PETROLOGY
o From the Greek word petra and logos
o Studies the origin, composition, distribution and
structure of rocks
Classification of Rocks:
1. Igneous Rock
o Formed by crystallization of magma and
molten rocks that were solidified that
formed granite and basalt.
o 95% of the crust are made up of igneous
rocks.
o Ex: Granite, Syenite, Gabbro, Pegmatite,
Dolerite and Basalt.
Two kinds of igneous rock:
a. Intrusive Rocks
b. Extrusive Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rock
o Accumulated sediments
o Most common rock exposed on the crust
but only a minor of the entire crust (mostly
covered by igneous & metamorphic rock)
Three types of sedimentary rocks:
a. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks – formed from
mechanical weathering
- Ex: Breccia, Conglomerate, Sandstone,
Shale
b. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks – formed by
precipitation of minerals from water
- Ex: Rock salt, Iron ore, Chert
c. Organic Sedimentary Rocks – formed by
plant or animal debris
- Ex: Coal, Limestone, Dolomite
3. Metamorphic Rock
o Were modified or have change in texture
and chemical composition by heat,
pressure, and chemical process found
underneath the earth surface.
o Ex: Quartzite, Marble, Slate, Gneiss, and
Schist.
Two types of Metamorphic Rocks:
a. Foliated Metamorphic Rock
b. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rock
MINERALS
o naturally occurring substances, mostly inorganic,
that are characterized by a definite chemical
composition and a definite atomic structure.
MINERALOGY
o study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and
physical (including optical) properties of minerals
and mineralized artifacts.
o systematic study that extensively covers
description, crystallography, physical, chemical
and environmental features of all minerals. The
internal structure and crystal system of
individual minerals are unique and form under
certain natural, physical and in a narrow range of
chemical conditions.
SOFTEST TO HARDEST MINERALS
DIORITE
o Coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock.
o Mixture of pyroxene, hornblende, and feldspar and
at times, quartz.
o Light in color with some darkened spots
Formation:
o Formed from cooling magma that never made it to
the surface.
• Usually occurs as quite small intrusions
often associated with larger intrusions like
granite.
o Forms from magma that doesn’t contain a lot of
quartz (silica) or the light-colored minerals that
make up granite.
o Commonly produced in volcanic arcs and in
cordilleran mountain building as large batholiths.
Physical properties:
o Medium to coarse grained.
o More porous and its density is 2.8-3 g/cm3.
o Hardness: 6-7
o Compressive strength is 225.00 N/mm 2.
o Streak: bluish black
o Luster: shiny
o No cleavage
Usage:
o Base material in the construction of roads,
buildings, and parking areas.
o Drainage stone and for erosion control
o Used as construction stone, or polished and used as
architectural stone.
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 o Used as structural stone by the Inca and Mayan
Civilization of South America and many
civilizations in the Middle East
GABBRO
o Coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock (dark in
color)
o Consist of mineral elements like feldspar, pyroxene
and at times olivine.
o Usually gray in color and have small spots.
Formation:
o Formed from cooling magma that never made it to
the surface.
• Usually occurs as quite small intrusions
often associated with larger intrusions like
granite.
o Formed from the slow cooling of magnesium-rich
and iron-rich magma into a holocrystalline mass
deep beneath the Earth’s surface.
Physical Properties:
o Hardness: 7
o Coarse grained
o Highly porous
o Streak: black
o Compressive Strength: 225.00 N/mm2
o Density: 2.7-3.3 g/cm3
Usage:
o Aggregate, fill, etc. in the construction and roading
industries.
o Cut and polished for dimension stone (black
granite) for building facings, foyers, etc.
PEGMATITE
o Extreme igneous rocks that form during the final
stage of a magma’s crystallization
• Contain exceptionally large crystals and
they sometimes contain minerals that are
rarely found in other types of rocks
Formation:
o Formed from cooling magma that never made it to
the surface.
• Usually occurs as quite small intrusions
often associated with larger intrusions like
granite.
o Tend to have low viscosity, high diffusivity so a
small number of large crystals form
Physical properties:
o Hardness: 7
o Medium to coarse grained
o Less porous
o Streak: white
o Luster: grainy, pearly, and vitreous
o Compressive Strength: 178.54 N/mm2
o Density: 2.6-2.65 g/cm3
Usage:
o Architectural stone “granite”
o Mined for its minerals (mica and feldspar)
• Mica: optical elements in electronics
• Feldspar: glass and ceramics
DOLERITE OR DIABASE
o Fine- to medium-grained, dark gray to black
intrusive igneous rock.
o Extremely hard and tough and is commonly
quarried for crushed stone, under the name of trap.
o Makes an excellent monumental stone and is one of
the dark-colored rocks commercially known as
black granite.
o It is usually found in smaller relatively shallow
intrusive bodies such as dikes and sills.
o Diabase dikes occur in regions of crustal extension
and often occur in dike swarms of hundreds of
individual dikes or sills radiating from a single
volcanic center.
Formation:
o It cools moderately quickly when magma moves up
into fractures and weak zones below a volcano.
There, it forms dikes (tabular igneous rock bodies
that cut across pre-existing rock layers or bodies)
or sills (tabular igneous rock bodies that form
parallel to pre-existing rock layers).
Usage:
o It is used mainly as crushed aggregate in concrete
production, as road sub-base and in flush seals,
facing stone in building construction, and as armor
stone and rip-rap.
BASALT
o Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock
composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene
minerals.
o It is also found as intrusive dikes and sills.
Formation:
o It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such
as a lava flow, but can also form in small intrusive
bodies, such as an igneous dike or a thin sill.
Usage:
o It is most commonly crushed for use as an
aggregate in construction projects.
o Crushed basalt is used for road base, concrete
aggregate, asphalt pavement aggregate, railroad
ballast, filter stone in drain fields, and may other
purposes.
LIMESTONE
o Composed primarily of calcium carbonate CaCO3 in
the form of the mineral calcite
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 o Most commonly forms in clear, warm, shallow
marine waters
o Building material as aggregate to form the base of
roads
o Formed by animal debris, shell and skeletal debris
Underground Limestone
o Stalactite
o Formed when the rain falls from the roof of the
cavern evaporating the water.
SANDSTONE
o Known as arenite
o A clastic sedimentary rock composed of mainly
sand-sized minerals or rock grains
o Composed of quartz or feldspar
Usage:
o Was a popular building material from ancient
times.
o Widely used around the world in constructing
building, temples, homes, etc.
SHALE
o Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that is
made up from the compaction of silt and clay-size
mineral particles that we commonly call mud.
o In a classification of sedimentary rocks known as
mudstones.
o Shale is recognized from different mudstones in
light of the fact that it is fissile and laminated.
• Laminated implies that the stone is
comprised of many thin layers.
• Fissile implies that the stone promptly
parts into thin pieces along the
laminations.
o Shale breaks into thin pieces with sharp edges. It
occurs in a wide range of colors that include red,
brown, green, gray, and black.
o The most common sedimentary rock and is found
in sedimentary basins worldwide.
Usage:
o Black shales contain organic material that
sometimes breaks down to form natural gas or oil.
o Other shales can be crushed and mixed with water
to produce clays that can be made into a variety of
useful objects.
CONGLOMERATE
o A sedimentary rock shaped from rounded gravel
and boulder sized clasts cemented together in a
matrix.
o The rounding of the clasts shows that they have
been transported some distance from their unique
source (for example by a stream or icy mass), or
that they have resided in a high energy
environment for quite a while (for example on a sea
shore subject to wave activity). The cement that
ties the clasts is commonly one of either calcite,
silica or iron oxide.
o The matrix can comprise exclusively of the
establishing material, however may likewise
contain sand and/or silt sized clasts cemented
together among the coarser clasts.
Two classes:
1. Clast Supported - the clasts touch each other and
the matrix fills the voids
2. Matrix Supported - the clasts are not in contact
and the matrix surrounds each clast
Usage:
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 o Used as a dimension stone for decoration of walls
and floors; if hard can be used as aggregate, fill in
the construction and roading industries.
BRECCIA
o Made from angular gravel and boulder-sized clasts
cemented together in a matrix.
o The angular nature of the clasts shows that they
have not been transported a long way from their
source.
Two classes:
1. Clast Supported - the clasts touch each other and
the matrix fills the voids
2. Matrix Supported - the clasts are not in contact
and the matrix surrounds each clast
Usage:
o Used as a dimension stone for decoration of walls
and floors; if hard can be used as aggregate, fill in
the construction and roading industries.
Difference between conglomerate and breccia:
o They are both clastic sedimentary rocks composed
of particles larger than two millimeters in
diameter.
o The difference is in the shape of the large particles.
In breccia the large particles are angular in shape,
but in conglomerate the particles are rounded.
o The particle shape reveals a difference in how far
the particles were transported. Near the outcrop
where the fragments were produced by mechanical
weathering, the shape is angular. However, during
transport by water away from the outcrop, the
sharp points and edges of those angular fragments
are abraded and rounded. The rounded particles
would form a conglomerate.
QUARTZITE
o formed when quartz-rich sandstone has been
exposed to high temperatures and pressures. Such
conditions fuse the quartz grains together forming
a dense, hard, equigranular rock.
o Texture: granular
o Grain Size: Medium grained; can see interlocking
quartz crystals with the naked eye.
o Hardness: Hard
o Color: Variable – pure quartzite is white but
quartzite exists in a variety of colors.
o Uses: source of silica for metallurgical purposes,
manufacturing bricks, armor rock for sea walls.
MARBLE
o formed when limestone is exposed to high
temperatures and pressures.
o The variety of colors exhibited by marble are a
consequence of minor amounts of impurities being
incorporated with the calcite during
metamorphism
o Texture: granular
o Grain Size: medium grained; can see Interlocking
calcite crystals with the naked eye.
o Hardness: Hard but component material is soft.
o Color: Variable – pure marble is white but it exists
in a variety of colors.
o Uses: Building stone, paving, dimension stone for
building facings, and interior designs.
SLATE
o a low-grade metamorphic rock generally formed
by the metamorphosis of mudstone, shale or
sometimes basalt.
o Formed under the conditions of a relatively low
pressure and temperature.
o Texture: Foliated
o Grain Size: Very fined-grained; crystals are not
visible to the naked eye.
o Hardness: Hard and brittle
o Color: black, blue, green, brown, red, and buff.
o Uses: material for the beds of pool, snooker, and
billiard tables.
GNEISS
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 o High grade metamorphic rock o Used as food seasoning
o Subject to high temperature and pressure
o Typically associated with mountain building
episodes
o Formed by metamorphosis of granite or
sedimentary rock
• Metamorphosis- is the rapid and extreme
physical changes after its formation. (In
this case the formation of the mountains)
o Texture - foliated, foliation on a scale of cm or more.
o Grain size -medium to coarse grained; can see
crystals with the naked eye.
o Hardness - 7
o Compressive strength - 80-330 mPa IRON ORE
o Color - variable - generally alternating lighter and o Formed by chemical reaction
darker sub-parallel discontinuous bands. o Used in steel
Usage:
o Dimension stone for building facings
o Paving
o Work surface
o Tombstone

SCHIST
o Medium grade metamorphic rock
• Subjected to higher temperatures and
pressures
o Shale and some types of igneous rock
o High lustre
o Minerals CHERT
• Muscovite o Formed from precipitation of silica fluid
• Biotite o Used in sharping tools and producing fire
• Chlorite
Formation:
o Metamorphosis of mudstone or shale, or some
types of igneous rock
o Usually found and formed on the continental side
of convergent plate boundary, where it is subjected
to compressive force and heat
Physical properties:
o Texture - foliated, foliation on mm to cm scale.
o Grain size - fine to medium grained; can often see
crystals with the naked eye.
o Hardness - 3.5-4
o Color - variable - often alternating lighter and COAL
darker bands, often shiny. o Formed by plant debris and found in swamp
Usage: environment
o Decorative rocks o Used as power source and in coke production
o Construction and roading

ROCK SALT
o Formed from evaporation
Usage:
o Winter highway treatment

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PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. Habit – a mineral may sometimes show a definite
and characteristic arrangement in its outer
appearance or physical shape.
a. Fibrous Habit – made up of fibers,
generally separable (e.g. Asbestos)
b. Columnar Habit – composed of thin or
thick columns, sometimes flattened (e.g.
Hornblende)
c. Bladed Habit – composed of thin, blade
like structure. (e.g. Kyanite)
d. Lamellar Habit – plates or leaves are
separable (e.g. vermiculite)
e. Granular Habit – shows numerous grains
packed together (e.g. Chromite)
f. Acicular Habit – covered by large,
conspicuous, overlapping, prominences
(e.g. malachite)
g. Reniform Habit – rounded prominence to
a kidney shape (e.g. Hematite)
h. Foliated Habit – mineral consists of thin
and separable leaves (e.g. Mica)
i. Radiating Habit – fibers or needles are
arranged around a central point (e.g. Iron
Pyrites)
j. Tabular Habit – mineral that is flat and
elongated
k. Globular Habit – form of bulbous
overlapping projections
2. Color - The color of a substance is its appearance
in light and depends upon the composition and
structure of the substance
- Metallic minerals commonly show greater
consistency in colors than the non-metallic
minerals
a. Play of Colors: It is the development of a
series of prismatic colours shown by some
minerals on turning about in light. The
colors change in rapid succession on
rotation (e.g. Diamond.)
b. Change of Colors: It is similar to play of
colors except that rate of change of colors
on rotation is rather slow; each color
continues over a larger space in the
mineral, (e.g. Labradorite.)
c. Iridescence: Some minerals show
rainbow colors either in their interior or
on their surface. This termed iridescence.
d. Tarnish: Sometimes the surface color is
different, rather dull, than the color of the
mineral as seen on freshly fractured
surface (e.g. Chalcopyrite, an ore of
copper. Although color is never taken as a
conclusive property in the identification of
minerals, it is invariably studied first and
is generally helpful.)
3. Streak - The streak of a mineral is the color of its
powder.
- The streak of mineral can be readily
observed by scratching it on a streak plate,
which is made up of unglazed porcelain or
roughened glass. While determining
streak for a mineral, care should be taken
to scratch it from its obscure part, and to
give only a small scratch, producing a
small quantity of its powder.
4. Luster – refers to how light is reflected from the
surface of the mineral.
Two main types:
a. Metallic - Minerals exhibiting metallic
luster look like metal, such as a silvery
appearance or that of a flat piece of steel.
b. Nonmetallic
i. Vitreous: The luster of glass.
ii. Resinous: The luster of resin.
iii. Pearly: The luster of pearls.
iv. Silky: The luster of silk.
v. Greasy: Looks like it is covered in
a thin layer of oil.
vi. Adamantine: A hard, brilliant
luster.
5. Diaphaneity - the ability of minerals to transmit
light through it. The following terms are used to
describe the varying degree of transmission of
light.
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 6. Fracture - the nature of the broken surface of f. Smoky quartz
mineral. The breakage of a mineral in a direction g. Orange quartz
other than that of cleavages. The fracture is h. Green quartz
described according to the breakage pattern, i.e. B. Cryptocrystalline
the appearance of the broken surface. a. Chalcedony
- tendency of a mineral to break along b. Agate – used as ornaments
curved surfaces without a definite shape. c. Jasper
These minerals do not have planes of d. Chert
weakness and break irregularly. C. Amorphous – opal
a. Even Fracture – appearance of a mineral
in its broken surface is smooth. (e.g. 2. Feldspar Group - group of closely related
Chert, Mica) minerals that together are the most abundant
b. Uneven Fracture – when the minerals mineral in the Earth’s crust.
break with very rough and coarse - Occurs in acidic igneous rocks – granites
surfaces. (e.g. chromite) and pegmatites
c. Conchoidal Fracture – a mineral breaks Uses:
with curved surfaces or concentric rings o Used in the manufacture of Sanitary ware and
or half-moon shape (e.g. quartz) Earthenware
7. Cleavage - the tendency of a mineral to break o Used in the manufacturing of porcelain bits
along smooth planes parallel to zones of weak o Used in the preparation of various types of glazed
bonding. tiles
- refers to the splitting of a crystal between Types:
two parallel atomic planes. A. Orthoclase
Form : Tabular
Color : Pink
Streak : Colorless
Luster : Vitreous
Cleavage : Present
Hardness : 6 (Medium)
Sp. gr. : 2.6 (Medium)
CC : Potash feldspar
B. Plagioclase
Form : Massive
Color : White
Streak : Colorless Vitreous
Luster : Vitreous
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS Cleavage : Present
1. Quartz Group – most common mineral in the Hardness : 6 (Medium)
continental crust Sp. gr. : 2.6 (Medium)
- Quartz is an old German word that CC : Soda feldspar
originally meant something like hard or C. Microcline
tough Form : Tabular
- Simplest chemical formula: silicon dioxide Color : Green
or SiO2 Streak : Colorless Vitreous
- Quartz plates are used in controlling Luster : Vitreous
frequencies in radio, circuits, ultrasonic, Cleavage : Present
and multiple telephone lines Hardness : 6 (Medium)
Varieties: Sp. gr. : 2.6 (Medium)
A. Crystalline CC : Potash feldspar
a. Rock Crystal or colorless quartz
b. Rosy quartz
c. Milky quartz
d. Grey quartz
e. Amethyst
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3. Mica Group – Known as sheet silicates because 5. Amphibole Group
they form in distinct layers
- Heat-resistant and does not conduct
electricity
- Occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks
Uses:
Biotin Mica:
o Lightweight concrete
Muscotive Mica:
o Used as an insulating material in Electrical
Apparatus
o Mica powders are used in mica bricks, steel plants,
lubricants, filter in paints, rubber, plastic
materials, wall papers, etc.
A. Biotin Mica
Form : Foliated
Colour : Black
Streak : Colourless
Diaphaneity: Translucent
Luster : Pearly
Cleavage : Present
Fracture : Even
Hardness : Medium
Sp. Gr. : Medium
C. C. : Silicate of Mg, Fe, Al and K with
[OH] ions

B. Muscotive Mica
Form : Foliated
Colour : White
Streak : Colourless
Diaphaneity: Transparent
Luster : Pearly
Cleavage : Present
Fracture : Even
Hardness : Medium
Sp. Gr. : Medium
C. C. : Silicate of Al and K
6. Kaolin Group – used in the manufacture of
4. Garnet Group – used as sandpaper and gems potteries, earthenware, sanitary ware and paint.

8
7. Carbonate Group many steelmaking, metallurgical, and ceramic
A. Calcite processes.
Uses:
o construction material, (cement)
o abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction
aggregate
o pigment
o Pharmaceutical: bleaching powder, Textile,
Rubber, paint industries, carrier of insecticide,
glass and ceramic industries.

8. Sulphide Group
A. Galena
Uses:
o Most important lead ore (contains 66% of lead is
found in combined state with zinc).
o The primary ore of lead that is sometimes mined
for its silver content.
o Used in Lead Piping.
B. Dolomite
Uses:
o Serves as an oil and gas reservoir rock.
o Used in steel and cement industry.
o Used as soil conditioner and acid neutralizer on
soil
o Pure Dolomite is a good source of Mg.
Refractories, flux in metallurgical operations,
Glass industry
o Used in making Bricks.
B. Pyrite – pyr=fire
Uses:
o Used to manufacture Sulfur and Sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) – in the past.
o Gold Ore
o Weak Jewelry

C. Magnesite
Uses:
o Used to make inexpensive gems, chemicals, fire
bricks, magnesium metal and more.
o Used for refractory bricks, furnace lining and in
electrical Elements.
o MgO is also used to make fertilizers, magnesium
chemicals, and refined into magnesium metal.
o MgO has an extremely high melting temperature,
and that makes it a good refractory material in

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C. Chalcopyrite C. Bauxite
Uses: Uses:
o Copper Ore. o Aluminum Ore.
o Some chalcopyrite ores contain significant o Aluminum : Used in the manufacture of chemicals,
amounts of zinc substituting for iron. Others Cement and in refining petroleum.
contain enough silver or gold that the precious o Used as an Abrasive (Aluminum oxide sandpaper,
metal content polishing powders, and polishing suspensions are
made from calcined alumina).
o Used as Proppant.

9. Oxide Group
A. Haematite D. Corundum
Uses: Uses:
o Used in the industry as an Iron Ore (70%). o Used as gemstones.
o The most important ore of iron. Pigment, heavy o Used as an Abrasive.
media separation, radiation shielding, ballast, o Used in Ruby Lasers
polishing compounds, a minor gemstone

B. Magnetite
Uses:
o The primary ore of iron (72.4), a mineral used in
heavy media separation, and a recorder of Earth
magnetism.
o Small amounts of magnetite are also used as a
toner in electrophotography, as a micronutrient in
fertilizers, as a pigment in paints, and as an
aggregate in high-density concrete.

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