113442 Bee @ B stororg/stable/245 Celestial Observations Recorded in the Samguk Sagi During the Unified Silla Period, AD 668-935 F. Richard Stephenson This article investigates in deta the accuracy and reliably ofthe astronomical records in the Samguk sagi during the period of Sila ne troughout the Korean peninsula n the cases of ecipses and lnar and planetary phenomena, the i- ida records are compared with the resus of madern retrospective computa- tion. Comparison with the various reports inthe annals of Chinese dynastic histories [sas undertaken, 1. Introduction ‘The Sauk sai (History of the Three Kingdoms), compiled in AD 1145, under the direction of Kim Pusik, isthe oldest detailed history of Korea thar sill survives. It covers two main periods. The fist of these isthe era ‘of the three kingdoms of Sill, Kogury®, and Packche, which rationally began inthe frst century BC and ended with the defeat of Packche in AD (660 and Kogury in 668 by the combined armies of Silla and China. This era of political partition was succeeded by a period of peninsular unifica- tion under Silla rule, a reign that endured for more than 250 years until 935 when the Kory® dynasty succeeded to power. ‘Throughout the annals (pon) of the Samguk sagi (chapters 1-28) are scattered numerous references to natural occurrences. In addition to report of terrestrial events such as earthquakes, weather extremes, locust Koren Sai Vole 38 © 201 by Urine of Hawa Pr. Al igh rr BI < ll O <11348 av ¥ a e A jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now= plagues, and so forth, there are around 230 records of a wide variety of ‘clestal phenomena. In a recent article I discussed in derail the reliability of the more than 140 astronomical records in the Samu sagi that date from the Three Kingdoms era.' These repors are contained in chapters 1-6 (Silla), 13~ 22 (Kogurys), and 23-28 (Packche) of the Samguk sagi. Many of the various celestial phenomena described—which include eclipses, comers, meteors, and lunar and planetary movements—would be readily visible to the unaided eye. Further, most of these events might be expected t0 be visible throughout Kores—and, indeed, many of them should have been perceptible throughout East Asia. Yet, as retrospective computation and comparison with the many contemporancous observations ci Chinese annals reveal, only a very small faction of the widely visible celestial phenomena that occurred during this period were recorded in the Semguk sai. Pethaps even. more striking is the fact that scarcely any sightings of the same event were reported in the annals of more than one Korean kingdom, Tn my investigation, I was able to demonstrate that around 60 percent of the astronomical reports ftom the Three Kingdoms period—notably of solar eclipses and also comets appearing in ot near star groups—were derived from Chinese sources: largely from the imperial annals (benji) of the offcal histories. In particular, che correspondences in both date and description berween Korean and Chinese records were often exact. | also concluded that most of the remaining Korean accounts of ccestal ‘phenomena (none of which had parallels in the history of China) were 0 lacking in detail cha they did not scem to have any claim to authentiiy. ‘This lef only a small proportion of what appeared co be genuine Korean astronomical observations that had no counterparts in Chinese history. {In the present article Ihave extended my investigation by examining the reports of astronomical phenomena in the Samguk sis annals forthe subsequent period of Sill’s unified rule of the peninsula (668-935). ‘These accounts ae contained in chapters 6 0 12 of the history. Presum: ably, as in China, many of the celestial events reported in the Samu sagi—during both the Three Kingdoms period and che Unified Silla ‘era—were regarded as omens. Yet, throughout the Semgub sagi annals, there is very ltd direct evidence to support his inferences with few ex- ceptions, the individual astronomical entries are quite brief and describe ‘only the phenomena themselves, not their interpretation. Since my main concern is to assess the reliability and completeness of the astronomical data in the annals, I shall make lite further mention of portentology or ‘the historical context in which the reports of eeesial events occur 2 orean Stes vou 3312014 ll O <11:35 Sav v '885?read-now= e A jstor.org/stable/24574 that same year a solar halo; a meteor in 823; a display of mock Suns in 1846; and a sighting of Venus by day in 885. In the large majocty of instances, however, the date is only given to the nearest month. ‘On seven occasions (in AD 679, 699, 716, 718, 801, 815, and 844), ‘wo separate astronomical phenomena were recorded in the same month, usually without specifying the day. In 844, however, iis seemingly implied that both a soar eclipse and a meeting of ewo planets took place on the same day (se section 4.3.2 below). In converting dates to the Julian calendar I have made use of the chronological tables (yénp}o) in chapter 31 of the Semguk sag: these correlate the year ofeach rulers reign withthe year on the gonzhi cycle. have also assumed that both the start of each year and the system of incercalary months adopted in the Chinese calendar were rigorously followed when citing dates in the Samguk sag. In particular—as will be demonstrated below (Section 4.2)—retrospectve computation proves this assumption to be consisenty valid for the various solar eclipse records, the dates ofall of which are quoted to the exact day. Despite the above positive comments itis important also to sound a ‘cautionary nose with regard to the evidence pertaining to celestial phe- ‘nomena appearing in the lae Silla chronicle. As previously pointed out in my article on the astronomical records in the Samguk sagi during the ‘Three Kingdoms era, intercalary months are very rarely mentioned in the annals of that earlier section of che text. A similar situation also pre- vails in the history’s chronicle of the subsequent Unified Silla period. Since according to the Chinese calendric calculations, intercalary months should typically be spaced a intervals of about thirty-three months, hypo- thercally as many as ninety-cight intercalary months could have occurred during the more than 250 years of the late Silla rule—yet just Four appear in the Silla Anna’ record for this period. These occurred in AD 687. 744, 782, and 839 (thus with none noted during almost the whole of the last century of Silla’ existence). Part of this deficiency is clearly duc to the surprising incompleteness of the late Silla chronicle, which, on average, contains entries for only two or three months in every year. Nevertheless, I estimate that as many as twenty intercalary months could reasonably be expected to have appeared even in the received record of the Samgui sagi for the Unified Silla period, instead of the actual tally of four. Such a marked discrepancy between the anticipated and actual ‘numbers of intercalary months graphically indicates the regretable chin- ress of the most recent portion of the text’s recounting of easly Korean history. ‘ oroan Stes YOLUMe 38) 2014 ll O <) 2? - 11:35 Sav v @ = B stor.org/stable/245748852read-now-1 ©) 3. Astronomical Records and Terminology ‘Commencing with 2 record for AD 668, eighty-six separate celestial events are noted in the Samguh sag’ chronicle of Unified Silla reigns. This toral represents only a very small faction, however, of the number of astro ‘nomical phenomena that would actually have been visible to the unaided eye in Korea during the Unified Silla period (668-935). For instance, 1 compute that during this era around ninety solar eclipses should have been visible at the Silla capital of Kyéngju, whereas only eleven definite reports of eclipses are to be found in the Semguk sai for these neatly 270 years. Further, in a typical year several conjunctions between (wo planets or berween a planet and a bright (or fairly bright) star may be observed, and often these phenomena can be quite spectacular. Yet for the entire Unified Silla period only four events of these sors ae cited. Evidently when compiling the text of the Samiqué sagt in the middle of the twelfth century, Kim Pusik and his team of scholars had great difi- culty in obtaining access to accounts of celestial phenomena even from this relatively late period. In particular, in thelist of astronomical events in the Sila Annal following unification there ae several major lacunae lasting atleast a decade: from AD 685 to 698 (no astronomical records); 719 t0 734 (only one report ofa celestial event: in 725); 745 to 758 (one report: in 748); 771 to 786 (one report: in 779); 793 to 807 (one report: in 801); 856 to 874 (one repor: in 867); 891 t0 904 (no records): and 912 to 933 (one report in 917). Conversely, there appear co have been ‘occasional periods of frequent astronomical activity, for example, between (679 and 684 (ven separate observations) and from 715 to 718 (eight obser- vations). Whatever the explanation for these variations in reporting, itis evident that in general the astronomical data inthe annals of Silla represent no more than a very eratic and fragmentary record In the remainder ofthis section, the diferent types of astronomical reports in the Sille Annals during the period of unification will be dis- cussed in the order listed in section 1 with special reference to the termi- nology used. All of the various astronomical terms were in common use in ‘Chinese history, and most also occur in the annals ofthe Three Kingdoms in the Semgul sag. Uhave included in the present investigation a report of the comet of AD 668, which was also discussed in my previous article ‘on the astronomical data from the Three Kingdoms period. This event ‘occurred in the year that Silla defeated Koguryé, a victory that led to the unification of Korea and thus serves to mark the transition to the Unified Silla period. FRc Seghrson Celisl Obsensins ding Unie Sila 5 ll O <11:35 Sav v e A jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now= ‘The eighty-six astronomical records in the annals of Unified Silla are summarized in chronological order in table 1. This table gives for each ‘event the name of the appropriate Silla monarch and the year of his or her reign, cogether withthe equivalent Julian dace anda brief description of the phenomenon recorded. Many accounts (notably those of meteors and comets) mention nearby star groups or individual stars. In table 2, 1 hhave given the name of each star group or star (in pinyin), s cited in the Samgus sagi annals together with the corresponding modern (Occidental) F. R. Stephenson and J. T. Baylis investigated, using retrospective computation, the accuracy and reliability of 140 Chinese records of occultations of planets by the Moon from the Former Han dynasty to the Yuan. In all of these records an exact date was specified. ‘The findings of Stephenson and Baylis may be summarized as follo ‘Only about half of the observations proved to be fully reliable, both in the description of an occultation and the accuracy of date; in a further quarter of the reports, although dates were generally accurate, computa- tions have revealed that the Moon seldom made even a close approach to the planet; and in the remaining instances, the alleged event proved to be invisible on, or even near, the reported date. The existence of deficiencies on such a large scale was surprising, Ina further sx instances, itis reported in che lat Silla chronicle chat a planet trespassed against (fan) the Moon, These events took place in AD 6682, Month V (June 11=July 9) [Venus]; 708, Month IV (= April 25~ May 23) [Saturn]: 735, Month I (= January 29-February 26) (Mars), 836, Month VIL (= August 16-September 14) [Venus]; 880, Month Il (March 15~April 12) [Venus]; and 917, Month I (= January 26 February 23) [Venus]. Once again each date is specified only to the nearest lunar month. The computed minimum separations between the lunar dmb and the relevant planet are as follows: AD 682 (7.3 degrees), 708 (0.0 degree), 735 (0.3 degree), 836 (4.1 degrees), 880 (5.2 degrees), ‘and 917 (1.0 degre). In my doctoral thess I investigated more than forty Korean records of close conjunctions of the Moon with planets between ‘AD 1126 and 1398.° Nearly all ofthese events were cited in the Kor, and in each case the same term, fan, was used. The mean separation bbecween the luna limb and the appropriate planet was here found to be (15 degree, with only six results in excess of 1 degre (the two largest values being 2.3 degrees and 1.9 degrees). On this basis, the use of fan for the observations in the years 708 (actually a marginal occultation), 735, and 917 would be apt. On the other three dates (tha is, in 682, £836, and 880), however, the planet would have been very far from the 8 Korean Stuses VOLE 382014 ll O <1137 aleve e A jstor.org/stable/24574 Moon; thus the authenticity of these very discordant reports seems open to question. Tn summary, both the general reliability of the records of allegedly close conjunctions of the Moon with planets in the lace Silla annals, and the frequency with which they were noted, ae disappointingly law: out of the fourteen cited occurrences, only four are supported by modern ‘computation, 4.2 Solar eclipses 1 compute that some ninety eclipses of the Sun should have been visible in KyBngiu during the period of Unified Silla rule. Yet only eleven of these events are noted. The recorded dates, as converted to the Julian calendar, are as follows: AD 787 September 16, 789 January 31, 792 November 19, 801 June 15, 808 July 27, 815 September 7, 818 July 7, 834 January 22, 844 February 22, 888 April 15, and 911 February 2. In -most cases, it is merely reported that “the Sun was eclipsed” (ri you shi zhi), without Further details. As noted in section 3.4 above, however, in ‘AD 801 the record states that: “The Sun was expected to be eclipsed but ‘was not eclipsed.” Employing recent results for long-term changes in the Earth's spin rate, it may be computed that ren of the eleven eclipses listed above would have been visible in Korea.” The sole exception isthe event occurring in ‘AD 836 that would only have been visible in the southern hemisphere, All cleven eclipses did occur, however, precisely on the reported dates. Excluding the eclipse of 836, the calculated magnitudes at KyOngju— expressed in terms of the greatest fraction of the solar diameter obscured by the Moon—ate as follows: AD 787 (0.24), 789 (0.69), 792 (0.49), 801 (0.41), 808 (0.39), 815 (0.96), 818 (0.69), 844 (0.25), 888 (0.94), and 911 (0.07). Although the expected eclipse of AD 801 is stated in the record to have fled to occur, at KyBngju nearly half of the Sun would have been obscured by the Moon around 9 am. Pethaps the weather at KySngju was overcast at the time. Possibly the record ofthe eclipse of ‘AD 836—unobservable in the northern hemisphere—represents a faulty prediction, although this is noc implied in the text. In the of the eclipses listed above (occurring in AD 787, 844, and 9111), less chan about one-quarter ofthe Sun would have been obscured ar ‘maximum phase. Although this result would seem to provide evidence of careful observation, the occurtence of numerous much larger eclipses passes unreported in the Samu sai. Retrospective computations reveal F-ck Suprcon Cele Oberon: dang Uni Sila 19 ll O < '885?read-now=1137 aleve e A jstor.org/stable/24574 ‘that during the period from AD 668 co 935, sx eclipses (in AD 702, 729, 815, 823, 873, and 888) were very large, reaching a magnitude greater than about 0.90 at Kydngju. A further eight eclipses artained a magnitude greater than about 0.80. Yer ofthese fourteen events only those occurring in 815 (magnitude 0.96) and 888 (0.94) were reported. Clearly the eclipse record in the annals of Unified Silla is remarkably haphazard and incomplete. With regard to the reported darkness by day that took place on the fire day of Month I in AD 681 (= January 25), as noted in section 34, 1 ‘compute that no eclipse would be visible at Kyingiu from 680 November 28 to 681 November 16, while none atained a magnitude greater than 10.90 at this site between 668 and 702. It is thus apparent that an eclipse did not cause the loss of daylight. Presumably unusually heavy clouds ‘were responsible. 4.3 Other lunar and planetary phenomena 43.1 Lunar Changes In AD 716 we find the following record: “Fifeenth year of King Songdok, spring, Month I (AD 716 January 29-February 27]. A meteor (Jing) trespassed against (fa) the Moon. The Moon had no byiliance.” There is nothing in the text to suggest that the dimming of the Moon was ‘thought to be connected with the apparent close approach of the meteor. In fact, since the exact date is not specified, itis quite posible that the ‘wo events occurred on separate days in the same month. With regard to the physical explanation of the reduction inthe brightness ofthe Moon, Junar eclipse might seem posible, despite che fat chat eclipses of the ‘Moon are never directly alluded to in the Samguk sag Although no lunar eclipse would occur during Month I of AD 716, on the fifteenth day of the previous month (that is, Month XII of the previous yeat) a total eclipse of the Moon would indeed have been visible in Korea (the Julian date for this proximal lunar eclipse is AD 716 January 13). A textual error in the month is, of course, plausible. Since the cause of the loss of the “Moon's brightnes is not mentioned inthis brief text, however, and further- smote the day of the month is not specified, there can be no certainty that an eclipse was responsible forthe recorded phenomenon. ‘With regard to the red color ofthe Moon in AD 822, the record may be translated as follows: “Fourteenth year of King Handak, summer, Month IV, thirteenth day (= May 7]. The Moon's color was like blood.” Since the reported coloration of the Moon occurred two days before full Moon, it cannot have been due to an eclipse. Although there was 2 20 Korean Stes VOLE 38|201¢ ll O < '885?read-now=1137 aleve ail e A jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now=1 C) penumbral eclipse of the Moon only two days after this event (on May 9), i would almost certainly have passed unseen. In general, penumbral eclipses are barely noticeable to the unaided eye. Further, on this occasion, the eclipse would have begun at KyOngju just before sunrise and, correspond- ingly, only a few minutes before moonset, when the Moon's altitude would have been no more than about 2 degrees. The sky brightness would thus be so strong as to render the event invisible, and the eclipse would certainly noc impart ny unusual color to che Moon. Possibly the red color reported on May 7 was due to dustin the atmosphere. 4.3.2 Pantary Conunctons Only two examples of planetary conjunctions are mentioned in the Samu agi during the period of unification. These events occured in AD 790 and £844, Translations of the records and investigations of the circumstances of cach event are given below. AD 790, “Sixth year of King Wonsing, summer, Month IV [= AD 790 April 19-May 18], Venus and Mercury met (ji) at (the asterism] Donging” Computation indicates that Venus and Mercury were closest together on the evening of May 2 in AD 790; the minimum spacing bbeeween them was then 1.5 degrees. As Venus and Mercury were then only about 12 degrees east of che Sun, the conjunction would have been only briefly visible in the easly evening, just before darkness fell. The astronomical meaning of ju ('met’) is far from clear, since the term is only rarely used in East Asian astronomical texts. However, use of this particular expression would seem to imply a fairly close approach, and accordingly the computed separation of 1.5 degrees (three times the apparent diameter of the Moon) would appear to be quite appropriate. (On the other hand, Venus and Mercury were then close to the star group Bi in Taurus) and some 30 degrees to the west of Dongjing (in Gemini thus the celestial location reported in the text is inaccurate. [AD 844, “Sixth year of King Muns®ng, spring, Month Il, day jiayin (51, first day of the month [=AD 844 February 22), the Sun was eclipsed Venus trespassed against (fan) Saturn.” The soar eclipse report at the start of this text has already been discussed above (section 4.2) and the date confirmed to be accurate. Although the record seems to imply that the close approach of Venus to Saturn occurred on the same day as the eclipse, computation indicates a discrepancy of approximately four days, Around this time, the two planets were about 35 degrees west of the Sun so that the conjunction would be visible oward dawn. On the morning of February 22, Venus and Sarum were still 4.7 degrees apart. Before dawn on February 26, however, the separation was only 0.6 F. Richard tenn Cele Obsenatons during rife Sila a ll O <11:38 Maeve a e A. jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now= degree. This was indeed a close approach, quite in keeping with use of the term fan. The discrepancy of four days between the recorded and ‘computed dates may merely be due to a scribal error. Apart from solar eclipses, it is rae for astronomical events 0 be accurately dated in the ‘Samguk sag. Possibly only che month of the planetary conjunction was originally reported, and the two events came to be inadvertently cited together in the chronicle under the more precise date of the solar eclipse. In summary, both accounts of planetary conjunctions are to some extent fairly reliable, although each text contains an identifiable eror. 4.3.3 Conunctons between Panes and Stars ‘There are only two instances of conjunctions of planets with stain the late annals of Silla: in AD 715 and 740. Translations and discussions are 2s follows. ‘AD 715. “Fourteenth year of King Séngdék, autumn, Month IX [= AD 715 October 2-31), Venus concealed (yan) the star Shuai [= Sco).” t Seo is the most easterly of the three stars forming the asterism Xin, the others being a Sco (= Antares) and o Sco. In October of AD 715, Venus would have been almost stationary around longitude 232 degrees and some 5 degrees co the south of the ecliptic. It was thus ftly near to T Sco (longitude 233.6 depres, laticude 6.0 degrees) throughout this time. On the evening of October 5, Venus made its closest approach to the stat, being separated from it by only 0.4 degree. The plant was then at maximum brightness (magnitude ~4.5) and may well have hidden the much fainter ¢ Sco (magnitude 2.8) from view. This was indeed a rather careful observation. ‘AD 740, “Fourth year of King Hyosing, summer, Month V [= AD. 740 May 30-June 28], Saturn respassed against (an) the large star of Xuanyuan (= Leo: Regulus.” Berween May 30 and June 28 in AD 740, Saturn was more than 10 degrees 10 the west of a Leo. Three months later, however, in the autumn, the slow-moving planet Saturn ‘would indeed be fairly lose to this star and on September 16 (= month VII, day 21) planet and star would be only 0.6 degree apart. Under these circumstances, use of fan would be apt, but i would be necessary to assume a significant scribal eror in the date, reading autumn, Month VILL, in place of summer, Month V. 4.3.3 Other Lunar and Planetary Events In AD 679 and 809, close approaches of Mars and the Moon to star groups are noted. Translations and comments ae a follows. 2 Nore Sues YOU 38|201¢ ll O <11:38 Maeve e A. jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now= AD 679. "Nineteenth year of King Munmu, summer, Month IV [=AD 679 May 15-June 13}, Mars guarded (show) Yulin an extensive asterism in Aquaris].” Use of the term show indicates that Mars had reached a stationary point: near Yulin. During the stated month, Mars was within the longitude range 333 to 352 degrees. At che time, however, the planet was rather to the east of Yuin, which extended from 306 to 2331 degrees in longitude. Furthermore, the planet was then moving fairly rpidly (0.6 depree daily) so that use ofthe term “guarded” would not be appropriate. During the previous month—Month III (April 16-May 14)—the co-ordinates of Mars ranged between 313 and 332 degres, which would fit the reference to Yidin well. The motion of the planet would still have been rapid, however, and again not in accord with the use of show [AD 809. A translation of this record is as follows: “Tenth year of King Acjang, spring, Month I (=AD 809 January 20-February 17). ‘The Moon trespased against (fan) Bi fin Taurus)” During the reported lunar month the Moon would make its closest approach to 2 Tau (Aldebaran, by far the brightest star of Bi) on the evening of January 28; also during that same evening it passed fatly close to several ofthe fainter stars of Bi. The Moon would have then been just pas fist quarter and approximately 100 degrees east of the Sun. At 19.5 hours local time on January 28, the separation between the Moon and x Tau would have been only about 0.5 degree. This was 2 near approach and the use of {fan would indeed be quite apt. The record is thus in close accord with computation, 4.4 Summary ‘Comparison between the astronomical records in the Samguk sag’s Sila ‘Annals with the results of modem computation reveals that only a very small proportion of the various celestial events that occurred during the petiod of Silla's domination of the Korean peninsula actually was recorded in the chronicle. There is no suggestion of consistent observation of any type of phenomenon during this period —quite the reverse. Most of the preserved accounts of solar eclipses seem tobe fairly authentic, despite the ‘complete absence of such records for almost 120 years after AD 668. In the case of conjunctions berween the Moon and planets in particular, hhowever, the reliability of the reports proves to be very low. In this respect, thete i litle evidence of improvement when compared with the Sameuk sag’s record of the Three Kingdoms period. fick Stenson Celesial Observations dating Unified Sil 2 ll O <11:38 Maeve e A jstor.org/stable/24574 5. Comparison with Chinese History ‘As pointed out in section 1, in my investigation ofthe astronomical records from the Three Kingdoms period, | noted many examples of diect copying from Chinese dynastic histories, especially from the imperial annals (ben). In the Sameuk sag’ coverage of the Unifed Silla period, however I find that there appears to be virtually no suggestion of such duplication. In ‘China, this lace period was encompassed by the Tang dynasty (AD 617 10 907) and the Wudai (Five dynasties) era (AD 907 to 960). The follow- ing remarks are based on careful comparison between the records of celes- tial phenomena in Korean and Chinese history. As well as the Chinese official histories, U have made use of the extensive compilation of Chinese astronomical observations tiled Zhong gudai sarang jiu congi® 5.1 Meteors and meteorites In only a single instance (in AD 764/5) does a report of a metcor shower in the Silla chronicle have a counterpart in Chinese history but it is lear that the Semguk sag text is original. As noted in section 3.1 above, in Month XII (=764 December 28-765 January 26) the Silda Annals tates that “There were metcors, both large and small; there were so many that people could not count them.” The two standard Tang histories (Jiangshu, ‘chapters 11 and 36; Xinsangshu, chapter 32) note litle more than thac in month XII on days bingyin (3] (= 764 December 30) and dingmco (4) (764 December 31), at night, “stars Rowed like rain (xing liu xiang 78)” Quite possibly the Korean and Chinese records relate to the same meteor shower, but the descriptions are clearly independent of one another. There are no examples of duplication of accounts of sporadic meteors or meteorites between Korean and Chinese history throughout the period of lae Silla rule ‘5.2 Comets and guest stars ‘Cometary records in the late Silla chronicle fall nto two main categories: those in which the names of one or more constellations are noted and ‘those in which such information is absent. In this regard, the situation is very similar to that forthe accounts of comers in the annals ofthe Three Kingdoms period in che Sampub sai Tn only five instances in the annals of the Unified Silla regime is a constellation specifically mentioned: in AD 668, Month IV (a broom star guarding Tianchuany; 676, Month VII (a broom star between Beibe and 4 orean Shes VOLUME 38] 2014 ll O < '885?read-now=11:38 Maeve e A. jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now= Jishui), 683 Month X (a broom star at Wuche); 70, Month V, 11th day (@ broom star to the north of Whe); and 815, Monch VII (a large star with a furl long til berween Yi and Zhen). The comets of 683 and 815, ‘do not appear to be mentioned in Chinese history, although the Xintang- shu (chapter 32) records a “long star” (chengsing) in Month Il of 815— five months before the Korean report. Sightings ofthe comets of AD 668, 676, and 770 are noted in Chinese history (in both the Jiutangshu and Xintangsha). It is evident, however, thatthe Korean and Chinese accounts of these three events are so different, particularly with regard to the con- stellasions near which the comets were said to pass, as to be independent of one another. In eleven further examples (AD 672, 699, 701, 744, 759, 761, 764, 768, 836, 875, 908) there is no mention of a constellation in the Silla chronicle; rather the text usually only reports the general direction in the sky in which che comet appeared and/or its duration of visibilcy. Mose comets in this eategory were either described as broom stars or bushy stars. The object in 744 (seen for several days), however, is termed a “baleful stat” (yaaxing). Interestingly, in one instance (AD 701) itis asserted that “a broom star entered the Moon.” No further details are given. None of the leven comets inthe present category can be definitely ‘identified with counterparts mentioned in Chinese history. Yet, during the span of time encompassed by the Unified Silla period more than seventy comets were recorded in China. These discrepancies suggest that ‘most of the Korean cometary reports that do noe mention star groups are of dubious relibily.? fan ertor of one year in the Sille Annal’ dating is assumed, itis ‘posible that ether the broom star reported in AD 759 (which first appeared in Month Ill and remained visible until the autumn) oF the ‘broom star of 761 (which was seen in Month IV) was Halley's Comet. For comparison, the broom star of 760 chat is described in deuail in Chinese history (se the Jiutangshu, 36, and the Xintangshu, 32) is readily identifiable as Halley's Comet." This was fist sighted in Month IV on day dings (54]—equivalent to 760 May 16. Regrettably, because of the brevity of the Silla records, even if an error of a year in the record is, assumed, there can be no certainty that ether of the broom stars reported in 759 and 761 relate to apparitions of Comet Halk. ‘The sole report of a guest star which “tespassed against Venus” in AD 867/8 has no parallel in Chinese history. Curiously, several guest stars were said co trespass against the Moon at other periods in Korean history—in AD 154, 299, 1163, 1356, and 1399—but in no case is there an equivalent Chinese record. F Rchar Siepson Cali Oberations dain Unie Sila % ll O < oO11:38 Maeve a e A. jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now= ‘5.3 Conjunctions of the Moon with planets Although several events of this kind ate recorded in Chinese history during the petiod that coincided with the era of late Silla rule, there is no accord bberween individual Korean and Chinese records. Hence i is clear chat the report in the Sila Annab—whether or not representing genuine observa- tions—are independent of Chinese history. 5.4 Eclipses Al of the eleven eclipses noted in the annals of the late Silla dynasty are reported on exactly the same dates (corresponding year lunar month, cyclical day, and day of the month) in the Jiutangshu and Xintangshu. ‘These include the eclipses of both AD 801 and 836. Whereas in the Scomguk sagi the former event is said to have been predicted, in the ‘Chinese histories i is recorded without any such remark. The eclipse of '836 was invisible throughout East Asia and could only be seen south of the equator. This later event was reported in both the Sampub sagi and the Tang histories without any comment. It does scem plausible to suppose that the Korean account of the eclipse of 836 is derived from a Chinese source and represents a prediction. There is no definite evidence to suggest that any ofthe other Korean eclipse reports a tis period were copied from Chinese histories I is noteworthy, however, that very many ‘other eclipses that have no counterpart in the Samguk sagi are accurately recorded in Chinese history berween AD 668 and 935. 5.5 Other Events None of the phenomena in other categories noted in the late Silla Annas appear to have parallels in Chinese sources—a result very much in keep- ing with the deductions made above for other celestial events (sections 5.1 054) 6. Conclusion My overall impression of the reports of celestial phenomena in the Sammpu sag’s chronicle ofthe lat Silla period is generally far from favorable. My ‘comments may be divided into three main categorie. ) Only a very small proportion (less than about 10 percent) of the astronomical phenomena that were visible in Korea during the Unified % oreanStuses VOLUME 38) 2014 ll O <11:38 Maeve e A. jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now= Silla period is recorded in the Samgub sag. In particular, i is apparent fiom fg. | that from around AD 850 there is a marked fill in the fre= quency with which celestial events ate recorded in the Samgub sag ‘Throughout these years, Silla was in a state of decline, ending with the collapse of the dynasty in 935. Hence few astronomical observations may have then been made or recorded. (i With the exception of solar eclipses, most ofthe Korean reports of ‘celestial phenomena that can be investigated by retrospective computation prove to be of dubious reliability. This remark is especially true of the accounts of lunar conjunctions with planets ii) Vireually no definite evidence of copying of astronomical records from Chinese history can be traced. (A possible exception isthe eclipse of [AD 836, which although only visible in the southern hemisphere i cited in the annals of both Korea and China.) This conclusion is in marked contrast to the Korean accounts of celestial phenomena from the Three Kingdoms petiod. However, it does seem especially significant that although several of the comets whose celestial locations are specifically described in the Sille Annals were independently reported in Chinese history, all of the comets whose locations are less precisely recorded in the chronicle seem to have escaped notice in China, despite the much smote regular and detailed cometary record maintained there. Ic thus seems not unreasonable to suppose that many, and possibly all, of these less- deaaled Korean cometary reports do not represent genuine observations In summary, it appears that—with a few notable exceptions—the record of ecestial phenomena in the late Silla chronicle has litle to com- mend it, either in the fequency with which events were noted of in the ‘general reliability ofthe disappointingly few accounts that it does contain. Iris debatable, however, whether by the time Kim Pusk and his colleagues compiled the Semeuk sei the middle of the evel century much atro- ‘omic information from the Unified Silla period had been lost or whether relatively few celestial observations had actually been made or recorded in Korea during that period. Not until well into the Koryé dynasty, especially after about AD 1000, do we find a marked increase in the frequency and reliability of Korean astronomical records. Notes | wish o thank Profesor Jonathan Best for carly reading the manuscript and ofring sever vable comments F. Rehr Stenson Celeil Oberon daring nif Sila 2 ll O < oO11:39N aleve e A jstor.org/stable/24574885?read-now 1, Richard Stpheston, “Asronomicl Record in the Somat aiding the Thc Kingdoms Period: East Times wo AD 668." Kevan Sais 37 (2013): 174-227 2 Scongae Pat, “Polis and Ponens in Ely Yi Korea” (PRD dis, Univ of avai at Minos, 1977); idem, “Portes and Neo-Confcian Polis in Kore, 1392~ 1919," Journal of Social Sciences end Hui 49 (1979) 83-117. 3. See, foe xample D. K. Yeomans and. Kiang, “The Long-Term Motion of Comer Halley." Monthly Nats of the Rapa Aromomy Sci 197 (1981): 633-46: FR Sephenson and KK. Yau, "Far Este Observations of Halley's Comet: 240 BC ro [AD 1378 Jour ofthe Bit Inteplnetiry Sai 38 (1985) 195-216. 4, See EH, Scheer, Pacing the Void (Berkley: Univ of California Press, 1977), on, 5. For similar spurious reports of oxcultations in Chinese history, even when 2 precise date (ear, month, and day) was recorded. see F. R. Stephenson apd JT. Baylis, “Ealy Chinese Observations of Occulaions of Panes by the Moor,” Jernal fo the Hay of Arena §3 (2012) 435-77. 6. FR Stephenson, "Some Geophysical, Astrophysical and Chronological Dedvc- sions fom Exly Astonomicl Recon” (PAD ds, Univ. of Newest upon Tye, 1972) 7. LV. Morton and F. R. Stephenson, “Historical Values ofthe Eat’s Rota ‘onal Clock Ero T and the Calculation of Eclipses,” Jura or he Hier of Aram 35 (2004): 327-36. 8 Reding Obseaony, Zong ada mio ji zomg (Kes Js Chbare, ‘Kangru, 1988). 9. Fora similar ssaton in the Samat representation ofthe Thre King doms perio, se Stephenson. "Astronomia Record inthe Sema daring the Tree Kingdoms Period” 10, Seephemon and Yau, “Far Eastern Obserstons of Hays Comer" 2 Korean Studies VOLE 38| 2014 ll O <