Respiratory System

Functions:

 Air passageway
o Moves air between the external environment and the alveoli of the lungs
 Site of gas exchange
o Thin barrier between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries
o Enables O2 and CO2 diffuse across barrier
 Detects odors
o Olfactory receptors in superior region of nasal cavity
 Sound production
o Vocal cords of the LARNYX vibrate as air is passed between them

System Organization

 Structural organization
o Upper Respiratory Tract
 Nose, Nasal Cavity, Pharnyx
o Lower Respiratory Tract
 Larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli (lungs)
 Functional Organization
o Conducting Zone
 Nose to terminal bronchioles
o Respiratory Zone
 Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
 Lining
o Mucosal lining is for most of the respiratory tract
o Mostly lined with ciliated epithelium
o Exceptions: (different kind of epithelium aka non keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium)
 Pharynx- passageway for both air and food
 Larynx- vocal cords and immediate superior region
o The lining secretes mucus which is produced by goblet cells and lamina propria

Upper Respiratory Tract

 Nose
o Main conducting passageway for inhaled air
o Formed by bone, hyaline cartilage, connective tissue, and covered with skin
 Nostrils aka Nares
o Open into the inferior surface of the nose leading into the nasal cavity
 Nasal cavity
o Internal space formed by the nose (anterior) and skull (superior and anterior)
 Oblong shaped; extends from nostrils to choanae
o Floor is the hard palate
 o Roof is composed of bones of the skull (nasal, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid) and some
nose cartilage
 Nasal septum
o Formed by nasal septal cartilage and bone (vomer and ethmoid) and divides nose into
two chambers
 Lateral walls possess the nasal concae
o Three paired, bony projections( superior, middle, and inferior which are refered to as
turbinate bones.
o Produce turbulence in inhaled air
o Nasal Meatus
 Partitions formed by conchae
 Regions
o Nasal vestibule
 Immediate internal to nostrils
 Lined by skin and vibrissae (coarse hair that traps particulates)
o Olfactory region
 Superior portion of the nasal cavity
 Contains olfactory epithelium to detect odors
o Respiratory region
 Mucosa of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
 Lamina propria is highly vascularized
 Nasolacrimal ducts drain lacrimal secretions in this region
 Function to condition the air
o WARMS the air to body temperatures
 Due to extensive vascularization
o CLEANSES THE AIR by the mucus trapping dust and microbes and the cilia sweeps” the
dirty mucus” to pharynx
o Humidifies the air
o Enhanced by conchae which creates turbulence and exposes more air to the mucuosal
lining
 Pharynx
o Lateral walls are made of skeletal muscle
 Flexible and distensible
 Aids in swallowing and propelling food to the esophagus
o Three regions: Naso, oro, laryngo
 Nasopharynx- houses the openings to the auditory tubes
 Oropharynx- house the palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils
 Laryngopharynx- serves as common passageway for food and air with orpharnyx
 Larynx aka voice box
o Composed of cartilage and supported by muscle and ligaments
o Functions:
 Passageway for air
 Prevents ingested materials from entering the respiratory tract
  Epiglottis closes of the laryngeal inlet and glottis closes during
swallowingA
 Assists in increase pressure of the abdominal cavity
 Participates in sneeze and cough reflex
 Trachea
o Aka windpipe
o Extends through the mediastinum from the larynx to the main bronchi
o Flexible, slightly rigid tube
o Walls consist of C shaped rings of tracheal cartiage and anular ligaments
o Posterior wall consists of trachealis muscle
 Allows for distention during food swallowing
 Contracts during coughing to reduce area of trachea and increase air flow rate
 Bronchial Tree
o Main bronchi (primary bronchi)
 Trachea splits into two branches
 Right bronchus is shorter, wider and more vertically oriented than left
o Lobar bronchi (secondary bronchii)
 Extend to each lobe of the lung from main bronchi
 Right lung has 3 lobes= 3 lobar bronchi
 Left lung has 2 lobes= 2 lobar bronchi
o Segmental bronchi (tertiary bronchi)
 Extend from lobar bronchi
 Each lung has 10 segmental bronchi
 Leads to bronchioles
o Bronchioles
 Conducting pathways less than 1 mm in diameter
 Terminal bronchioles
o Last segment of the conducting zone
 Respiratory bronchioles
o First segment of the respiratory zone
 Lack cartilage
 Small diameter prevents collapse
 Respiratory Zone
o Respiratory bronchioles -> alveolar ducts-> alveolar sacs-> alveoli
o Alveoli
 Site of gas exchange
 Interconnected with other alveoli by alveolar pores
 Capillaries surround each alveolus
 The Lung
o Right lung
 Slightly bigger
 Three lobes
o Left lung
 Two lobes to accommodate for the heart
 o Each lobe is separated into segments (R:10 L: 8-10)
 Encapsulated by connective tissue
 Possess own segmental bronchus pulmonary artery and vein and lymph vessels
o Segments are organized into lobules
 Pleural membranes and cavity
o Pleura
 Outer lung surfaces and adjacent internal thoracic wall are lined with double-
walled serous membrane
 Visceral pleura- adhered to the lung surface
 Parietal pleura- adhered to the thoracic wall, diaphragm and
mediastinum
 Composed of simple squamous epithelium cells
o Pleural Cavity
 Located between visceral and parietal membranes
 Filled with serous fluid
 Minimalizes friction during breathing
 Lung Inflation
o Dependent on
 Expanding properties of the chest wall
 Lungs expand due to the surface tension caused by the serous fluid
within the pleural cavity
 Recoiling properties of the lungs
 Anatomic arrangement of pleural cavity
 As thoracic wall pulls out & lungs pull in , create “suction” within the
cavity due to surface tension
 The pressure in the cavity (intrapleural pressure) is less than the
pressure in the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure)
o Lungs expland to reduce the intrapleural pressure
 Respiration
o General term for the exchange of respiratory gases(O2 and CO2) between the
atmosphere(ATM) and the tissues of the body
o Pulmonary ventilation
 Movement of O2 and CO2 between ATM and alveoli
o Alveolar gas exchange
 Exchange of O2 and CO2 between alveoli and blood
 O2 diffuses from alveoli to blood down pressure gradient
 CO2 diffuses from blood to alveoli down pressure gradient
o Gas transport
 Transport of O2 and CO2 between lungs and system cells
 Both O2 and CO2 are transported through blood
o Systemic gas exchange
 Exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic cells and blood
 Volume changes of the thoracic cage
 o Inspiration: diaphragm contracts; vertical dimensions of thoracic cavity increase, rib are
elevated, thoracic cavity widens, inferior portion of sternum moves anteriorly
o Exhalation: diaphragm relaxes; vertical dimensions of thoracic cavity narrow, ribs are
depressed, inferior portion of sternum moves posteriorly
 Inspiration
o Diaphragm and external intercostal contract
 Ribs are drawn up and outward; floor is pulled downward
 Thoracic walls and floor pull on pluera
 Pleural cavity is pulled outward and downward
 Drop in pressure within pleura
 Pleura pulls on lungs
 Lungs expand
 Air drawn into lungs
 Air moves into lungs down
 Expiration
o Diaphragm and external intercostal relax
 Ribs and floor move back to original position
 Thoracic walls and floor push on pleura
 Pleural cavity is allowed to relax
 Increased pressure within pleura
 Pleura pushes on lungs
 Lungs recoil
 Air drawn into lungs
 Air moves out of lungs
 Nervous Control of Breathing
o Respiratory centers located withing the brainstem establish rhythmic breathing patterns
 Actions of the Higher Brain Centers
o Hypothalamus
 Affects changes in breathing rate depending on temperature
 Higher temperatures increase breathing rate
 Limbic System
 Alters breathing rate in response to emotions
 Cerebral Cortex
 Controls voluntary changes in breathing patterns in response to various
activites
 I.e talking and singing
 Cortex sends impulses directly to neurons controlling respiratory muscles
(bypassing brainstem)
 Volumes and capacities
o The amount of air moved in and out of the lungs can be measured to determine the
condition of a person’s respiratory status
o Measured using a spirometer
o Used to identify losses in respiratory function and the course of respiratory disease
 Four respiratory volues
 o Tidal volume
 Volume of air entering/ leaving the lung per normal breath
o Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV)
 Volume of air maximally inspired over tidal volume
o Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 Volume of air that can be expired maximally beyond TV
o Residual volume (RV)
 Minimum volume of air remaining in lungs after maximal expiration
 Cannot be directly measured
 Factors that influence gas transfer (other than partial pressure)
o Surface area
 Increased by opening more capillaries (increased blood pressure and cardiac
output)
 Increased alveolar space (stretching) due to increased tidal volume
o Thickness
 Increased barrier thickness= less diffusion
 Oxygen and Carbon dioxide transport
o Oxygen attaches to iron in the heme portion of hemoglobin
o CO2 attaches to the globin portion
o H+ is attached to the globin portion
 Hemoglobin
o Hemoglobin’s ability to bind to one’s substance over the other is influenced by which
substance is bound to HB
 Conformational changes within Hb influence its ability to bind specific
Substances which is influenced by what is actually bound to Hb

Blood

 Blood
o Only fluid tissue in the body
o Specialized connective tissue
o Consists of plasma(fluid matrix) and specialized blood cells( formed elements):
 Erythrocytes aka RBCS
 Leukocytes aka WBCs
 Thrombocytes (platelets)
 Function of blood
o Transportation
 Delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues
 Removing metabolic wastes from cells
 Transporting hormone and other signaling molecules
o Regulation
 Absorb and distribute heat
 Maintaining normal pH
 Maintaining adequate fluid volume
o Protection
  Prevent blood loss via clotting
 Prevent infection
 Characteristics of blood
o Color
 Depenedent on the amount of oxygen its carrying
 Scarlet: oxygen rich
 Dark red: oxygen poor
o Volume
 Male: 5-6 Liters
 Female: 4-5 Liters
o Viscosity
 1-5x more dense than water
o Plasma concentration
 Relative concentration of solutes in the blood
 Determines whether fluids moeve in or out of tissues
o Temperature
 Slightly higher temperature than body (100.4 F or 38 c)
o Blood pH
 Slightly alkaline (pH= 7.35=7.45)
 Components of blood
o Plasma is 55%
 Plasma is 92% water; 7% plasma proteins;1% other solutes
 Plasma proteins include
o Albumins-bind many substances for transport
o Globulins- alpha beta and gamma
 Alpha- transport lipds and some metal ions; act as
regulators
 Beta- transport lipids and iron ions
 Gamma- antibodies or immunoglobulins
o Fibrinogen- blood clotting
 Medium for materials carried in the blood
o <1% Buffy coat
 Platelets
 Leukocytes
 Neutrophils
 Lymphocytes
 Monocytes
 Eosinophils
 Basophils
o 44% erythrocytes
 Hematocrit
o Packed blood cell volume
o Percentage of total volume of all the formed elements
 Erythrocyte
  Buffy coat
o Formed elements consist of
 Erythrocytes
 Leukocytes
 Thrombocytes
o Leukocytes are the only complete cells
o Most formed elements only survive a few days
o Most blood cells do not divide- they are continuously renewed in the bone marrow
 Hematopoiesis
o Production of formed elements
 Continual process
o Eryhtropoiesis
 Occurs in red bone marrow
 Children: most bones contain red bone marrow
 Adults: most redbone marrow is limited to sternum, ribs, upper ends of the long
bone
 Steps: Commitment-> Development-> maturation
o Leukopoiesis
 Production of leukocytes through 3 maturation processes
 Derived from myeloid lineage
 Derived from lymphoid lineage
o Thrombopoiesis
 Originates from myeloid line
 Thrombopoietein released by liver responsible for increased megakaryocyte
production
 Platelet formation
 Erythrocytes
o Responsible for transport of O2
o Can squeeze through narrow cappilaries easily
o Contain hemoglobin
o Anucleate and essentially possess no organelles
o Generate ATP via anaerobic mechanisms
 Hemoglobin
o Red pigmented protein in RBCs
o Binds easily and reversibly with O2
o Made of Globin and HEme
 Globin
 Four polypeptide chain- two alpha two beta
 Heme
 Non protein pigment, contains iron
 Four groups one of each globin
 RBC lifespan and destruction
o Lacks DNA, RNA, nor cell machinery for repair, growth or division
o Survives for about 120 days
 o Typically taken up by the spleen or liver and removed from circulation
 Phagocytized by macrophages
 RBC Volume Disorders
o Anemias- percentage of RBCs lower than normal
 Blood has abnormally low oxygen carrying capacity
 Results in decreased oxygen delivery to tisse thus heart has to work harder to
supply oxygen to body
 Types:
 Hemorrhagic anemia- loss of blood
 Hemolytic- rupture of circulating RBC by external factor
 Aplastic anemia- failure of the bone marrow to produce RBCs
 Low Hemoglobin count
o Nutritional anemia- dietary deficiency of a factor needed for
erythropoiesis i.e iron deficiency
o Pernicious anemia- inability to absorb vitamin B12
 Sickle cell anemia- abnormal hemobglobin; hemoglobin S (HbS)
o Polycythemias
 Abnormal excess of RBC
 Results in increased blood viscosity and thus reduced flow
 Heart has to work harder to overcome the peripheral pressure to deliver oxygen
to body
 Human Blood groups
o Antigens are specific cell-surface molecules that can be recognized by antibodies of the
immune system and thus initiate an immune response
o RBCs have highly specific antigens on their external surfaces
 These antigens can be recognized as foreign if transfused into persons that have
different blood types causing the transfused cells to clump together then be
destroyed
 These antignens are called agglutinogens because they promote cell clumping
(agglutination)


 
 Leukocytes (WBC)
 True cells of the blood
 Make up <1% of blood volume
 Mobile units of immune system
 Lack hemoglobin
 Localize to site of invasion or tissue damage
 Use a process called diapedesis to escape the blood stream
 Chemotaxis- is the process of attraction that direct leukocytes of the
site of infection or damage
o Granulocytes
 Multi-lobe nucleus & contains nucleus
 Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
 Functionally are phagocytes
o Agranulocytes
 Single nucleus
 Includes monocytes and lymphocuytes
o Neutrophils
 Most abundant leukocyte
 Phagocytic cell
 1st line of defense against bacterial invasion
 Important in inflammatory response
 Multilobed nucleus
o Eosinophil
 1-4% of leukocytes
 Phagocytize antigen antibody complex
 Attach to parasites and release factors tha kill
 Characterized by a two- lobed nucleus
o Basophil
 0.5-1% of total leukocyte population
  Synthesize and store histamine (vasodilator and inflammatory) and heparin
(anticoagulant)
 Histamine attracts other WBCs to site of inflammation
 Bilobed
o Monocytes
 2-8% of total leukocyte population
 Largest leukocyte
 Phagocytic cell
 Released as immature
 Differentiate into macrophages
 Nucleus is Cshaped
o Lymphocytes
 20-40% of leukocyte population
 Involved in immune defense
 B-cells: produce antibodies and mark foreign substances for destruction
(antibody-mediated immunity)
 T-cells: target and destroy foreign or compromised cells (cell mediated
immunity)
o Platelets (Thrombocytes)
 Not whole cells, but are fragments from Megakaryocytes
 Contain organelles and cystolic elements
 Stored in spleen (1/3 in circulating number
 Functional role in hemostasis
 After 10 days its removed by macrophages
o Hemostasis
 Arrest of bleeding from a broken blood vessel- aka making a scab
 Involves 3 major steps
 Vascular plasm
o Cut/ torn blood vessel immediately constricts-> slowing
bloodflow
 Formation of platelet plug
o Platelets come and group up to seal the break
 Blood coagulation(clotting)
o Formation of the blood clot
 Comprised of an insoluble network of fibrin
 Traps blood elements within to form the clot
o Requires the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by the enzyme,
thrombin at the site of injury
 Circulatory/ cardiovascular system
o 3 parts: Heart
 Serves as the pump that imparts the pressure to move the blood to the tissue
o Blood vessels
 The conveyance through which blood travels
 Perfusion
  The delivery of blood per time per gram of tissue
o Blood
 Medium used to transport materials long distances in the body
 Blood vessels
o Arteries
 Carry blood away from heart
o Capillaries
 Serve as the vessels of exchange
 Between blood and air
 Between blood and cell
o Veins
 Carry blood toward the heart
 The Heart
o Hollow, 4 chambered organ
o Three anatomic features
 Two pump structure
 Great vessels that deliver and propel blood
 Two pairs of valves
 Two Pump Structure
o Right pump
 Receives deoxygenated blood from body and propels it to lungs
o Left pump
 Receives oxygenated blood from lungs and propels it to body
o Both pumps have chambers
 Receiving chamber -atrium
 Superior chambres
 Contractions contribute very little to the propulsion of blood from the
heart
 Propelling chamber called ventricle
 Inferior chambers
 The propelling chambers for the blood returning to circulation
 Great Vessels
o Blood is delivered directly to and from the heart
o Continuous with the chambers
o Two large arteries
 Found on superior border of the ventricles
 Pulmonary trunk
 Splits into pulmonary arteries
 Receives deoxygenated blood form right ventricle
 Aorta
 Receives oxygenated blood from left ventricle
o Large veins
 Found on the posterior aspect of the heart (on top of it)
 Deliver deoxygenated blood form body to right atrium
  Superior vena cava
 Inferior vena cava
 Deliver oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium
 Pulmonary veins
 Pairs of valves
o Two pairs of valves
o Atrioventricular (AV) valves – in between atrium and ventricles
 Right AV valve aka tRIcuspid valve
 Left AV valve aka mitral valve or bicuspid valve
o Semilunar valves
 Lie between ventricle and arterial trunk
 Pulmonary semilunar valve
 Lies between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk
 Aortic semilunar valve
 Lies between left ventricle and aorta
o Serve to direct blood flow into the heart and prevent backflow
 Ensures unidirectional flow
 Circulation
o Two circuit
o Right side is the pulmonary circuit
 Delivers deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs
 Gas exchange occurs in lungs
 Returns oxygenated blood to heart from lungs
o Left side is the systemic circuit
 Delivers oxygenated blood from heart to tissues
 Material and gas exchange occurs in tissues
 Returns deoxygenated blood from tissues to heart
o Equal amounts of blood are pumped by both ventricles- aka ventricular balance
 The pericardium
o The covering of the ehart
o Double walled sac enclosing the heart- aka pericardial sac
o Two parts
 Fibrous pericardium- outermost layer
 Tough connective tissue
 Functions:
o Protect the hart
o Anchor to the surrounding structures
o Prevents from overfilling
 Serous pericardium- innermost layer
 Thin two layer serous membrane
 Outermost layer is the parietal layer
 Innermost layer is the visceral layer (aka epicardium)
 Between the two layers is a potential spaces called the pericardial cavity filled
with serous fluid
  Allows the two serous layers to slide without friction
 Layers of the heart wall
o Epicardium
 The visceral layer of the serous pericardium
o Myocardium
 Cardiac muscle bundles
 Spirally arranged around the circumference of the heart
 Fibrous connective tissue network
o Endocardium
 Continuous with endothelium of blood vessels
 Ventricular wall thickness
o Heart wall thickness differs between the ventricles
o Right Ventricle
 Pulmonary side
 Low resistances, low pressure to overcome, does not need to generate much
force
o Left ventricle
 System side
 High resistance, high pressure to overcome, needs to generate lots of force
o Left ventricle wall is thicker than right
 Heart anatomy
o Septa- interatrial septum- thin wall that separates right and left atrium
o Right Atrium
 Pectinate muscles
 Fossa ovalis
 Coronary sinus- vessel through which blood returns to heart from coronary
circulation
 Openings of SVC and IVC
 Tricuspid Valve
o Right ventricle
 Trabeculae carneae
 Papillary muscle
 Chordae tendineae
 Pulmonary semilunar valve
o Left atrium
 Pectinate muscles
 Fossa ovalis
 Opening for pulmonary veins
 Mitral or bicuspid valve
o Left Ventricle
 Trabeculae carneae
 Papillary muscle
 Chordae tendineae
 aortic semilunar valve
 Cardiac muscle
o Striated
o Intercalated discs
 Link cardiac muscle cells together mechanically and eletctrically
 Desmosomes- connect mechanically
 Gap junction- connect electrically
o Not voluntary
 Internal pacemakers
 Neural regulation
 Coronary circulation
o Heart has its own blood supply
o It can’t receive nutrients from the blood being pumped in the heart
o Factoid: the shortest circulation in the body
o Blood flow is intermittent due to heart pumping
o Left coronary artery supplies the left side of the heart
 Anterior interventricular artery
 Circumflex artery
o Right coronary artery supplies the right side of the heart
 Right marginal artery
 Posterior interventricular artery
o Cardiac veins collect the blood from the capillaries of the myocardium
 Join together to from the Coronary sinus
 Returns blood (deoxygenated) back to the right atrium
 Three large tributaries of the coronary sinus (they empty into the coronary
sinus)
 Great cardiac vein
 Middle cardiac vein
 Small cardiac vein
 ANTERIOR CARDIAC VEINS empty into the right atriu
 Heart’s conduction system
o SA node
 PACEMAKER
 Sets the rate for the rest of the heart
 60-100 bpm
 Firing of SA node, leads to an impulse thorught the right and left atria, leading
to action potential through the body and ATRIAL CONTRACTION
o AV node “resistor”
 Slows impulse conduction between the artia and ventricles
 Allows time for the contracting atria to fill the ventricles with blood before the
lower chambers contract
o Bundle of his (atrioventricular bundle)
o Purkinje fibers
 Innervation of the heart
o Heart rate and strength of contraction and regulated by the ANS
 o Cardiac centers extend from the medulla to the heart
o Sympathetic innervation
 Cardioacceleratory center send nerve signals along sympathetic nerves which
results in an increase in both ehart rate and force of contraction
o Parasympathetic
 Cardioinhibitory center sends the nerve signals along vagus nerves (CN X0 which
results in a decrese in heart rate
 Generally has no effect on force of contraction
 ECG Electrocardiogram
o P wave: atrial depolarization
 SA node generates impulse; atrial excitation begins
 Impulse delayed at AV node
o QRS complex: ventricular depolarization
 Impulse passes to heart apex; ventricular excitation begins
 Ventricular excitation complete
o T wave: ventricular repolarization
o PR interval: AV nodal delay
o QT interval: plateau phase and ventricular contractile cells
o TP interval: heart is at rest and ventricular filling is taking place
 Mechanical events of the Cardiac cycle
o The heart alternatively contracts to empty and relax to fill
 Systole: contraction and emptying; spread of excitation
 Diastole: relaxation and filling; subsequent repolarization
o Both atria and ventricles have their own cycles of systole and diastole
 Cardiac Cycle
o Isovolumetric ventricular contraction
 In response to depolarization, tension in the ventricles increases.
 This rise in pressure withing the ventrivles leads to the closure of the mitral and
tricuspid valves.
 The pulmonic and aortic valves (semilunar) are closed the entire phase
o Atrial systole aka Atrial Kick
 Atria contracts and ventricles relax
 Ventricular pressure is less than atrial pressure and arterial trunk pressure
 AV valves are open
 Semilunar valves are closed
 Supplies the ventrivles with the remaining 30% of the blood for each heartbeat
 CHECK PPT
 Heart Sounds
o Lub dup
 First sound: Lub: closure of AV valves
 Second sound: Dup: closure of the semilunar valve
o Murmur: sound resulting from abnormal vibrations caused most commonly by valve
malfunctions
 Factors that affect heart rate
 o External factors that act on the SA and AV node
 Autonomic innervation
 Varying levels of some hormones
 Other chemicals and drugs
o Collectively termed chronotropic agents
 Positive: caffeine
 Negative: beta blockers
 Cardiac Output
o The amount of blood the heart pumps in 1 minute
o Cardiac Output= heart rate x stroke volume
 Stroke volume: the amount of blood ejected with each heartbeat
 Stroke volume depends on three factors SEE SMALL BOOK
 Preload or Venous return
o Volume of Blood returned to the heart via the great veins and is
directly related to stroke volume
o Example: Preload is like a balloon stretching as air is blown into
it. The more the air the greater the stretch
 Contractility
o The force of contraction at a given stretch of the cardiac cells
o The inherent ability of the myocardium to contract normally
o Example: the more air in the balloon, the greater the stretch
and the father the balloon will fly when air is allowed to expel
 Afterload
o The pressure the ventricular muscles must generate to
overcome the pressure in the aorta to eject the blood out of the
heart.
o Example: the knot on the end of the balloon which it has to
work against to get the air out
 Blood Vessels
o Arteries
 Carry Blood away from heart to the capillaries
o Capillaries
 Microscopic and relatively porous
 Serve as the vessels of exchange
 Between blood and air
 Between blood and cells
 Veins
 Collect blood from capillaries and carry blood toward the heart
 General structure of vessels
o Shared structures of arteries and veins
o Walls composed of three layers called tunics
 Tunic intima
 Endothelium and supports it
 Tunic media
  Responsible for vasoconstriction and vasodilation
 Tunic externa
 innervated
o The inner space of the vessel is called the lumen
 The arterial system
o Extend from the heart to the capillaries
o Three levels of organization
 Elastic arteries aka conducting arteries
 Serve as pressure reservoir
 Muscular arteries aka distributing arteries
 Most active in vasoconstriction and vasodilation
 Deliver blood to specific body organs
 Arterioles
 The smallest arteries
 Responsible for regulating minute to minute blood flow to the
capillaries
 Capilaries
o Responsible for material exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid
 Read the rest in small book

Nervous system

 Nervous system
o Master controlling and communication system in the body
o Communicates by electrical and chemical signals
 Three overlapping function
o Gathering sensory input
 Millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes inside and outside the body
o Integration sensory input
 Processes and interprets to respond to changes that have been detected
o Initiates motor output
 Response to sensory input
 Structural Organization of the Nervous system
o Nervous system has two principal parts
o Central NS or CNS
 Brain and spinal cord
 Integration and control centers
o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Nerves and ganglia
 Receive information and perform action
 Functional Organization of the nervous system



 Two principle types of cells
o Neurons: excitable cells in the nervous system that transmit electrical signals
o Supporting cells (glial cells are neuroglia): smaller cells that provide support
 Neurons
o The basic functional structure of the nervous system
o Excitable cell that initiates and transmits electrical signals
 o Conduct electrical signals from one part of the body to another
o Neurons communicate by secreting neurotransmitters in response to conductive activity
o Amitotic: lose their ability to divide
 Neuron cell body
o Cytoplasm is called perikaryon
o Contain the usual organelles except centrioles
o Protein making machinery is highly active
 Ribosomes called Nissl bodies or chromatphilic substances
o Clusters of cell bodies have specific names
 CNS- nuclei
 PNS- ganglia
 Neural processes
o Processes extend from the cell body
o CNS consists of both neuron cell bodies and their processes(tracts)
o PNS primarily consists of processes (nerves)
o Two types with different structure and function
 Dendrites
 Main receptive (or input) regions of the neuron
 More dendrites =more input received
 Convey incoming messages twards the cell body
o NOT action potential
 Axons
 Each neuron has only one
 Arises from the axon hillock
 May divide along its length (collaterals)
 Branches into axon terminals or sypnatic knob
 Axon
o Functionalaly is the conducting region of the neuron
 Generates the nerve impulse
 Transmits away from cell body to the terminal
o Sturctures
 Lacks Nissl bodies and golgi apparatus
 Depends on cell body for protein production
 Cytoplasm is called the axoplasm
 Plasma membrane is called axolemma
 Structural classification of Neuron
o Multipolar:
 3+ processes
 Most common in CNS
o Bipolar
 2 processes
 >---o---<
o Unipolar
 Single process (T like)
  Chiefly located in the PNS
o Anaxonic
 Have only dendrites and no axon
 Produce only local electric signals
 Produces no action potentials
 The reflex arc
o A neural relay cycle for quick motor response to a harmful sensory stimuli-
o requires a sensory(afferent) neuron and a motor (efferent)
o the stimulus triggers a sensory impulse, which travles along the dorsal root to the spinal
cord
o Two synaptic transmissions happen at the same time
 One synapse continues the impulse along a sensory neuron to the brain
 The other immediately relays the impulse to an interneuron, which transmits to
a motor neuron
 Overview of brain anatomy
o Brain and the spinal cord compose of the CNS
o The Brain has four major regions
 Cerebrum
 Left and right hemispheres
 Each hemisphere has five functional areas called lobes
o Frontal lobe
o Parietal lobe
o Occipital lobe
o Temporal lobe
o Insula
 Diencephalon
 Brainstem
 Cerebellum
 Land marks of Cerebrum
o Gyrus: folds of nervous tissue
o Sulcus: shallow depresions between the folds
o Fissure: deeper grooves between the folds
o Rostral: anterior/ towards the nose
o Caudal: posterior/ towards the tail
 Gray and White matter
o Gray matter
 Consists of cell bodies of motor neurons and interneurons
 Includes capillary beds, neuronal dendrites and some unmyelinated axons
 Localized around the spinal cord and ventricles of the cerebrum
 Externally located in the cerebrum and cerebellum
o White matter
 Dominated by myelinated axons
 Found in the gray matter of spinal cord
 Also found in cerebrum and cerebellum
 Four Major features to help protect the CNS from injury
o Enclosed by hard, bony structures: cranium and vertebrae
o Three protective membranes(meninges) between the bony structures and nervous
tissue PAD (inside to outside)
 Pia mater
 Arachnoid matter
 Dura matter
o The Brain is suspended in CSF created by ependymal cells
o High selective Blood brain barrier limits access of blood borne materials into the brain
tissues
 The ventricles
o Cavities within the brain containing CSF
 Lined with ependymal cells
 Four ventricles in the brain: interconnected with one another and the central
canal of the spinal cord
o Two lateral venticles
 Located in the cerebrum
 Communicate 3rd ventricle via interventricular foramen
o Third ventricle
 Located in diencephalon
 Communicate with 4th via cerebral aqueduct
o Fourth ventricle
 Located between pons and cerebellum
 Continues on to the spinal cord
 CSF
o Circulates in the ventricles and subarachnoid space
o Function
 Buoyancy
 Protection / shock absorber
 Environmental stability
 Transports nutrients and wastes to and from the brain
 Cerebrum:
o Responsible for the conscious mind
 Thoughts
 Sensory perception
 Memory
o Contains three kinds of functional areas
 Motor
 Sensory
 Association
 Cerebal lobes
o Frontal
 Voluntary motor activity, speech, and thought, decision making and planning
o Parietal
  Intereprets and integrates sensations, including pain, temperature, and touch
o Occipital lobe
 Visual processing/ interpreting visual stimuli
o Temporal lobe
 Memory, language comprehension, hearing, learning and understanding,
storage and recall of memories olfactory
 Motor areas
o Primary motor cortex
 Concious control of voluntary movements of our skeletal muscles
o Broca’s are
 Directs muscles controlling speech
o Front eye field
 Controls voluntary movement of the eyes
 Sensory areas
o Primary somatosensory cortex
 Receive information from the somatosensory receptors
o Primary visual cortex
 Recieves and processes visual input from eye
o Primary auditory cortex
 Receives and processes signals from auditory machinery
o Primary olfactory cortex
 Perception of smell
o Primary gustatory cortex
 Perception of taste
 Association areas
o Process and interpret incoming data or coordinate a motor response
 Premotor cortex (somatic motor association area)
 Control learned motor skills of a repetitious or patterned nature
 Somatosensory association area
 Integrates sensory input to help interpret touch
 Visual association area
 Processes and intergrates visual information
 Auditory association area
 Integrates sound stimuli and permits the recognition of the sound
 Central white matter
o Responsible of communication within the brain
 Laterilzation
o Right brain (aka representational hemisphere)
 Dominates music, spatial relationship, facial recognition, shape recognition
o Left brain (aka categorical hemisphere)
 Dominates in language, speech, math skills, verbal memory
 Diencephalon
o Provides the relay and switching centers for some sensory and motor pathways
o Control visceral activities
 o Three paired sturctures
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Maintains overall body homeostasis
 Main visceral control center of the body
 Epithalamus
 Pineal gland
o Secretes melatonin to regulate circadian rhythms
 Hypothalamus
o Autonomic control center
o Center for emotional response
o Body temperature regulation
o Regulation of food intake
o Regulation of water balance and thirst
o Regulation of sleep-wake cycle
o Control of endocrine system
 The brain stem
o Responsible for producing the autonomic behaviors for survaival
o Midbrain
 Control head and eye movement in response to movement and sounds
 Tegmentum: involved in motor function and controls movement
 Tectum: the tectum is involved in auditory and visual functions
o Pons
 Serves as a cite of relay/conduction between the cerebrum and cerebellum and
between the higher brain and spinal cord
o Medulla oblangata
 controls breathing, digestion, sneezing, swallowing, and heart function, blood
pressure
 The Cerebellum
o Second largest structure in the brain
o Provides coordination- the precise timing and appropriate patterns of movement of
skeletal msucles
o Stores motor memory
o Folds called folia
o Coordinates and fine tunes skeletal movement
o Maintains equilibrium and posture
o Compares intent versus performance and thus modulates movement
 The limbic system
o Group of structures located on the medial aspect of each cerebral hemisphere and the
diencephalon
o Emotional brain
 Higher order brain functions
o Cognition
 Awareness, knowledge, memory and perception
  Association areas of the cerebrum are responsible
 Also process and integrate information between sensory and motor
output
o Memory
 Sensory memory: six senses like sight; very brief
 Short term: formed in the hippocampus
 Long term: converted form short term memory: stored in cerebral cortex
o Emotion
 Lymbic system gives rise to our emotional response
o Language
 Broca’s area: governs speaking, articulation of speech
 Wernicke’s area: language comprehension
 Cranial nerves
o Occipital
o Oculomotor
o optic
o Trigeminal
o Trochlear
o Vagus
o Vestibulocochlear
o Hypoglossal
o Accessory
o Glossopharyngeal nerve
o Facial nerve
o Abducens
 The spinal cord
o 31 paired spinal nerves exit from the spinal cord through the intervertebral foramen
o Cervical; thoracic
o Lumbar
o Sacral
o Coccygeal
 Sensory pathway: Nerve signals ascend to the brain in sensory pathways
 Motor pathway: nerve signals descend from the brain in motor pathways
 Peripheral Nervous system
o Sympatheic nerves (fight or flight)
o Parasympathetic nerves (which control basic function)
 Autonomic Nervous system
o Maintains homeostasis within the body
o Controls functions of the internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissues, and
glands.
o Controlled by the hypothalamus
o Divided into sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
o SNS: “fight or flight” increase heart rate, increase adrenaline
o ParaNS counteracts SNS
  Somatic Nervous system and Reflex Arc
o The Somatic nervous system controls the 5 senses and the voluntary movement of
skeletal muscle
o So this system has all the neurons that are connected to sens organs
o Efferent nerves bring signals from the CNS to sensory organs and muscles
o Afferent nerves bring signals from the sensory organs and muscles to the CNS
o The somatic nervous system also performs involuntary movements which are known as
reflex arc
 Reflex
o Autonomic response without any conscious thought to a stimulus via reflex arc
o Reflex arc: simplest nerve pathway which bypasses the brain and is controlled by the
spinal cord
o The stimulus is detected by sensory resceptors and a message is sent along a
sensory(afferent) neuron to one or more interneurons in the spinal cord.
o The interneurons transmit this message to a motor(efferent) neuron which carries the
message to the correct effector (muscle)

Endocrine System

 The endocrine system

o Communicated to target cells through secreted hormones
 Hormones are released from endocrine glands and transported in the blood
o Target cells are characterized by having the appropriate recepteor for that hormone
o Response
 Longer response time
 Longer lasting response
 Wide spread response
 Functions of ES
o Maintaining homeostasis of blood composition and volume
o Controlling reproductive activities
o Regulating development growth and metabolism
o Controlling digestive processes
 Endocrine glands
o Pituitary gland
o Thyroid
 Secretes
 Calcitonin: decrease blood calcium
 Thyroxine and Triodothyronine: increase metabolism
o Adrenal gland
o Pineal
 Part of the epithalamus
 Secretes melatonin which plays a role in circadian rhythm regulation
o Parathyroid gland
 Four small nodules
 Primary chief cells produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  Plays a role in plasma CA concentrations
 Stimulating hormone synthesis and release
o Hormonal stimulation
 When one glandular hormone stimulates the release of another glandular
hormone
o Humoral stimulation
 Stimulation in response to changes in the levels of a substance circulating in the
blood
o Nervous stimulation
 Direct stimulation by the nervous system
 Categories of hormones
o Steroids: lipid soluble fromed in cholestrerol; produced by gonads and adrenal cortex
 Androgens, estrogen, progestin, cortisol, corticosteroids
o Protein hormone: water soluble: consists of amino acid chains
 Polypeptides, oligopeptides, glycoproteins
o Biogenic amine: water soluble: derived from amino acid that is modified
 Catecholamines, thyroid hormone (lipid soluble)
 Hormone Transport in the blood
o Hydrophilic hormones dissolve in the plasma
o Lilophillic hormones must be bound by a carrier molucules
 Carriers are water soluble and produced by liver
 Specific plasma proteins that only bind one substance ex: androgen binding
protein
 Nonspecific carriers bind multiple substances
 Albumin
 Binding a carrier is a temporary event
 Carriers protect hormone
 Hormone Action
o Different kinds of cells have unique/different signal transducation pathways
 Different 1st messengers-receptors and different downstream effectors
 cAMP(cyclic adenosine monophosphate)is usually 2nd messenger in pathway
 activates protein kinase A which is an effector
 Amplifying the response
o Cascade effect
 A signal gets amplified at each step
 A very little hormone can create a large response
o Affect multiple processes at once with a single signal
 Response time
o Hydrophilic hormones
 Usually used in 2nd hormones
 Alters existing protein activity
 Relatively fast( secs to min)
o Lipophilic hormones
 Generally act as transcriptions factors (along with receptor)
  Results in de novo protein synthesis
 Relatively slow (hours to days)
o Hormonal is relatively slow but has a longer duration
 Both 2nd messenger and de novo protein synthesis continues after the hormone
uncouples from the rececptor
 Number of receptors
o Fluctuates under strict control
o Number of receptors influence the degree of cellular response
 Up regulation (increase in receptors) in response to reduced hormone
concentration in the blood
 Down regulation (decrease in receptors) in response to decreased hormone
concentration in the blood
 Receptor Interactions
o Synergism
 Complementary
 Hormones work together to produce greater effect
 Ex: FSH and Testosterone maintain spermatogenesis
o Permissiveness
 First hormone allows action of second hormone
 Ex: TH increases the number of epinephrine receptors in target cells
o Antagonism
 One hormone causes opposite effect of another
 EX: progesterone (decreases conractions during pregnancy) inhibits uterine
responsiveness to estrogen (increases contractions during pregnancy
 Pituitary gland aka hypophysis
o Connected to the hypothalamus via infundibulum
o Two lobed
 Anterior pituitary (glandular)
 Posterior pituitary (neural)
o Hormones released by the pituirtary gland are directly controlled by hypothalamus
 Anterior pituitary(vascular link)
 Posterior pituitary (neural pathway)
 Posterior pituitary gland
o Neurosecretory neuron cell bodies located in the hypothalamus
 Synthesize vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin
o Axons from these neurons travel to the posterior pituitary
o Cells withing each nuclei can make either vasopressin or oxytocin, but not both
 Anterior pituitary gland
o Synthesizes and secretes six major hormones
o Tropic hormones
 Regulate secretion of another specific endocrine gland
 GH, TSH, ACTH
 FSH, LH (gonadotropins)
o Hormone
  PRL
o Hormone release is regulated by hypothalamic hormones and feedback by target-gland
hormones
 Anterior pituitary gland continued
o Referred as master gland of body
o Function: to control growth, metabolism, and reproduction
o Tropic hormones
 FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and lutenizing hormone (Lh)
 Regulate activity in the gonads
 Collectively known as gonadotoprins
 Thyroid stimulating hormone
 Regulates hormone secretion of the thyroid
 Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
 Regulates hormone production and secretion of the adrenal cortex
 Cause release of corticosteriods
 Growth Hormone (GH)
 Affects metabolism and regulates hormone production by the liver
 Aka somatotropin
o Hormones
 Prolactin( PRL)
 Controls milk production and plays a role in immune response
 Melanocyte Stimulating hormone (MSH)
 Stimulates the rate of melanin synthesis by melanocytes and
distribution of melanocytes in the skin
 Growth Hormone
o Function:
 Multiple fucntions relating to increased metabolic activity resulting in
hypertrophic and hyperplastic activity
o GH secretion regulated through HYPOTHALAMUS
 GHRH: inhibits GH release
 GHIH and GH inhibits GH release
o Primary target is hepatocyte
 Thyroid Gland
o Two lobes overlying trachea below the larynx
 Thyroid Hormone
o Function
 Main determinant of basal metabolic rate (idling speed)
 Increases o2 consumption and energy expenditure under resting conditions
 Byproducts of increased metabolism is heat production
o TH secretion regulated through hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland
 TRH
 Secreted by hypothalamus, this triggers the release of TSH
 TSH
  Secreted by anterior pituitary, promotes the production and release of
TH
o Mode of action
 Two forms: triiodothyronine and thyroxine
 Majority of TH is thyroxine
o Effect
 Glucose sparing
 Promotes glycogenolysis and gluconegensis
 Promostes lipolysis
 Inhibits lipogenesis
 Sympathomimetic
 Increases target responsivess to catecholamines(epi and norE)
o The adrenal gland
 Paired structures located above the kidney
 Two regions that secrete different types of hormones
 Adrenal medulla
o Modified sympathetic ganglion
o Secretes catecholamines (epi and norE) in response to
sympathetic stimulation
 Adrenal Cortex
o Cells contain high concentration of lipids
o Production of corticosteroids
o Divided into 3 regions
 Zona glomerulosa(outer)
 Produce mineralocorticoids
o Help regulate the composition and
concentration of electroyltes in bodily
fluids
 Produce aldosterone
 Zona Fasiciulata (middle)
 Produce cortisol and corticosterone from the
glucocoritcoids
 Zona reticularis( inner)
 Produce androgens (ex: DHEA) from
gonadocorticoids
 Cortisol
o Function
 Increased metabolic activity in response to stress
 Cortisol secretion is regulated through the hypothalamus to the anterior
pituitary gland
 Hypothalums releases CRH which promotes the release of ACTH in the anterior
pituitary gland which promotes the production of glucocorticoids which includes
cortisol
 Corticosterone
 o Also produced in Zona fasciculata
o Funcitons
 Anti-inflammatory activity
 Suppress immune response
 Inhibits connective tissue repair
 Sex hormones are also produced in the adrenal cortex
 Endocrine pancreas
o Pancrease has both endocrine and exocrine function
o Pancreatic acina
 Exocrine activity
 Secrete zymogens responsible for digestion in small instestine
o Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
 Two primary cell types:
 Alpha: produce glucagon
o Increase concentrations of blood glucose levels in response to
decreased blood glucose
 Beta: produce insulin
o Insulin: reduces concentrations of blood glucose levels in
response to increased blood glucose
o Primary function of exocrine pancreas is to regulate blood glucose levels
 PTH and calcitonin
o Parathyroid hormone
 Produced by parathyroid gland
 Secreted to increase CA2 levels
 Acts on bone, kidney, and small intestine
o Calcitonin
 Produced by thyroid gland
 Secreted to decrease CA2 levels
 Acts on bone and kidney
 Calcitrol
o Vitmain D produced in skin on exposure to UV light form cholesterol precursor
o Increases intestinal resabsorption of CA 2+ and PO4
 Types of Endocrine
o Autocrine: happens at the cell: example t cells release interluekins to increase its
effectiveness against invaders
o Paracrine: happens regionally: example hypothalamus causes the pituitary gland to
release hormones
o Endocrine happens distally

Tissues

 4 basic types
o Epithelium- covering
o Connective-support
 o Muscle-movement
o Nervous-control
 Epithelial tissues
o Sheet of cells that covers the body surface and lines the body cavities
 Covering epithelium- provides the covering of the body(skin) and cavities
 Glandular epithelium- make up the glands of the body
o Polarity- apical basal polarity
 Apical surface= exposed side
 Basal surface- attached surface
 Lateral surface= edge side
o Cells differ between both the apical and basal side
 Apical side: most possess microvilli and maybe cilia
 Basal side: basal lamina secreted by the epithelia that selectively filters
molecules diffusing from the underlying connective tissue and acts as a scaffold
o Supported by connective tissue- all epithelium rests upon connective tissue
 Reticular lamina
 Made of collagen
 Basement membrane
 Serves to reinforce the epithelial sheet
o Specialized contacts
 Usually form continuous sheets (except for glandular epithelium)
 Connected by tight junctions and desmosomes
o Avascular but innervated
 No blood but has fibers
 Nourished by molecules diffusing from the blood vessels in the underlying
connective tissue
o Regenerative
 Ability to reaplace lost or damaged cells
 Epithelial functions
o Protection
o Selective permeablity
o Secretion
o Sensory reception
 Epithelial Nomenclature
o All epithelia have two names
o First name based on the number of cell layers
 Simple Epithelium
 Single layer of cells found where absorption and filtration occur
 Stratified Epithelium
 2+ layers of cells stacked on top of one another
 Found where protection is needed
 The nomenclature of stratified cells is based on the most apical cell
layer
 Regenerative
 o All epithelia hae two names
o Second name describes the shape of cell; squamous (scale like flat), cuboidal(boxlike),
columnar (tall column- shaped)
 Simple epithelium
o Most concerned with permeability(absorption and filtration) and secretion
 Three types of interest
 Simple squamous, cuboidal, columnar
 Two specially named epithelium
 Endothelium- makes up the hollow organs of the lymphatic and
cardiovascular system
 Mesothelium- found in serous membranes lining the body cavities
 Examples:
o Simple squamous epithelium- alveoli, lining of lumen of lymph vessels and blood
vessels, serous membranes of body cavities
o Simple cuboidal epithelium- kidney tubules, ducts and secretory regions of most glands;
surface of ovary; thyroid gland follicles
o Simple
 Examples of Stratified epithelia
o Ciliated and nonciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium- ciliated form lines larger
airways of respiratory tract; nonciliated: male urethra and epididymis
o Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium: lining of oral cavity, part of pharynx,
esophagus, lining of vagina, and anus
o Kertanized stratified squamous epithelium: epidermis of skin
o Stratified cuboidal epithelium
 Ducts of most exocrine glands
o Stratified columnar epithelium
 Large ducts of salivary glands and in membranous part of male urethra
 Transitional epithelium
o Line the hollor organs of the urinary organs (bladder, ureters, and part of urethra)
o Cuboidal or columnar
 Glands
o Secretion
 An aqueous fluid containing protein
 Some can contain lipids or steroids
o Endocrine Glands
 Produce hormones
 Ductless glands
 Internally secreting(into extraceulluar fluid)
 Most are not epithelial cell derivatives
o Exocrine
 Esternally secreting
 Secrete their products onto body surfaces or into body cavities
 Often classified based on structure
 Unicellular v Multicelluar
 o Unicelluar
 One cell
 Scattered within epithelial sheets
 Secrete their products exocytosis
 Primary example is the goblet cell
o Multicelluar
 Structurally complex
 Formed by invagination or evagination or the epithelial sheets
 Most have ducts
 Divided into lobes by connective tissue and surrounded by blood vessels and
nerve fiber
 Two basic unitsd
 Acinus: secreting portion
 Ducts : the conducting portion
 Classified by either anatomic form or mode of secretion
 Anatomic classification
o Ducts
 Simple glands have a single unbranched duct
 Compound glands have branched dcuts
o Acinus
 Tubular glands have ducts and acinus of uniform diameter
 Acinar glands have acinus that is larger than the diameter of the duct
 Tubuloacinar have both features in the acinus
 Method of secretion
o Merocrine: package their secretion in secretory vesicles and secrete via exocytosis;
gland cell remains intact
 EX: lacrimal and salivary glands
o Apocrine: apical portion of the cell membrane and a portion of the glandular cytoplasm
pinch off; damaged cell repairs itself
 EX: mammary gland, sweat glands
o Holocrine: Cell accumulates product and ruptures; Cell is replaced
 EX: sebacerous glands (oil producing glands of skin)
 Connective Tissue
o Most abundance and widely distributed
o Composition and quanitity varies depending on the organ
o Primary functions and connective tissue
 Protectioon and insulation
 Binding, support and structure
 Storage
 Transportation
o Three main classes
 Connective tissue proper
 Suporting connective tissue
 Fluid connective tissue
 Cells of the connective tissues
o Resident cells: remained house within the CT
 Support, maintain, and repair the extracelluar matrix
 Fibroblasts
 Most abundant cell in CT proper
 Produce fibers and ground substance of the ECM
 Adipocytes
 Aka fat cells
 Appear in small clusters
 If dominate cell type in CT-> adipose tissue
 Mesenchymal cells
 Stem cell of CT
 Fixed Macrophages
 Derived from monocytes
 Consume celluar debris and pathogens
 Stimulate the immune system
o Wandering cells: continuously move through the CT
 Part of immune system
 Repairs damaged ECM
 Mast cells: secrete heparin( prevent clotting) and histamine( dilate
blood vessels)
 Plasma cells: (activated B- lymphocyte)
o Produce antibodies
 Free macrophages: mobile phagocytes
 Fibers of the connective tissues
o Provide structural support anda strengthen tissue
o Collagen fibers
 Unbranched, long fibers
 Strong flexible resistant to stretching
o Reticular fibers
 Thinner than collagen
 Coated with glycoproteins
 Form branching interwoven networkds
 Tough, but flexible
 Abundant in stroma of organs
o Elastic fibers
 Contain elastin
 Fibers stetch and recoil easily

 Connective tissue proper
o Loose connective tissue:
 Areolar: papillary layer of the skin, subcutaneous layer, surrounds organs,
nerves and blood vessels
 Adipose: subcutaneous layer, surrounds and covers some organs
 Reticular: spleen lymphnodes, thymus and bone marrow
o Dense:
 Regular: tendons, ligaments
 Irregular: most of dermis of skin; periosteum covering bone
 Elastic: walls of elastic arteries, trachea, vocal cords, suspensory ligament of
penis
 Supportive connective tissue
o Cartilage
 Hyaline: tip of nose, trachea, most of larynx, costal cartilage, ends of long bones,
most of fetal skeleton
 Fibrocartiliage: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee joints
 Elastic cartilage: external ear; eppligottis of larynx
o Bone
 Matrix is similar to cartilage but harder
 Osteoblasts produce the organic portion of the matrix
 Osteocytes reside within the matrix(lucanae) they made and maintain it
 Bone is vascularized and innervated
 Fluid connective tissue
o Blood: formed elements: erythrocytes, WBC, platelets
o Lymph
 Arises from blood
 Lacks cells and proteins due to filtration
 Returned abck to plasma
 Muscle tissue
o Highly vascularized
o Produce movement
o Contractions are the result of interaction of cytoskeletal elements
 o Skeletal muscle tissue
 Long and Striated
 Voluntary
 Attaches to bones or sometimes to skin (facial muscles)
o Cardiac muscle tissue
 Short and striated
 involuntary
 Heart wall (myocardium)
o Smooth muscle tissue
 Nonstriated
 involuntary
 Walls of hollow internal organs, such as intestines, stomach, airways
 Nervous tissue
o Two cell types
 Neurons: receiving, transmitting, and processing nerve impulses
 Glial cells: responsible for supporting, insulating, protecting the neurons
 Do not transmit nerve impulses
 Body Membranes
o Formed from epithelium overlying a layer of CT
o Line body cavities, cover the viscera and external surfaces
o Mucous membrane(mucosa)
 Line passageways that lead to exertnal environment
 Absorptive, protective and secretory functions
 Glands within epithelium produce mucus that loverlays it
o Serous membranes
 Line body cavities not open to external environment
 Produce serous fluid (thin, watery)
 Two layers (parietal and visceral) and potential space between
 Reduces friction between the opposing surfaces
o Cutaneous membrane
 Aka skin
 Covers the external surfaces of the body