction
relationsoinship between specific energy and drilled depth is becomes constant and the ROP stabilizes. Inversly, from
inversely proportional. It is also interesting to note that the Figure 9 there is a greater increase in the depth of the hole
model does not account for the effect of gas formation in the during the initial 20 seconds than there is after 20 seconds.
hole due to vaporization. This formation would result in a This is due to the previously mentioned reasons for ROP.
greater specific energy requirement. It is evident from the Increaseing the power from 10 kW to 100 kW, triples the hole
results that gas formation is not a factor in this case. As lasing depth over 100 seconds.
time progresses it is expected that the specific energy The change in specific energy for increasing laser time
requirements would surpass the predicted ones if gas with different power ranges is shown in Figure 10. As the
formation is not accounted for. lasing time increases, the specific energy requirements
The depth of the liquid layer created due to lasing is increase. This is due to increased laser-rock interaction. As
depiced in Figures 6 and 7. It is evident that a Gaussian well, from Figure 10 it is evident that as the power increased
profile is created during this process. Figure 6 shows the the specific energy increases. This means that more energy is
numerical results for sandstone and limestone under 10 utilized to remove one unit of rock. This correlation is very
MW/cm2 of power. The sandstone melted layer is slightly less important when trying to optimize the hole depth and mimize
than the limestone layer. Since the specific energy needed for the energy comsumption. The relationship shows that it is
sandstone is greater than limestone, then the melted layer more energy efficient and inturn less costly to use a lower-
should have a lesser depth throughout the melting time. Also, powered laser.
with greater melted depth of limestone, melt ejection methods
such as waterjet in combination with lasers would accelerate Design Considerations
the rate of penetration more than with the sandstone sample. Two aspects of design considerations need to be addressed,
As well, it is expected that the melted layer of rock around the laboratory and field. Most importantly, the key to the success
circumference of the hole will not have enough energy applied of laser drilling is to determine how laboratory results can be
to it to begin the vaporization process. In other words, there related to practical purposes. Most laboratory studies
will be a layer of rock around the hole that will never vaporize conducted to date are measured on a scale of centimeters and
and thus will solidify in a less porous and impermeable form. seconds 3, 6, 7, 19. The challenge of petroleum engineers has
It is also expected that some of the melted rock will be forced always been to develop laboratory results that are suitable for
into the surrounding formation. This layer will create a type scaling-up. For laser drilling, with an increase in lasing time,
of sheath3 that has the potential to act as casing for the drilled one of the major factors that will effect the ROP is the
hole. This inturn may exclude casing used in traditional formation of gases in the hole. These gases may not only pose
drilling altogether, in this case, a huge cut in drilling cost a threat to ROP but my also be a health hazard as well.
would be expected. Since the limestone has a greater melted Batarseh7 reported that gas that is formed due during lasing
area, this sheath may be thicker affecting both the distance that has toxic potentials. Experimentally, longer lasing times need
perforations can penetrate and should penetrate. Figure 7 to be examined to determine the extent of the gas formation.
illustrates the numerical predictions for sandstone and Depending on this extent, technologies may have to be
limestone when 100 MW/cm2 of power is induced. The developed to clean the hole of the gas, similar to the way
results are very simililar to Figure 6. When comparing the drilling mud is used today, and thus increase ROP. One
sandstone predictions, the depth of the melted section is very method that may be utilized for the elimination of this
close with the 100 MW/cm2 showing a slightly less value. problem is a waterjet. Longer lasing times lead to greater
When comparing the limestone predictions, the depth of lasing depths. Therefore future experimental studies should
melted layer is less for the 100 MW/cm2 results. Since the attempt to use larger slabs of rock. Reservoir pressures and
power is greater, it can be assumed that the melted layer will temperatures also need to be considered. Increasing the
be less and vaporization will occure at a faster rate. As the pressure exherted on the rock should have a decrease in the
specific energy of sandstone is greater than that of limestone, ROP. Batarseh7 did study the effect of stresses during lasing
4 SPE 84844
and found that stress does increase the specific energy effects will have to be developed in order to predict the
requirements. In this case though the stresses were not field conditions.
quantified and therefore little conclusions can be made as to Many design considerations must be taken into account
the extent of the effect of reservoir pressure on lasing. A before laser drilling can be accomplished. Numerical
detailed quantitative study needs to be conducted to better modeling laks consideration of important processes taking
understand this phenomenon. Incresing the temperuature of place during lasing rocks. More experimental investigation is
the rock sample should have a decrease in ROP. Althought needed to fully understand the lasing operation and to enhance
the effect would most likely be slight; this area still needs to the integrity of the numerical models.
be examined. As well, rock-fluid interaction has to be Field applicatiuon is long way to go, although studying the
understood. Previous studies show that saturated cores role of reservoir pressures, temperatures, and fluid saturations
increase the specific energy7. It was found that gases are increases the reliability of laser drilling. As well, field
formed when lasing saturated cores. The amount of gas and equipment must be designed to meet the changes in
the composition needs to be determined. The degree to which drilling requirements.
saturated rock will affect drilling into a reservoir has to be
determined. Most importantly, a combination of stresses, Nomenclature
temperatures and staturations should be studied CP: specific heat (L2/ ΘT2)
simulataneously. As well, the effect that laser has on the area HLiq: thickness of liquid layer (L)
around the hole will have to be determined. There will be hLV: latent heat of vaporization, (M/T2L)
some laser energy transferred in the form of heat to the hSL:latent heat of melting, (M/T2L)
surrounding area. What effect this will have on the stability of k: thermal conductivity (ML/ ΘT3)
the area will have to be determined. KS: thermal conductivity of solid (ML/ ΘT3)
Implemenations of laser drilling into the field will require KL: thermal conductivity of liquid (ML/ ΘT3)
a major change in the equipment that is used today. qLaser: energy generation of laser source per unit volume
Integration will be the key to maintaining suitable costs. Since (M/LT3)
a sheath will be formed around the hole drilled, casing and r: radial distance (L)
piping can be eliminated as well as all equipment associated R: maximum radial distance (L)
with this. Since the height of the derrick is dependant on the SLV: thickness at liquid-vapor interface (L)
length of the pipe it can greatly be reduced. The weight of the SSL: thickness at solid-liquid interface (L)
laser will have to be supported by this equipment. Currently, T: temperature (Θ)
the rigs power system is used for the hoising system and the TS: temperature of solid (Θ)
fluid circulation system. With the implementation of drilling, TL: temperature of liquid (Θ)
the power systems main function will be to operate the laser. t: time (T)
The hoisting system will still be utilized to move the laser into y: distance into the slab (L)
position just above ground level but it is not expected that the αabs:absorption coefficient
laser will be sent into the hole. The hoisting system will α: thermal diffusivity (L2/T)
especially be important during offshore operations since the δ: thermal penetration depth (L/T)
laser will have to be in close contact with the ocean floor. ρ: density (M/L3)
Drilling mud will be eliminated since the laser vaporizes rock. TSat: saturation temperature (Θ)
There will be little need for rotary systems since the drill bit Tm: melting temperature (Θ)
will be eliminated. Once the laser has entered the reservoir, it I(r): laser intensity
most likely will vaporize the oil or gas that invades the hole, T(t): temperature
thus blowout will no longer be a great threat. The well control
system can be modified to control the laser. A change in Acknowledgement
specific energy requirements is a signal that the laser has Funding of the research was possible through several grants
reached the reservoir. Implementation of lasers into the from the Federal Government of Canada and
drilling industry is a complex operation involving many more petroleum industries.
factors than the ones discussed here.
References
Conclusions 1. Graves, R.M. and O’Brien, D.G.: “StarWars Laser Technology
The numerical model developed was successful in predicting for Drilling and Completing Gas Wells.” Journal of Petroleum
the experimental results. The numerical model was utilized to Technology, (Feb. 1999) pp 50-51.
develop predictions of specific energy, ROP, and melted layer 2. Graves, R.M. and O’Brien, D.G.: Targeted Literature Review:
and this gives insight into future design factors. It is Determining the Benefits of StarWars Laser Technology for
interesting to note that drilling speed decreases over time and Drilling and Completing Natural Gas Well,. GRI-98/0163,
inversely hole depth and specific energy increases over time. (July 1998)
As well, with an increase in power there is an increase in 3. O’Brien, D.G., Graves, R.M. and O’Brien, E.A.: “StarWars
Laser Technology for Gas Drilling and Completions in the 21st
specific energy. This must be kept in mind when designing a Century.” SPE 56625, presented at the 1999 SPE Annual
laser drilling system. The numerical model presented does not Technical Conference, Houston Texas, Oct. 3-6.
account for the vapor that will accumulate in the hole when
the hole depth becomes large. A model that predicts these
SPE 84844 5
50 r/R
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
45
0.0E+00
40
Numerical
1.0E-10
3
Specific Energy, kJ/cm
35
2.0E-10
30
Numerical
3.0E-10
25
2SS+2Y1
SSL (m)
4.0E-10
20
LS1Y2A
15 5.0E-10
BG1
6.0E-10
LS2X
10 at the melting
at the evap. time time
5 7.0E-10
(just before evap. (start of melting)
0 8.0E-10
takes place) Sandstone Limestone
L im esto n e S an d sto n e 9.0E-10
Fig. 4 - Comparison between the predicted specific energy Fig. 7 - Liquid layer thickness in sandstone and limestone for 100
2
consumption and that obtained experimentally17 MW/cm Laser Power
6 1.2
5
0.9
4
3 0.6
2
0.3
1
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sandstone Limestone Lasing time (seconds)
Fig. 5 – Comparison of numerical and experimental studies for 5 Fig 8 – The effect of lasing time on drilling speed
seconds of lasing with limestone and 8 seconds with sandstone
4.0E-09
30
SSL (m)
6.0E-09 20
250
150
30
20
100
10
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Lasing Time (sec)
Fig. 10 - Variation of specific energy with lasing time under
17
different incident laser power intensity -- for sandstone