STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Parr T Elementary Theory and Problems S. TIMOSHENKO Prefer of Thain and Roping Mechnien ‘iors meray SECOND EDITIONTRNTH PRINTING D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Inc. ‘ToRoNTO NEW YORK LONDON, Van Nostrand! Company, Ine, 250 Fourth Aven, New York 3 Yan Nostrand Company, (Cand), Ld, 228 Bor Stree, Tounto Macmillan & Company, 1d, St. Martin's Stree London, W.C. 2 eorrat. 109, 1840 oy D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Ine Thich, tan te, may nt ‘Manon rom he eran the punks, Prt Pua, May 1920 Reprint March 192, Fay 1998 Pabroary 1888 Second Kain, June 1940 Reprint alr 1 aly 048 onony 184 Av 144, Mey 1046 Moy 1045, Peiray 1057, Ang 1967 “Aor 1048 y PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In preparing the second edition of this volume, an effort thas been made to adapt the book to the teaching requirements of our engineering schools. With this in view, a portion of the material of a more advanced character which was contained in the previous edi- tion of this volume has been removed and will be inchided in the new edition of the second volume. At the same time, some portions of the book, which were only briefly discussed in the fist edition, have been expanded with the intention of making the book easier to read for the beginner. For this reason, chapter IT, desling with combined stresses, has been centirely rewritten.” Also, the portion ofthe hook dealing with shearing force and bending moment diagrams has been ex- panded, and a considerable amount of material has been added to the discussion of deflection curves by the integration method. A diseussion of column theory and its application thas been included in chapter VILL, since this subject is usually required in undergraduate courses of strength of materials, Several additions have been made to chapter X dealing with the application of strain energy methods to the solution of statically indetermined problems. In various parts of the book there are many new problems which may be usefl for class and home work. ‘Several changes in the notations have been made to con- form to the requirements of American Standard Symbols for ‘Mechanics of Solid Bodies recently adopted by The American Society of Mechanical Engincers. Te is hoped that with the changes made the book will be found more satisfactory for teaching the undergraduate course of stength of materials and that it wil furnish a better foundation for the study of the more advanced material discussed in the second volume. S. Tiwosuenko joes¥ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION At the present time, a decided change is taking place in the attitude of designers towards the application of analytical ‘methods in the solution of engineering problems. Desig nnolonger based principally upon empitieal formulas. The im portance of analytical methods combined with laboratory ‘experiments in the solution of technical problems is beeoming senerally accepted. ‘Types of machines and structures are changing very rap- idly, especially in the new fields of industey, and ususlly tne does not permit the accumulation of the necessary empirical data, The size and cost of structures are constantly inereas- ing, which consequently creates a severe demand for greater reliability in structures. The economical factor in design tunder the present conditions of competition is becoming of rowing importance, ‘The construction must be sufficiently strong and reliable, and yet it must be designed with the Breatest possible saving in material. Under such conditions, the problem of a designer becomes extremely difficult. Re Guction in weight involves an increase in working stresses, “which can be safely allowed only on a basis of eareful analysis ‘of stress distribution inthe structure and experimental investi. Bation of the mechanical properties of the materials em: ployed. eis the aim of this book to present problems such that the student's attention will be focussed on the practical applica. tions of the subject. If ths is attained, and results, in some ‘measure, in increased correlation between the studies of strength of materials and engincering design, an important forward step will have been made. ‘The book is divided inco two volumes. The first volume ‘contains principally material which is usually covered. in sd courses of strength of materiale in our engineering“ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION schools, The more advanced portions of the subject are of interest chiefly to graduate students and research engincer, and are incorporated in the second volume of the book. This contains also the new developments of practical imporeance in the field of strength of material. In writing the frst volume of strength of materials, atten- tion. was given to simplifying all derivations as much a5 possible so that a student with the usual preparation in math matics willbe able to readit without difficulty.» Forexample, in deriving the theory of the deflection curve, the area moment method was extensively used. In this manner, a considerable simplification was made in deriving the deflections of beams for various loading and supporting conditions. In discussing. statically indeterminate systems, the methad of superposition was applied, which proves very useful in treating such problems as continuous beams and frames. For explaining combined stresses and deriving principal stresses, use was made of the ‘Mobr’s circle, which represents a substantial simplification in the presentation ofthis portion of the theory. Using these methods of simplifying the presentation, the author was able to condense the material and to discuss some problems of a more advanced character. For example, in discussing torsion, the twist of rectangular bars and of rolled sections, such as angles, channels, and T beams, is considered, ‘The deformation and stress in helical springs are discussed in detail, In the theory of bending, the case of non-symmetrica cross sections is discussed, the cewer of twist is defined and ‘explained, and the effect of shearing force on the deflection of ‘beams is considered. ‘The gencral theory of the bending of bbeams, the materials of which do not follow Hooke’s lay is ‘given andis applied in the bending of beams beyond the yielding point. ‘The bending of reinforced concrete beams is given consideration. Tn discussing combinations of direc and bend- ing stress, the elect of deflections on the bending moment considered, and the limitation of the method of superposition is explained. In treating combined bending and torsion, the cases of rectangular and elliptical cross sections are dis. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION vii cussed, and spplications in the design of crankshafis are given.’ Considerable space in the book is devoted to methods for solving elasticity problems based on the consideration of the strain energy of clastic bodies. These methods are ap- plied in discussing statically indeterminate systems, ‘The sercases produced by impact are also discussed. All these problems of a more advanced character are printed in small type, and may be omitted during the frst reading of che book. ‘The book is illustrated with a number of problems to which solutions are presented. In many eases, the problems are chosen so as to widen the field covered by the text and ¢o illustrate the aplication of the theory in the solution of design problems. Itis hoped that these problems wil be of interest for teaching purposes, and also useful for designers, The author takes this opporenity of thanking his friends who have asisted him by suggestions, reading of manuseripe and proofs, particularly Messrs, W.'M. Coates and Le Hi. Donnell, teachers of mathematics and mechanics in’ the Engineering College of the University of Michigan, and Mr. FL, Everett of the Department of Enginering Research of the University of Michigan. He is indebted also to Mr. F, C. Wilharm forthe preparation of drawings, to Mrs, ED. Webster for the typing of the manuscript, and to the Van Nostrand Company for its ear in the publication ofthe book. S. Trsosnexo, ‘Aun Anvos, Momcan May tinsNOTATIONS: en em €x----Normal stresses on planes perpendicular to 3, 9 and z axes, [Normal stress on plane perpendicular to direction oer Normal stress at yield point. « [Normal working stress + Shearing stress ‘Tan Ton Tas Shearing stresses parallel tox, and 2 axes on the planes perpendicular to y, 2 and x axes, Working seress in shear ‘Total elongation, total deflection Unit elongation Unit elongations in x » and 2 directions Unie shear, weight per unit volume ‘Modulus of elasticity in tension and compression ‘Modulus of elasticity in shear Poisson's ratio ‘Volume expansion Modulus of elasticity of volume Torque Bending moment in a beam Shearing force in a beam Cross sectional area ‘Moments of inertia of a plane figure with respect toy and 2a Radi of gyration corresponding to Jy I. Polar moment of inertia Section modulus Torsional rigidity Length of a bar, span of beam Concentrated forces “Temperature, thickness f PANEERP Pome Sty Dros >SRpPSshes NOTATIONS Coefficient of thermal expansion, numerical eoef- ficient Strain energy Strain energy per unie volume Depth of a beam, thickness ofa plate Load per unit length Angles Pressure Diameters Radi Weight, load CONTENTS: 1. Testow avo Cowprestion winuis mux Elastic Lair lastcty | 2 Hooke's Law| 1. The Tensile Test Diagram f Working Stes §. Stess and Strain Produced in a Bar by its Own Weight 6, Statially Indeterminate Problems in Tension and Compression = = anne 7 beaded Tena Ses - Extension of 2 Circular Ring IL, Awauvsts ov Seuss ano Sraaie « 9. Variation of the Stress with the Orientation ofthe ‘Gross Section for Simple Tension and. Compres- 10, The Cirle of Sess 11, Tension or Compression in Directions “The Cirle of Sere for Combined Stresses) | Principal Stresses : ‘Analysis of Stain in the Case of Simple Tension Strxin in the Case of Tension of Compression it “Two Perpendicular Directions Pure Shear. Modulus in Shear Working Stresses in Shear ss. ‘Tension or Compression in ‘Three Perpendicular Diese iinet hence wo Pependiclar IIL Sueanivo Force ax Bexoine Moxent 15. Types of Beams 22. Rening Memes ant Shain Force 21; Relation Between Bending Moment and Sheasing ‘Force . : 12, Bending Moment and Shearing Force Diagrams © TV, Seansses iy Teansvensatty Loaogo Beas « 23, Pure Bending 3 3 “ Pia e ss 8 6 6 66 6 n isvI vu. Pa 3 z 2. 28. 29. ° CONTENTS Various Shapes of Cross Sections of Beams. General Case of Tranewerally Losded Beare Shearing Stress in Bending’ Distribution of Shearing Stcses in the Case of & Circular Cros Section Distribution of Shearing Steses in I Beams Principal Streses in Bending Streser in Buileup Beams Derzzorion oF Transveasatty Loaneo Beams a” 3 Be oe 35 6 3 ea ‘Dicrensal Equation ofthe Deflection Carve Bending of « Uniformly Loaded Beam Dafeston of @ Simply Supported Beam Loaded witha Concentrated Load Daermination of Defectons bythe wie’ of dhe ening Moment Diagrams Method of Super- poston « Detection of a Cantever eam by thé Area? Moment Metind vc es cs yer Daten at Sin Sopra‘ the ‘AracMoment Metwad Dafcton of Bears with Over ‘Phe Deflection of Bears When the Loads Are Not Farle o One of the Two Priya Planes of Bending gece of 8 ‘Beans Srarteatuy INoerenonvare Prosteusix BENDING. - 46. Redundant Constraines 4 Beam Buln t One Eid and Supported t he ‘Other » 442, Beam with Both Ends Bui in 3h Brames “ EE. Beams on Three Supports Continuous Beams sans oF Varian Ctoss Secrion. Beans or Two 6 rn * » Maseniats a Beams of Varatle Cross Section Beams of Two Different Materials Reinforeed-Concrete Beams» Shearing Stresses in Reinforced. Concrete Beams 4 4 7 1 ug 5 8 my a 2 ne ery CONTENTS ai VI. Covstsso Bexore aro Tension ot Coursssion "Turon ov Covvnes = . 236 so. Bending Accompanied by Compresion or Tenion | 228, $f, Becente Loading of «Shore Strat ae $2 The Core of Section LL 5, Becentie Compression ofaSlender Column <<< 239 i Col Lal ee s7- Empitical Formulas for Golarsa Design < a8 IX, Torstox avo Connie Brwoixe axo Tosston 261 48, Torsion of « Circular Shaft Tit ast & Tee of alow Shaft 1 a8 ‘The Shafe of Rectangelar Crote Section | <1 S26 64, Helical Spring, Close Called i 62. Combined Bending and Twist in X. Exanor or Sra 6. Elastic Strain Energy in Tension Gq Tension Produced by Impact. 6. Elie Sun Eneray nha and Fis [Esti Strain Energy in Bending ae fp, Bending Produced by Impact == Ss ss 68; The Geteral Expression for Strain Energy = 65. The Theorem of Carighano 7: Appliation of Castilno ‘Theorem in Solon of ‘Seaticaly Indeterminate Problems 30 17h. The Reciprocal Theorem DIIIIT by FP. Exceptional Cases SS tM ‘Mowers or Inearis oF Puaxe Fiounes . - «<3 1. The Moment of Inertia of Place Area with Respect to ‘tn Ans in Ts Plane : a8 U. Polar Moment of Inertia ofa Plane Area 1211 as NE Transfer of Asis os ur IV. Product of Inertia, Principal Aves 'V. Change of Direction of Axis. Determination of the Principal Axes «= ss Avmion NOEX s+ eee 26 38S suneer DER ee a +397STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PART J CHAPTER 1 ENGION AND COMPRESSION WITHIN THE ELASTIC LiMIT 1, Blasticity.—We assunie that a body consists of small particles, or molecules, between which forees are acting. ‘These molecular forces resist the change in the form of the body which external forces tend to produce. If such external forces are applied to the body, its particles are displaced and the matual displacements continue untl equilibrium is estab- lished between the external and internal forces. It is said in such a case that the body is in a state of sirain. During deformation the external forces acting upon the body do work, and this work is transformed completely or partially into the potential energy of strain. An example of such an sccumulation of potential energy in a strained body is the case of a watch spring. If the forces which produced the deformation of the body are now gradually diminished, the body returns ‘wholly or partly tots iil shape and dure | ing this reversed deformation the potendal | Pe nergy of strain, accumulated in the body, |4]'T may be recovered in the form of external | [I work ie Take, for instance, a prismatical bar loaded at the end as’ shown in Fig. 1. Under the action of this load a certain clon gation of the bar will take place. ‘The point of application ‘of the load will then move in a downward direction and Positive work will be done by the load during this motion. Prat2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ‘When the load is diminished, the elongation of the bar dimin- ishes also, the loaded end of the bar moves up and the poten tial energy of strain will be transformed into the work of moving the load in the upward direction. ‘The property of bodies of returning, after unloading, to their initial form is called elasticity. Te is said that the body is perfectly elaitic if it recovers its original shape completely after unloading; it is partially clastic if the deformation, produced by the external forces, does not disappear com: pletely after unloading. In the case of a perfectly elastic body the work done by the external forces during deformation will be completely transformed into the potential energy of strain, In the case of a partially elastic body, part of the work done by the external forces during deformation will be dlssipated in the form of heat, which will be developed in the body during the non-elastie deformation. Experiments show that such sttuctural materials as steel, wood and stone may bbe considered as perfectly elastic within certain Timits, which depend upon the properties of the material. Assuming that the external forces acting upon the structure are known, itis ‘8 fundamental problem for the designer eo establish such proportions of the members of the structure that it will approach the condition of a perfectly elastic body under all service conditions. Only under such conditions will we have continued reliable service from the structure and no permanent set in ies members. 2. Hooke's Law.—By direct experiment with the exten- sion of prismatical bars (Fig. 1) it has been established for ‘many structural materials chat within certain limits the elon- gation of the bar is proportional to the tensile foree. This simple linear relationship between the foree and the elon tion which it produces was first formulated by the En scientist Robert Hooke in 1678 and bears his name. Using the notation P= force producing extension of bar, 1 = length of bar "Robert Hooks, De Parents restatva, London, 178 TENSION AND COMPRESSION 5 A = cross sectional area of bar, total elongation of bar, ‘elastic conatane of the material, called its Mod dus of Elasticity, Hooke's experimental law may be given by the following equation PL a3 @ The elongation of the bar is proportional tothe tensile force and to the length of the bar and inversely proportional to the eross sectional area and to the modulus of elasticity. In making tensile tests precautions are usually taken to scare central application of the tensile foree. In this manner any bending of the bar will be prevented. Excluding from coo sideration those portions of the bar in the vicinity of the applied forces? it may be assumed that daring tension all longitudinal fibers of the prismatical bar have the same jon and che cross sections of the bar originally plane and perpendicular to the axis of the bar remain so after exten “Tn discussing the magnitude of internal forces let us im= agine the bar cut into two parts by a cross section my and let us consider the equilibrium of the lower portion of the bar Fig. 1, J). At the lower end of this portion the tensile force P'is applied. On the upper end there are acting the forces representing the action of the particles of the upper portion of the strained bar on the particles of the lower Portion. ‘These forces are continuously distributed over the «ross section. A familiar example of such a continuous di. tribution of forces over a surface is that of « hydrostatic Pressure or of a steam pressure. In handling such contina- ously distributed forces the intensity of force, ie. the force per unit area, is of @ great importance. Im our case of axial tension, in which all fibers have the same elongation, the ste moe compcaad str dibton near che points of 200 ton of the cer Wi be dace intern Pare PoP4 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS tribution of forces over the cross section my will be wis farm. Taking into account that the sum of these forces, from the condition of equilibrium (Fig. 1, 6), must be equal to P and denoting the force per unit of cross sectional area by o, we obtain ® ‘This force per unit area is called stress. In the following, the force will be measured in pounds and the area in square hes so that the stress will he measured in pounds per square inch. The elongation of the bar per unit lengeh is deter- mined by the equation 5 ® and is called the unit clongaion or the tensile sain. Using fs. (2) and (), Hook's law may be represented in the following form? @ and the unit elongation is easily calculated provided the stress and the modulus of elasticity of the material are known. The ‘unit elongation « is @ pure number representing the ratio of two lengths (see eq. 3); therefore, from eq. (4), it may be concluded that the modulus of elasticity is to be measured in the same units asthe stress ¢ ie, in pounds per square inch. In Table I, which follows, the average values of the modulus E for several materials are given in the first column Equations (1)~(4) may be used also in the case of the com- pression of prismatical bars. Then 8 will denote the total Tongitudinal contraction, « the compressive strain and the compressive stress. ‘The modulus of elasticity for compression is for mast structural materials the same as for tension. In calculations, tensile stress and tensile strain are considered ‘i positive, and compressive stress and strain a9 negative. 5 Bore dete on the mechavial properties of materials are given Ia Pare TENSION AND COMPRESSION 5 Maceameat Phoremis or Mares Yiu Prine | imate Sungsh wea Teint Ton ce ae sex tx rte x 12 |e 16s x eked 3 thi | 3p tt| ge tah te | tons Desk, Toit] Sp hae to Fe thes Ho Capper od aie xt ose ome kta sexe Fei de pia ts Pt x Gina npn |g 1 peo ‘Problems 1, Determine the total elongation ofa see bar 25. long, i the tensile stress is equal to 15 % to Ibs. per ain, “Arwen eex re SE Zin aexras 2, Determine the tensile force on eylindsial stel bar of one inch diameter, ifthe une elongation is equal to 7 % 10" ‘Solution. "The tensile stress in the bar, Hot Cis ©F = 21 X 104 Ths per sin ‘The tensile force, fom eg. (2) is Pe A= 21 X 108 x = 16,500 4. What i the ratio of the moduli of elasticity ofthe materiale ‘fro bats ofthe same nse ander the action of eal ene oees the nit elongatios ofthe bare aren the ratio 1/8. Determine these lengttons if one ofthe bars of sel the okt of copper and ‘he tensile stray i 10,00 Ib. por nc, Selation. ‘The modal are nveteiy proportional to the wait ‘elongations. For steel * = 19000 Bx” See" for copper "Tee6 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 4A prlsmatial steel bar 2 in. Jong i elongated /49 in, under ‘the Action of a tenile force. Find the magnitude of the force if ‘the volume of the bar is 35 in? §-A piece of wire 10 f. long subjected to tense force P 1,200 le, longates by Vin. Find the modslus of elasticity of ‘the material if the eros sectional ares of the wie is 04 i 3. The Tensile Test Diagram.—The proportionality be- ‘ween the tensile force and the elongation holds only up to 2 certain limiting value of the tensile stress, called the limit of proportionality, which depends upon the properties of the material, Beyond this limit, the relationship between the . "Determine thee Gros sctional aes ef the ba tnd th defection of he Pint when P = 00 Ib ee tooo Tere tnd eal ge ‘tiation ef the bas #3 Salon. From Fig. 4 (representing the conven for ek