High-

High-Strength Bolts: The Basics Role of the Structural

• Fundamentals and Behavior
• Specification Requirements (AISC)
Engineer…
Engineer…
• Selection of suitable bolt
types and grades
• Design of the fasteners
• Responsibility for installation
• Responsibility for inspection

ASTM A307 Bolts ASTM A325 Bolts

• often a good choice when loads are • Type 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)
static
• ASTM Spec. RCSC Spec.
• strength level inferior to high-
high-
strength bolts (60
(60 ksi tensile ult.) • Minimum tensile strength: 120 ksi
• pretension indeterminate • Pretension can be induced if desired

Comparison of Bolts: Direct Tension

ASTM A490 Bolts
7/8 in. dia. A490 bolt
80
• Types 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)
60 7/8 in. dia. A325 bolt
• Minimum tensile strength: 150 ksi, bolt
tension
kips
(maximum 170 ksi) 40
7/8 in. dia. A307 bolt

• ASTM Spec. RCSC Spec. 20

• Pretension can be induced if desired

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

elongation (inches)
 Comments…
• Note: we quote the ultimate tensile
strength of the bolt
– this is the benchmark for strength
statements (e.g. shear strength is some
fraction of ultimate tensile strength)
• What about yield strength?
…comments cont’d
• Nuts: ASTM A563
• Washers: if needed, ASTM F436
• Bolt – nut – washer sets implied so
far, but other configurations
available

• What is “proof load”

load”

Loading of Bolts Shear Loading

• Shear
– load transfer by shear in bolt and
bearing in connected material OR
– load transfer by friction (followed by
shear and bearing)
• Tension
• Combined Tension and Shear
Truss Joint

Bolts Loaded in Tension Bolts in Tension – prying

Prying force Bolt force

bolts in tension

Applied force
these
bolts in
shear High-
High-strength bolts in tension can
be a source of problems!
 Bolts in combined tension and shear Consider a simple joint —
bolts in
combined
bolts in shear shear and
P
tension
P

Finally...
P d
P
P{
and associated τ=
shear stress A
P/2 t
Free body P
of bolt P/2
P { a bearing force
note that this force is equal and
opposite to the bearing force shown
P previously

In the example, we identified…

identified… AISC Standard 2005
• Parallel LRFD and ASD rules
• force in the bolt (a shear force)
• LRFD uses a resistance factor, Ø
• force that the bolt imposed on the plate (a • ASD uses a safety factor, Ω
bearing force)
• Loads as appropriate:
• force in the plate itself (a tensile force)
– factored loads for LRFD
• force transfer could also be by friction:
friction: – non-factored loads for ASD
not included in this illustration
 Installation —
AISC Standard cont’d
• Snug-
Snug-tight only
LRFD: req’d strength LRFD ≤ φ R n
• Pretensioned
ASD: req’d strength ASD ≤ R n / Ω – Calibrated wrench
– Turn-
Turn-of-
of-nut
– Other means:
9 Tension control bolts
9 Load-
Load-indicator washers

Behavior of a large joint (shear splice) —

Bolts in Shear: Issues
• Shear strength of bolt (single shear
average or double shear, threads in shear
bolt plane?)
shear
MPa
• Bearing capacity of bolt (never
governs)
• Bearing capacity of plate
• Tensile (comp.) capacity of plate
deformation over α , mm

Slip in bolted joints…

joints…
• Can be as much as two hole
clearances
• Some bolts will already be in bearing
at start of loading
• Both laboratory tests and field
measurements indicate that slip is
more like 1/2 hole clearance
Bolts in shear-
shear-type connection:
Specifications distinguish between:
– bearing type connections
– slip-
slip-critical connections
– Note: a slip-
slip-critical joint (service loads)
must also be checked as a bearing
joint (factored loads)
 Bearing-type connections: Bolts in bearing-
bearing-type connections…
connections…
• Issues
– bolt shear strength
Region of bearing-
bearing-
– bearing capacity connected material

load
type behavior
– member strength

• Shear strength of bolts is not dependent

on presence or absence of pretension.
pretension
(How come?) deformation

Bolt Shear Strength Individual bolt in shear

• Bolt shear strength ≈ 62% of bolt ultimate

tensile strength (theory
(theory + tests)
tests)
– Design rule takes 80% of this value
– Threads in shear plane?
– Long joint effect: another discount
applied.

Physical test —

Uneven loading
of bolts –

(End four bolts of 13)

 Back to bolt in shear —
Bolt Pretension v. Shear
• The bolt pretension is attained as a result of small Shear strength
axial elongations introduced as nut is turned on
of single bolt
• These small elongations are relieved as shear (tests) —
deformations and shear yielding take place

• Confirmed by both bolt tension measurements

and shear strength tests
τ = 0.62 σ u bolt
• So, bolt shear strength NOT dependent on
pretension in the bolt.

Shear deformation

Bolts in Shear — AISC

nominal shear strength …
φ R n = φ Fv A b
φ = 0.75
φ R n = design shear strength Fv = 80% (0.62 × Fu ) = 0.50 Fu

Fv = nominal shear strength, ksi

Thus…
Thus… Comments…
• The discount for length (use of 80%) is
A325 bolts : Fv = 0.50 × 120 ksi = 60 ksi conservative
A 490 bolts : Fv = 0.50 × 150 ksi = 75 ksi • If joint length > 50 in., a further 20%
reduction
— these are the values given in
• The ø – value used for this case (0.75) is
Table J3.2 of the Specification for
also conservative.
the thread excluded case. For
threads included,
included, the tabulated
values are 80% of the above.
Let’
Let’s return now to slip-
slip-critical
connections…
connections… Slip-Critical Connection
Clamping force from bolts (bolt pretension)

Load at which slip takes place

will be a function of …?

Slip-
Slip-critical joints specified when…
when…
Bolts in slip-
slip-critical connections…
connections… • Load is repetitive and changes
from tension to compression
(fatigue by fretting could
occur.)
• Change in geometry of
load

structure would affect its

performance.
region of slip-
slip-critical • Certain other cases.
joint behavior
• Comment:
Comment: for buildings, slip-
slip-
deformation critical joints should be the
exception, not the rule (but,
see also seismic rules)

Slip-critical criteria: Which one do we use?

• Choice:
• No slip at service loads: e.g. fatigue
– a serviceability limit state (no slip under
loading
the service loads) OR

– a strength limit state (no slip under the

• No slip at factored loads: e.g. long-
long-
factored loads). Note: AISC 2005 differs span flat roof truss (ponding could
from 1999. result as factored loads attained)
First principles, slip resistance is — Design slip resistance, AISC

φ R n = μ D u h sc Tb N s
P = ks n ΣTi
no. slip planes
ks = slip coefficient (µ) clamping force
slip coefficient
n = number of slip planes (usually 1 or 2)
Ti = clamping force (i.e., bolt pretension) …terms φ, hsc and Du need to be defined

and the modifiers … Bolts in Tension

h sc = modifier re hole condition • Capacity of a bolt in tension: product of
e.g., oversize hole, slotted hole etc. the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
and the tensile stress area of the bolt
D u = 1.13, ratio of installed bolt (i.e. Fu Ast )

tension to specified minimum bolt tension • Specifications directly reflect this

calculated capacity (…
(…to come)
φ = resistance factor • Force in bolt must reflect any prying
action affect
= 1.0 no slip at service loads (β = 1.4)
= 0.85 no slip at factored loads (β = 1.5)

Bolts in Tension – some comments Question…

• Preference: avoid joints that put bolts • pretensioned bolt in a connection
into tension, especially if fatigue is an
issue • apply external tension force to the
• Use A325 bolts rather than A490 bolts connection

• Minimize the prying action • do the bolt pretension and the

external tension add?
Bolt tension + external tension
And the result is…
1. Pretension the bolt → tension in
the bolt, compression in the plates • The bolt force does increase, but not
2. Add external tension force on by very much (≅ 7%)
connection → • This increase is accommodated
• Bolt tension increases within the design rule.
• Compression between plates decreases

Examine equilibrium and compatibility…

compatibility…

AISC rule, bolts in tension— What is nominal tensile strength, Fnt ?

bolt area for nominal

φ R n = φ Fnt A b
diameter Pult = Fu A st = Fu (0.75A b )

nominal tensile strength or, Pult = 0.75 Fu A b Adjusted area

φ R n = design tensile strength

{
Call this Fnt

So, the AISC rule for bolts in tension…

tension… Returning to shear splice joints,
we still have to deal with the
φ R n = φ Fn t A b bearing capacity of the connected
material.
where Fnt = 0.75 Fu as tabulated d
in the Specification
As we now know, the 0.75 really P/2 t
has nothing to do with Fu P
P/2
 Bearing capacity (of Bearing stresses at bolt holes…
holes…
s Le
connected material)

Needed:
Shear-
Shear-out of a Lc 1. shear-
shear-out rule
block of material t1 2. yield rule
or yielding t2
(deformation)

Shear-
Shear-out rule…
rule… Plate bearing…
σb Le
from tests: =
Shear - out is 2 ( τ ult × Lc × t ) σ pl
u d

or, R n = 2 ( 0.75 σ u × Lc × t )
⎛L ⎞
and, some arithmetic gives R n = σ b d t = σ upl ⎜ e ⎟ d t
⎝ d ⎠
and AISC rule is: R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t
valid for L e ≥ 3 d

Plate bearing… Finally, the AISC rule for

plate bearing capacity is …
Making the substitution and using
Fu ≡ σ pl
u R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t ≤ 3.0 d t Fu

R n = 3 d t Fu
(with a φ-value still to be inserted)
 Further note re bearing…
bearing…

When deformation a consideration,

use
Block shear
rupture
R n = 1.2 Fu L c t ≤ 2.4 d t Fu

Why this difference, and when do we

use the latter?

Failure (ult. load) is Basics…

by tensile fracture at
location shown,
Tr + Vr = φ A nt Fu + 0 .60 φ A gv Fy
regardless of
geometric where A nt = net area in tension
proportions.
and A gv = gross area in shear
Shear yield along vertical
planes. tension fracture shear yield

Failure is controlled by
ductility – not strength. There are some other requirements, including
specific case of coped beams.

Back to installation…
An example of
shear + tension
failure in a
coped beam…
beam…
Bearing-
Bearing-Type Connections—
Connections— Installation —
Installation of Bolts

• Bolts can be installed to “snug-

snug-tight
condition — ordinary effort of worker using
a spud wrench. (Pretension unknown, but
usually small) – bring parts together, continue turning nut,
bolt elongates, tension develops in bolt, and
clamped parts compress

Calibrated Wrench Installation Hydraulic calibrator –

• Reliable relationship between torque
and resultant bolt tension?
NO ! (and is forbidden by RCSC)
• Establish relationship by calibration
of the installing wrench.

Calibrated wrench, cont’d Turn-of-Nut Installation

• Adjust wrench to stall or cut out at • Run nut down, bring parts into close
desired level of bolt pretension contact
• Target value of pretension (RCSC) is • Work from stiffer regions to edges
1.05 times specified min. value
• Establish “snug-
snug-tight”
tight” condition (first
• Calibrate using at least three bolts impact of impact wrench or full effort of
worker using a spud wrench)
• Calibration is unique to bolt lot,
length, diameter, grade of bolt • Apply additional one-
one-half turn (or other
value, depending on bolt length)
• Washers must be used
Does this 60 Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut

definition of bolt specified minimum

snug-
snug-tight tension 40
(kips)
tension

seem a little 20
vague?
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
range of bolt bolt elongation (in.)
elongations
at snug

How influential is “snug-tight?” bolt elongation at one-half turn

Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut

60
Inspection of Installation
bolt specified minimum
tension 40 tension • Principles:
(kips)
20 – Determination of the bolt pretension
after installation is not practical

0.02 0.04
– Understand the requirements e.g., are
bolt elongation (in.) pretensioned bolts required?
– Monitor the installation on the site
– Proper storage of bolts is required
bolt elongation at one-half turn

Inspection of Installation Inspection of installation:

Consider the following AISC cases —
• Is bolt tension required? — if not, why
inspect for it ! 1. Bolts need be snug-
snug-tight only
• Know what calibration process is required 2. Bolts are pretensioned (but not a slip-
slip-
and monitor it on the job site
critical joint)
• Observe the work in progress on a regular
basis 3. Slip-
Slip-critical joint
 Inspection – snug tight
Snug tight only….
• Bolts, nuts, and washers (if any) must meet
• Bearing-type connections the requirements of the specifications
• Hole types (e.g., slotted, oversize) must
• Bolts in tension (A325 only) meet specified requirements
– only when no fatigue or vibration (bolt • Contact surfaces are reasonably clean
could loosen)
• Parts are in close contact after bolts
snugged
• All material within bolt grip must be steel

Inspection: if pretensioned bolts required…

required…
Inspection: for slip-
slip-critical joints
• All of requirements for snug-
snug-tight case
• Observe the pre-
pre-installation verification process
• All of the above, plus
– turn of nut, or;
– calibrated wrench, or; • Condition of faying surfaces, holes, etc.
– other (direct tension washers, tension-
tension-control • In addition to observing the calibration
bolts) process, the inspection must ensure that
• Calibration process done minimum once per day the same process is applied to the field
joints
• Calibration process done any time conditions
change

An inspected joint (turn-

(turn-of-
of-nut) and some other comments…
comments…
• Pretension values greater than
those specified are not cause
for rejection.
• Rotation tests are useful for
short-grip bolts or coated
fasteners (requirement is in
ASTM A325 spec. and is for
galvanized bolts)
 Actual pretensions, cont’d
• For A325 bolts, turn-of-nut:
– Average tensile strength exceeds spec.
min. tensile by about 1.18
– Average pretension force is 80% of
actual tensile
– Result is that actual bolt tension is
about 35% greater than specified bolt
tension

Actual pretensions, cont’d Some other options for bolts —

• A325, ½ turn-of-nut: 35% increase
• A490, ½ turn-of-nut: 26% increase
• A325 and A490, calibrated wrench: 13%
increase
• etc. for other cases

Note: these increased pretensions are

embodied in the specification rules

Tension Control Bolts Tension control bolts….

region of
constant torque
• NOTE: evidence that tips have
sheared off is not in itself evidence
that desired pretension is present
• Consider limits:
– Friction conditions are very high…
high…
ASTM F1852, – Friction conditions are very low…
low…
F2280 groove at which shear
will take place
• Hence, calibration is essential!
 Tension-Control Bolts Direct tension indicators—
• Advantages
– Installation is from one side
– Electric wrench is used
– Installation is quiet

• Disadvantages
– More expensive
– Pre-installation calibration required

Direct Tension Indicators Reliability of these...

• Protrusions formed in • Calibration required
special washer • Reliability same as calibrated wrench
• Protrusions compress Tension-
• Tension-control bolt is torque-
torque-dependent
as force in bolt is
developed • Load-
Load-indicating washer is elongation-
elongation-
• Use feeler gage to dependent
measure gap (or refusal) ASTM 959
• User must verify the process
(like calibrated wrench)

Some additional topics … Seismic design of connections

• Analyze structure in order to
• Details, other topics compute the forces
– washers (but not today!) – Use FEMA 350 and/or AISC Seismic
– slotted or oversize holes (but not today!) Design Spec.
– seismic design
• With forces now known, design
connectors
• Advisable to use pre-
pre-qualified
configurations
 Pre-
Pre-qualified bolted connections

All-
All-bolted connection

Note: some details not shown,

e.g., continuity plates

…bolted joints, seismic design Seismic design, cont’

• All bolts pretensioned
• Faying surfaces as per slip-critical
• Use bearing values for bolts
– moderate quakes: no slip
– major quakes: slip will occur and bolts go into bearing
• Normal holes or short slotted only (perpendicular)
• No bolts + welds in same faying surface
cont’d
• Non-ductile limit state in either member or
connection must not govern.
• Calculate bolt shear strength as per
bearing type but use 2.4 d t Fu bearing rule
• Must use expected yield and ultimate
strengths, not the specified values
e.g. A36 plate : use 1.3 σ y spec.

It all started with rivets…. Design

example:
gusset plate
connection
 Determine ultimate load for this gusset Set out the issues…
issues…
plate (which is one that was tested)
14.76 • Brace force in tension–
tension–
2 30° – slip load of bolts (no slip at service load)
3@2.76=8.27
Fy = 39.9 ksi – shear load of bolts
15.75

Fu = 69.0 ksi – bearing capacity of plate

7/8 A325 bolts 2.68 – block shear
7.22
(holes 15/16 in.) t = 0.26 in.

Pu test =164 kips

(compression) 19.69

Continuing…
Continuing… Slip load (calculate at factored load level)

R n = μ D u h sc Tm N s (per bolt )
• Brace force in compression
– slip capacity of bolts (already checked for load μ = 0.35 (clean mill scale) h sc = 1.0 (std. holes)
in tension)
– shear capacity of bolts (already checked for
2 2
A b = π d / 4 = 0.60 in. (7/8 in.dia.)
load in tension) Fu = 120 ksi (A325 bolts)
– bearing capacity of plate (already checked) n = 8 bolts N s = 2 slip planes φ = 1.0
– block shear (doesn’
(doesn’t apply)
– capacity of gusset plate in compression (New) Tm = spec. min. bolt pretension = (0.75 × A b )( Fu )70%
= 0.75 × 0.60 in.2 × 120 ksi × 70% = 37.88 kips

Shear resistance of bolts

Slip load calculation cont’
cont’d.
φ R n = φ Fv A b
R n = μ D u h sc Tm N s ( per bolt )
Use ø =1.0 so that we can compare this
= 0.35 × 1.13 × 1.0 × 37.88 kip × 2 slip planes load with the test load, assume threads in
shear plane, no joint length effect
= 29.96 kips / bolt
Fv = 80% [0.62 × 120 ksi] = 60 ksi
or, for 8 bolts, 240 kips
φ R n = 1.0 × 60 ksi × 0.60 in.2 = 36.0 kips ( per bolt )
Finally, φ R n = 1.0 × 240 kips = 240 kips
or, for 8 bolts, 2 shear planes, threads in shear plane
= (36.0 × 8 × 2)kips × 0.80 = 461 kips
 Bearing resistance (use φ = 1.0)
Bearing resistance…
resistance…
R n = 1.5 Fu L c t ≤ 3.0 d t Fu
…the governing value is 41.2 kips/bolt
and, for 8 bolts—
3 d t Fu =
3 × 7 / 8 in. × 0.26 in. × 69.0 ksi = 47.1 k/bolt Bearing resistance is 330 kips

1.5 Lc t Fu =
1.5 × 1.53 in. × 0.26 in. × 69.0 ksi = 41.2 k

Block shear
Block shear, cont’
cont’d
2.00
3@2.76=8.27 Tr = 0.45 in.2 × 69.0 ksi = 31.0 kips

Vr = 0.60 × 5.34 in.2 × 39.9 ksi = 127.8 kips

A nt = (0.26)( 2.68 − 15 / 16) = 0.45 in.2

2.68 and the total block shear resistance
A gv = (8.27 + 2.00)2 × 0.26 = 5.34 in.2 (unfactored) is 158.8 kips

Tr + Vr = φ A nt Fu + 0.60 φ A gv Fy

Brace force in compression: Checking the buckling…

buckling…
• Whitmore method (checks yield)
• Thornton method (checks buckling)
• Modified Thornton method (checks
buckling)
issue is sway
buckling in
this region
 Whitmore
method…
method…. Thornton method…
method…
30°

• Use beam formulae to • Use longest (or

check perceived average) of L1, L2, L3
critical sections to compute a
buckling load on a 30°
• Use 30o , as shown to
check yielding at unit width column, L1
location shown. then apply this to the
total width.
• Does not predict
ultimate capacity very • Use k = 0.65 in the L2
well, usually column formulae
conservative but
sometimes non-
non- L3
conservative

Thornton method, modified Yam & Cheng gusset plate tests

(U of A, 13 tests)
L1 45o
As per Thornton Pu Pu Pu
method but PW PT PT '
spread load out
at 45o L2 mean 1.33 1.67 1.06

std. dev. 0.26 0.12 0.08

L3
we’ll use this method

Calculations for buckling capacity: Consider a 1 in. wide

strip that is 9.65 in. long
L1 Using scale dwg. width = 1
L2 = 9.65 in. length =9.65
t = 0.26
Width of the 45o
L2
base is 19.2 in.
1
I × 1 × 0.263
r= = 12 = 0.0751 in.
L3 A 0.26 × 1

φc Pn = φc A g Fcr (use φc = 1.0)

and then completing the calculations,
Fcr = (0.658
Fy / Fe
) Fy use k = 0.65 Pn = 6.91 kips (on a 1 in. wide strip)
And applying this to the total width…
width…
Summary of our calculations
Pu = (6.91 k/in.) (19.2 in.) = 132 kips

Brace slip bolt plate block buckling test

and the test ultimate load on this particular Force load shear bearing shear load
specimen was 164 kips

so, Pu / PT’ = 1.23 Tension 226 461 330 159 — —

(The corresponding ratios for Whitmore Compress. — — — — 132 164

and Thornton for this specimen were 1.31
and 1.80)

Some references — References, cont’

Load and Resistance Factor Design
Specification for Structural Joints
Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,
Research Council on Structural
Connections, 2004 (RCSC)
(free download available at
boltcouncil.org)
cont’d.
• G.L. Kulak, J.W. Fisher, and J.A.H. Struik, Guide
Joints,
to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints,
Second Edition, John Wiley, New York, 1987 (free
download at RCSC website)
• Bickford, John H., "An Introduction to the Design
and Behavior of Bolted Joints," Second Edition,
Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1990
• G.L. Kulak, A Bolting Primer for Structural
Engineers, AISC Design Guide 17, Chicago, 2002
Engineers,