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Chapter 11
15 V
The amplitude (A) 10 V
A
of this sine wave
is 20 V 0 V
0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
t (µs)
-1 5 V
-2 0 V
T
Principles of Electric Circuits - Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall
Chapter 11
Summary
Sine waves
The period of a sine wave can be measured between
any two corresponding points on the waveform.
TT T T
A
T T
1 1
f = and T=
T f
CC
N B
B DD S
A B C D
AA
M o t io n o f c o n d u c t o r C o n d u c to r
When theWhenlooptheisconductor is moving parallel
moving perpendicular with
to the
lines ofthe lines
flux, theofmaximum
flux, no voltage is induced.
voltage is induced.
AC generator (alternator)
Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. A
stationary field alternator with a rotating armature is shown.
The armature has an induced voltage, which is connected
through slip rings and brushes to a load. The armature loops
are wound on a magnetic core (not shown for simplicity).
s lip r in g s
AC generator (alternator)
By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycles
per revolution is increased. A four-pole generator will
produce two complete cycles in each revolution.
Typical controls:
Function selection
Frequency
Range
Adjust Outputs
Output level (amplitude)
Duty cycle
DC offset CMOS output
S in e S q u a re Tr ia n g le
10 V
VP
The peak voltage of
0 V t (µs)
this waveform is 20 V. 0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
-1 0 V
-1 5 V
-2 0 V
The peak-to-peak 10 V
Vrms
voltage is 40 V. t (µs)
0 V
0 VPP 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
The rms voltage
-1 0 V
is 14.1 V. -1 5 V
-2 0 V
15 V
10 V
The average value for Vavg
the sinusoidal voltage 0 V
0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
t (µs)
is 12.7 V.
-1 0 V
-1 5 V
-2 0 V
Angular measurement
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or
radians. The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when
the arc is equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360o or
2π radians in one complete revolution.
1 .0
0 .8
R 0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 π π π
R 0 3 π 5 π 3 π 7 π 2 π
- 0 .2 4 2 4 4 2 4
- 0 .4
- 0 .6
- 0 .8
- 1 .0
Angular measurement
Because there are 2π radians in one complete revolution
and 360o in a revolution, the conversion between radians
and degrees is easy to write. To find the number of
radians, given the number of degrees:
2π rad
rad = × degrees
360°
Vp Vp= 25 V
v = V p s in = 1 9 .2 V
= 50°
0° 50°
V p
Phase shift
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement
that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a
reference. To show that a sine wave is shifted to the
left or right of this reference, a term is added to the
equation given previously.
v = VP sin ( θ ± φ )
where
φ = Phase shift
10
0
0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 2 2 5° 270° 315° 360° 405°
-2 0
-3 0 Notice that a lagging sine
-40 wave is below the axis at 0o
A n g le (° )
10
Phasors
The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a
vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is
called a phasor.
90
Phasors
Phasors allow ac calculations to use basic trigonometry.
The sine function in trigonometry is the ratio of the
opposite side of a right triangle to the adjacent side.
h y p o te n u s e
o p p o s ite s id e
rig h t
θ a n g le
o p p o s ite s id e
sin θ =
a d ja c e n t s id e h y p o te n u s e
Phasors
The position of a phasor at any instant can be expressed
as a positive angle, measured counterclockwise from 0°
or as a negative angle equal to θ − 360°.
positive angle of θ
phasor
Pulse definitions
Ideal pulses
L e a d in g ( ris in g ) e d g e L e a d in g ( f a llin g ) e d g e
T ra ilin g ( f a llin g ) e d g e T ra ilin g ( ris in g ) e d g e
B a s e lin e
A m p lit u d e A m p lit u d e
B a s e lin e
P u ls e P u ls e
w id t h w id t h
( a ) P o s it iv e - g o in g p u ls e ( b ) N e g a t iv e - g o in g p u ls e
Pulse definitions
Non-ideal pulses
A A
0 .9 A
0 .5 A
0 .1 A
t t
tW
tr tf
( a ) R is e a n d f a ll t im e s ( b ) P u ls e w id t h
Harmonics
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed
of a fundamental frequency (repetition rate of the
waveform) and harmonic frequencies.
Odd harmonics are frequencies that are odd multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Even harmonics are frequencies that are even multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Harmonics
c o u p lin g so u r c e T rig g e r
H o r i z o n ta l C o n t ro l a n d p ro c e s s
T r ig g e r s e c tio n s e c t i o n le v e( Dl aig nit da l s c o p e s o n ly )
AC s lo p e
E x te rn a l E x t e r n a l t r ig g e r
c o u p lin g
T r ig g e r
so u r c e T r ig g e r C h 2 C o n tro l a n d p ro c e s s
t rig g e r DC C h 1 le v e l a n d S e c / D iv
( D ig it a l s c o p e s o n ly )
E x t e rn a l
A C
DC C h 2
s lo p e
S e c / D iv
T rig g e r
C h 1
a s ce eircb ua itsse
T im e Tb im
t r ig g e r
Ext
Ext T r ig g e r
c ir c u it s
L in e L in e H o r iz o n t a l
H o r iz o n t a l
p o s it io n
p o s it io n
AC
P o w e r s u p p ly
AC
D C t o a ll s e c t io n s
AC
Am p
D is p la y s e c tio n
DC G ND
C h 1 C o n v e r s io n / s t o r a g e
( D ig it a l s c o p e s o n ly )
V e r t ic a l A n a lo g
p o s it io n o n ly
AC
Am p
DC G ND In t e n s it y
C h 2 C o n v e r s io n / s t o r a g e
( D ig it a l s c o p e s o n ly )
D ig it a l
o n ly
H o r iz o n ta l
T rig g e r s e c tio n s e c tio n
E x t e r n a l t r ig g e r T r ig g e r
c o u p lin g so u rc e T r ig g e r C o n tro l a n d p ro c e s s
le v e l a n d ( D ig it a l s c o p e s o n ly )
A C s lo p e
E x t e rn a l C h 2 S e c / D iv
t r ig g e r DC C h 1
T r ig g e r
c ir c u it s T im e b a s e
Ext
L in e H o r iz o n t a l
p o s it io n
AC
P o w e r s u p p ly
D C t o a ll s e c t io n s
Principles
Principlesofof
Electric
Electric
Circuits
Circuits
- Floyd
- Floyd © Copyright 2006 Prentice-Hall
Chapter 11
Summary
Oscilloscopes Display Vertical Horizontal
Trigger
V VE ER RTICTICA AL L H HO OR RIZ IZO ON NTATAL L T RT IGR IGG GE RE R
CCHH 1 1 C CH H 2 2 B BO OT HT H S LSOL OP EP E
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DD ISIS PP LL AA YY
PPRROO B BE E CC OO MM P P CCHH 1 1 C CH H 2 2 E XE TX T TRTRIG IG
5 5 VV
30 V
b. 37.8 V
c. 42.4 V 0 V
0 25 3 7 .5 5 0 .0
t (µs)
d. 60.0 V -30 V
-4 5 V
-6 0 V
Answers:
1. b 6. b
2. a 7. a
3. c 8. c
4. d 9. a
5. b 10. b