CASE STUDY
YOU ARE
Everybody loves to laugh, and everybody
loves a comedian. But what does your
humor style say about your personality?
Psychologist Rod Martin claims that humor
is a form of communication and, as he
states, “We all use it differently.” Humor,
he believes, can reveal how you feel about
yourself and how you relate to others.
After conducting research on how people
make others laugh, Martin discovered
that a sense of humor doesn’t necessarily
mean that someone is fun-loving and good-
natured. On the contrary, it could indicate
that he or she actually has a hostile per-
sonality. For example, a person who uses
put-down humor may do so as an accept-
able way to channel aggression. Pointing
out someone’s flaws in a humorous way
makes the victim of the joke look bad while
making the joker look good. If the victim
protests, the joker can claim to be “just kid-
ding” and avoid responsibility.
The “hate-me” humor style may be con-
sidered the polar opposite of the put-down
style. People who tell jokes at their own
expense use this style. For the most part,
390 CHAPTER 14
WHAT MAKES
YOU
YOU
Studying what people find funny
is just one way that psychologists
gain insight into what makes us
who we are—our personalities.
we tend to appreciate this self-deprecating
type of humor because we can laugh along
with the joker.
Occasional jokes in this style are fine
and probably healthy. According to Martin,
however, people who constantly humiliate
themselves in front of others for laughs may
do so as a result of their self-loathing. They
may also alienate their audience once the
playfulness wears thin. Besides, too many
hate-me jokes can make people feel uncom-
fortable. Hate-me humor may even contrib-
ute to the joker’s feelings of unworthiness
and foster depression and anxiety—perhaps
even drug abuse. The late comedian Chris
Farley, who died of a drug overdose at the
age of 33, employed this humor style.
Of course, not all humor styles reflect
negative personality traits. Martin says
that people who tell jokes to relieve a tense
situation or lighten the mood often reveal
a warm, good-natured personality. Their
bonding style of humor is inclusive, suggest-
ing that “we’re all in this together.” Popular
comedian Ellen Degeneres demonstrates
this humor style.
 Watch the Video
Explore the psychology off personality.
CHAPTER 14
THEORIES OF
Similarly, we embrace the joker who
laughs at life’s absurdities. People who
practice this style off humor don’t take
themselves too seriously, which may help
PERSONALITY
them deal with the challenges in their lives.
Even a morbid sense off humor can be
a positive personality trait. The ability to Chapter at a Glance
laugh in the face off danger actually sug-
gests a healthy psyche. Doctors in the SECTION 1: The Trait Approach
operating g room often crack jokes to ease ■ Ps
Psyc
ycho
holo logi
gist
sts studdy
dy pper
erso
er s na
so nalilility
ty to
to di
discover ppat atte
tern
rnss of
of ffee
eelilings,
tension. Since the outbreak off the Iraq War, motitives,
mo i , and nd bbehehavavio
iorr ttha
hatt sett peopl plee aapa
part
rt ffro
romm on
one anoth therer..
Iraqi civilians have at times used humor ■ Tr
Trai
aitt tthheoriists
ts aatt
ttem
emptpt ttoo uund
nderstand personality by focusing on
to cope with life in a war-torn nation. For traits, or those aspects off personality that remain stable.
example, they have celebrated a form of ■ Psychologist Hans Eysenck used two basic dimensions off person-
April Fool’s Day in which they play macabre ality—introversion-extroversion and emotional stability-
pranks on each other. Although it may not instability—to organize traits.
seem so, this is a positive form off humor ■ The Five Factor Model identifies five basic personality factors:
that may promote both mental and physi- extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional
cal health. When you can laugh at life, you stability, and openness to experience.
are more able to ease stress levels and less
likely to be angry, depressed, or anxious. SECTION 2: The Psychoanalytic Approach
It turns outt that
th t what
h t we find
fi d funny ■ According to the psychoanalytic approach, personality is shaped
may also be tied to other aspects off our per- by inner struggles that all people experience.
sonalities. Neuroimaging g has revealed that ■ The psychoanalytic approach is based on Sigmund Freud’s theo-
there is an area in the center off the brain ries about the structure off the mind, defense mechanisms, and
that lights up when someone sees a smiling the stages off personality development.
face or hears a joke. Studies have shown ■ Many off Freud’s intellectual heirs have made unique contribu-
that this area lights up more often in peo- tions to the psychoanalytic approach.
ple with outgoing g personalities, who tend
SECTION 3: The Learning Approach
to laugh more, than in those with reserved
■ The two branches off the learning approach, behaviorism and
personalities, who do not laugh as much.
social-learning theory, focus on how experiences shape behavior.
In this chapter, you will learn about
other approaches psychologists have taken ■ Behaviorists assert that people learn socially desirable behaviors
to study personality. All off their theories through a process called socialization.
have one thing g in common: they try to ■ Social learning theorists argue that people learn by observation.
explain why we are who we are.
SECTION 4: The Humanistic and Sociocultural
Approaches
What do you think? ■ The humanistic perspective emphasizes the importance off free
choice, self-awareness, self-fulfillment, self-esteem, and ethical
1. According to psychologist Rod Martin, what perrso sonalityy conduct in personality development.
traits might be revealed by someone who con onstantlyy ttells
■ Psychologists following the sociocultural approach focus on how
jokes about other people?
gender, ethnicity, and culture influence personality.
2. Which type off humor style do you and your ffrriends havave?
Do you agree that your humor sty
tylle refleect
cts your person-
ality? Why or why not?

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 391

py10se_THE_opener.indd 391 5/8/09 11:33:26 AM

SEC TION 1

The Trait Approach

Before You Read Use a graphic
Main Idea Reading Focus Vocabulary organizer
Psychologists who support 1. Who have been the most personality like this one to take notes
the trait approach believe influential trait theorists? trait on aspects of the trait
that personality traits are introverts approach.
2. What is the Five-Factor Model?
inborn and unchanging. extroverts Theorist Factors Evaluation
3. How do some psychologists
Many trait theorists believe
evaluate the trait approach?
that people can be mea-
sured according to five basic
personality factors.

Shy or in Need of
T herap y ? Is being shy a mental illness?
Northwestern University professor
Christopher Lane tells a story about
how his shy mother reacted to the crowds and chaos
she experienced as a child during the World War II
bombing of London. She pretended to be a horse and
galloped about on all fours! Her parents didn’t panic or
assume that their child had a psychological disorder.
They evidently felt that she was just shy and handled
the tension in her own creative, imaginative way.
How might parents react to such behavior today?
Some would rush their child to a psychiatrist for a
diagnosis and medication. Extreme shyness, which
was once considered a virtue, is now often diagnosed
as “social anxiety disorder”—a disorder to be treated
with therapy and drugs. Pharmaceutical companies
have jumped at the chance to advertise shyness-
curing medications to people who had not previously
seen this personality trait as a disorder. In fact, one
company spent $93 million on its ad campaign for
such a drug.
Some people suffer from shyness so crippling that
it is a genuine disorder. But, for most people, shyness
is just an individual quirk—a personality trait. To gain
insight into what makes each one of us unique, psy-
chologists struggle to understand and explain person-
ality traits and identify disorders such as shyness.

392 CHAPTER 14
Trait Theorists Gordon Allport In the 1930s, psychologist
Gordon Allport (1897–1967) cataloged some
When people think of a person’s personality,
18,000 human traits from a search through
they usually think of the person’s most strik-
lists of descriptive words. Some of the words, Complete a
ing characteristics, as in an “assertive person-
such as short and brunette, describe physi- Webquest at
ality” or an “artistic personality.” Psychologists thinkcentral.com
cal traits. Others, such as shy and emotional,
define personality as the patterns of feelings, on personality.
describe behavioral traits. Still others, such as
motives, and behavior that set people apart
honest, concern morality.
from one another.
Allport assumed that traits can be inher-
A trait is an aspect of personality that
ited and that they are fixed in the nervous
is considered to be reasonably stable. We
system. He conducted thorough and detailed
assume that a person has certain traits based
studies of individuals, noting their outstand-
on how the person behaves. If you describe
ing traits as well as their behaviors. Allport’s
a friend as shy, it may be because you have
research led him to conclude that traits are
seen your friend looking anxious and trying to
the building blocks of personality. He asserted
escape social encounters. Traits are assumed
that a person’s behavior is a product of
to account for consistent behavior in different
his or her particular combination of traits.
situations. You would probably expect your
shy friend to act withdrawn in most social Hans J. Eysenck British psychologist Hans J.
situations. If, on the other hand, you have a Eysenck (1916–1997) focused on the relation-
friend who is constantly making jokes, you ships between two personality dimensions:
would probably conclude that being outgoing introversion-extroversion and emotional sta-
and humorous are two of her traits. bility-instability. He used these dimensions to
Trait theorists have generally assumed organize various personality traits.
that traits are somehow fixed or unchanging.
However, the question of where traits come
from has been pondered through the ages. EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS
Hippocrates An early answer to where traits
come from was offered by the Greek physician Emotionally Unstable
Hippocrates. The ancient Greeks believed Moody
(neurotic) Touchy
that the body contains fluids called humors. Anxious Restless
Rigid Aggressive
Hippocrates suggested that personality traits Sober Excitable
are a result of different combinations of these Pessimistic Changeable
bodily fluids. Reserved Impulsive
Unsociable Optimistic
Hippocrates believed that there are four Quiet Active
basic fluids, or humors, in the body: Melancholic Choleric
Introverted Extroverted
• yellow bile, which was associated with a Phlegmatic Sanguine
Passive Sociable
choleric, or quick-tempered, disposition Careful Outgoing
• blood, which was linked with a sanguine, Thoughtful Talkative
or warm and cheerful, temperament Peaceful Responsive
Controlled Easygoing
• phlegm, which was linked with a phleg- Reliable Lively
matic, or sluggish and cool, disposition Even-tempered Carefree
Calm Leadership
• black bile, which was connected with a
melancholic, thoughtful temperament Emotionally Stable

Certain diseases and disorders were believed

to reflect a lack of balance in these humors.
Methods such as bloodletting (the removal
of blood from the body) were recommended
to restore the balance of humors and one’s
health. Although there is no scientific evi-
dence for Hippocrates’ biological theory, words
based on his ideas remain in use today.
This diagram shows how closely Eysenck’s personality dimensions
relate to the four personality types identified by Hippocrates.
Skills Focus INTERPRETING VISUALS According to the diagram,
which of Hippocrates’s personality types are most unstable?
Source: Eysenck, H.J. and Eysenck, M.W. Personality and Individual Differences.
Plenum Publishing, 1958.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 393

 In his model, Eysenck placed introversion
and extroversion at opposite poles. Introverts
The Five-Factor Model
The “big five” may sound like a description
tend to be imaginative and to look inward
of a basketball team. In psychology, however,
rather than to other people for their ideas and
the term refers to recent research suggesting
energy. Extroverts, on the other hand, tend to
that there may be five basic personality fac-
be active and self-expressive and gain energy
tors. These include the two found by Eysenck—
from interaction with other people. The con-
extroversion and emotional stability—along
trast between introversion and extroversion
with conscientiousness, agreeableness, and
was first proposed by Carl Jung, whom you
openness to experience. Many personality
will read about later in this chapter. Also,
theorists, particularly Robert McCrae and
stable people are usually reliable, composed,
Paul T. Costa, Jr., have helped in the devel-
and rational. Unstable people can be agitated
opment of the Five-Factor Model. Cross-cul-
and unpredictable.
tural research suggests that the five factors
Eysenck placed personality traits accord-
appear to define the personality structure
ACADEMIC ing to where those traits appear within the
VOCABULARY of American, German, Portuguese, Jewish,
dimensions of introversion-extroversion and
dimensions the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese people. A
emotional stability-emotional instability. For
range over which or study of more than 5,000 German, British,
instance, an anxious person might be highly
the degree to which Spanish, Czech, and Turkish people suggests
something extends; introverted and emotionally unstable. A reck-
that the factors are related to people’s basic
scope less or impulsive person might be highly extro-
temperaments, which are largely inborn. The
verted and unstable.
researchers interpreted the results to mean
Eysenck’s scheme is similar to the one sug-
that personalities mature naturally as part of
gested by Hippocrates. According to Eysenck’s
the aging process, rather than in response to
dimensions, the choleric type would be both
external, environmental conditions.
extroverted and unstable; the sanguine type,
extroverted and stable; the phlegmatic type, Research on the Five Factors A great deal
introverted and stable; and the melancholic of research has been conducted on the Five-
type, introverted and unstable. Factor Model. For example, consider driv-
Reading Check Contrast How do introverts and ing. Studies show that people who are given
more traffic tickets and who get into more
extroverts tend to differ?
collisions tend to score lower on the factor of

THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL

The Five-Factor Model describes what many psychologists consider to be the
five basic factors or dimensions of personality. Each of the five factors consists
of a range of specific personality traits.

Factor Traits

1. Extroversion Contrasts talkativeness, assertiveness, and activity with silence,

passivity, reserve

2. Agreeableness Contrasts kindness, trust, and warmth with hostility, selfishness, and distrust

3. Conscientiousness Contrasts organization, thoroughness, and reliability with carelessness,

negligence, and unreliability

4. Emotional Stability- Contrasts reliability and coping ability with nervousness, moodiness,
Instability and sensitivity to negative events

5. Openness to Contrasts imagination, curiosity, and creativity with shallowness and

Experience lack of perceptiveness

394 CHAPTER 14
agreeableness than do people who receive
fewer tickets. In other words, it is safer to
share the road with agreeable people. People
who score high on agreeableness get along
with nearly everybody and tend to go along
with what other people want. They also tend
to score low on conscientiousness, because
they do not examine other people too closely.
The Five-Factor Model also has been used
to study political beliefs. For example, stud-
ies in the United States, Belgium, and Poland
show people who are authoritarian or strongly
conservative tend to score low on openness to
experience. They tend to reject ideas that are
not sanctioned by an authority figure.
Links to Disorders Researchers are also
studying how the five factors relate to the
ways in which people interact with their
friends and families. In the field of psycho-
logical problems, researchers are studying
links between the five factors and a variety
of disorders. These include anxiety disor-
ders, thinking that one is ill when there is no
medical basis for the belief, depression and
suicide attempts, schizophrenia, and person-
ality disorders. The Five-Factor Model helps
in describing these disorders. It remains to be
seen how well the model will enable psycholo-
gists to explain the disorders and help people
who experience them.
Psychologists continue to disagree about
which personality factors are the most basic.
However, nearly all psychologists would agree
that the “big five” personality dimensions are
important in defining a person’s psychological
makeup. Moreover, a person’s position along
these dimensions tends to be established at
an early age and remain stable through life.
Reading Check Identify Supporting Details
What does research on the five factors suggest
about people’s basic temperaments?
Evaluation of the Trait Approach
One shortcoming of the trait approach is its
singular focus on describing traits. Moreover,
the efforts of trait theorists to link personality
traits to biological factors have not been suc-
cessful. Today trait theory focuses on describ-
ing traits, rather than explaining their origins
or investigating how people with undesirable
traits can change for the better.
The work of trait theorists has, however,
had a number of practical applications. In
suggesting that there are links between per-
sonalities, abilities, and interests, trait theo-
rists have alerted us to the value of matching
people to educational programs and jobs on
the basis of their personality traits.
The ability to objectively measure person-
ality traits may be the greatest strength of the
trait approach. However, such measurements
are limited. For instance, an introverted per-
son may act in an outgoing manner around
family and friends, and an extroverted person
may sometimes crave privacy. Trait theory
also provides no explanation of how person-
ality develops. As a result, some psychologists
question its value in clinical applications.
Reading Check Summarize What are the
strengths of the trait approach?
Online Quiz thinkcentral.com
SECTION 1 Assessment
Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary
1. Define How do psychologists define personality?
2. Summarize What are the four personality types identified
by Hippocrates?
3. Draw Conclusions According to Eysenck, which personality
dimensions would be used to describe someone who is reserved,
anxious, and depressed?
Thinking Critically
4. Make Judgments How do you think most entertainers would
score on the Five-Factor Model?
5. Evaluate Which personality traits might be important for
an elementary school teacher?
6. Support a Position Do you think that personality traits are
inborn and cannot be changed? Explain your answer.
7. Make Generalizations Label the sections
of a graphic organizer like the one at right
Melancholic, Choleric, Phlegmatic, and Sanguine.
Then use your notes to write down your own
personality traits in the appropriate sections and
make generalizations about your personality type.
FOCUS ON WRITING
8. Descriptive Write one or two paragraphs describing the personality
traits of a character in a favorite TV show or movie. Draw conclusions
about where the character would fall within Eysenck’s model.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 395
SEC TION 2

The Psychoanalytic
Approach
Before You Read Use a graphic
Main Idea Reading Focus Vocabulary organizer
The psychoanalytic 1. What theories did Sigmund Freud id like this one to take notes
approach stresses the develop about the mind? ego on the theories of Freud,
influence of the uncon- superego Jung, Adler, Horney, and
2. Why do people use defense Erikson.
scious on personality. mechanisms? defense mechanisms
Freud, Jung, Adler, Horney, repression Psychoanalyst Theories
3. What are Freud’s main stages of
and Erikson are among rationalization
personality development? Freud
the most important psy- regression
4. Who are other important psycho- Jung
choanalytic theorists. projection
analytic theorists? collective unconscious Adler
5. How do psychologists evaluate the archetypes Horney
psychoanalytic approach? inferiority complex Erikson

FOR THE Modern Mind

Can psychoanalysis stand the test of
time? Have you ever admitted to making
a Freudian slip? Do you try to keep your
ego in check? If so, you have referred to two ideas from the
work of Sigmund Freud. In fact, many of Freud’s theories
related to psychoanalysis have become part of modern
culture—in our language, movies, politics, literature, and
other aspects of daily life. Am I still relevant?
Courses about Freud in university psychology depart-
ments, however, are harder to find. A recent study of 150
prominent U.S. colleges and universities reported that of the
1,092 courses that referred to psychoanalysis, more than 86
percent were offered outside of psychology departments. In
academic psychology, theories that can be tested in the labo-
ratory receive much more attention than Freud’s, which relied
on conversations with and observations of his patients.
Is the swing away from Freud a problem? One University
of Chicago philosopher, Jonathan Lear, thinks so. “Some of
the most important things in human life are just not mea-
surable,” Lear says. He predicts a swing back to Freud when
more empirical methods for exploring human existence are
found wanting. In the meantime, the work of Freud and other
people who have contributed to psychoanalysis can still raise
interesting, useful questions about our innermost thoughts
and feelings.

396 CHAPTER 14

Sigmund Freud
The psychoanalytic approach to personality
teaches that all people—even the most well-
adjusted—undergo inner struggles. According
to this approach, people are born with certain
biological drives, such as aggression, sex, and
the need for superiority. These drives, how-
ever, may come into conflict with laws, social
norms, and moral codes that have previously
been internalized. At any moment, a person’s
behavior, thoughts, and emotions represent
the outcome of inner contests between the
opposing forces of drives and rules.
The “inner conflict” approach to personal-
ity theory owes its origin to Sigmund Freud
(1856–1939). Freud was trained as a physi-
cian. Early in his practice in Vienna, Austria,
he was astounded to find that some people had
lost feeling in a hand or had become paralyzed
in the legs even though nothing was medically
wrong with them. When Freud interviewed
these individuals, he found that many things
in their lives were making them very angry
or anxious. Yet they refused to recognize their
emotional or social problems. They were at
the mercy of powerful inner emotions, even
though on the surface they seemed calm.
The Unconscious Freud believed that con-
scious ideas and feelings occupy only a small
part of the mind. Many of people’s deepest
thoughts, fears, and urges remain out of their
awareness. These urges are pushed into an
unconscious part of the mind.
One way in which Freud explored the
unconscious was through psychoanalysis. In
psychoanalysis, people are encouraged to talk
about anything that pops into their minds.
They do so in a comfortable and relaxed setting.
The people Freud observed—those who had
lost feeling in their hands or legs—regained
much of their functioning when they talked
about the things that were on their minds. For
this reason, psychoanalysis has been called a
“talking cure.”
Freud also explored the unconscious
through dream analysis. He believed that
people experience unconscious wishes in
their dreams—often in disguised form. Freud
would ask people to record their dreams upon
waking. He would then help them explore the
dreams’ possible hidden meanings.
Another technique that Freud used was
hypnosis. He felt that people in a hypnotic
state had better access to their unconscious
thoughts. Freud eventually abandoned hyp-
nosis, however, because many people later
ACADEMIC
denied the things they said when they were
VOCABULARY
in a hypnotic state.
drive powerful
The Id Freud believed that the mind has needs or instincts
related to self-
three basic psychological structures. The
preservation that
first of these structures is called the id. The motivate behavior
id behaves like a stereotypical two-year-old:
“I want what I want, and I want it now.” The
id represents basic drives such as hunger. It
demands pleasure through instant gratifica-
tion and pays no attention to laws, social cus-
toms, or the needs of others. The id follows
what Freud called the pleasure principle—the
urge for an immediate release of energy or
emotion that will bring personal gratification,
relief, or pleasure.
According to Freud, the id is present at
birth. Babies, he claimed, are completely id-
driven. And it is an important structure in
early life because it ensures that a baby’s
needs will be met.
The Ego The second psychological structure,
which Freud called the ego, develops because
a child’s demands for instant gratification
cannot be met immediately or because meet-
ing these demands may be harmful. Freud
wrote that the ego “stands for reason and good
sense.” It develops from the id and is guided
by the reality principle—the understanding
that, in the real world, we cannot always get
what we want.
The ego seeks to satisfy the appetites of
the id in ways that are consistent with reality.
For example, the id lets you know that you are
hungry, but the ego lets you know that certain
ways of satisfying your hunger—such as cook-
ing a hamburger—are more appropriate than
others—such as eating raw hamburger. The
ego also provides the conscious sense of self.
Activities such as planning dinner and study-
ing for a test are functions of the ego.
Although most of the ego is conscious, some
of its business is carried out unconsciously. For
instance, the ego acts as a censor that screens
out the wild impulses of the id. When the ego
senses that indecent or improper impulses
are rising into awareness, it tries to repress
or reject them.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 397
 The Superego The third psychological struc-
ture Freud formulated is the superego. The
superego develops throughout early child-
hood. It functions according to the moral
principle. By incorporating the standards and
values of parents and members of the commu-
nity, the superego provides us with our moral
sense. The superego acts as the conscience
and floods the ego with feelings of guilt and
shame when we think or do something that
society defines as wrong.
The ego does not have an easy job. It is
caught between the conflicting messages of
the id and the superego. For example, the
id may urge, “You want to go out with your
friends. Don’t study now!” while the super-
ego warns, “You have to study or you will not
pass the test.” According to Freud, people with
healthy egos—and thus healthy personali-
ties—find ways to balance the id’s demands
and the superego’s warnings. In this case, the
healthy ego would probably conclude, “Study
now, and after I do well on the test, I can spend
time with my friends.”
Reading Check Identify Supporting Details
How did Sigmund Freud think the human mind
was organized?
Recovering Repressed Memories
Skills Focus INTERPRETING CARTOONS
What might this psychoanalyst say is the
“easy way” to retrieve repressed memories?
398 CHAPTER 14
Defense Mechanisms
According to Freud, defense mechanisms are
methods the ego uses to avoid recognizing
ideas or emotions that may cause anxiety.
These defenses operate unconsciously.
Repression One of the main Freudian defense
mechanisms is repression. Repression removes
anxiety-causing ideas from conscious aware-
ness by pushing them into the unconscious. To
explain repression, Freud compared people’s
personalities to teakettles. Primitive urges
such as aggression seek expression just like
steam tries to escape from a boiling kettle.
But acknowledging these urges could cause a
person serious feelings of guilt, anxiety, and
shame. Thus, the urges are repressed, keeping
the lid on the boiling kettle.
Repression, however, is not always suc-
cessful. When enough steam builds up inside,
the teakettle pops its lid. When people “pop
their lids,” the results are outbursts of anger
and the development of other psychological
and emotional problems.
Rationalization Other defense mechanisms
protect us from unacceptable ideas in a differ-
ent manner. They do not completely repress
such ideas, but they distort them in one way
or another. One such defense mechanism is
rationalization—the use of self-deception to
justify unacceptable behaviors or ideas. For
instance, a student who cheats during a test
may explain, “I only cheated on a couple of
questions—I knew most of the material.”
Rationalization can protect one’s self-
esteem or self-concept. However, it can also
mask the real reason for a particular behavior
and so prevent the person from dealing with
the situation.
Regression Freud believed that when an
individual is under a great deal of stress, he
or she will return to behavior that is charac-
teristic of an earlier stage of development. He
termed this behavior regression. For example,
like a young child, an adolescent may pout and
refuse to speak to her parents when forbid-
den to go out with friends. Similarly, an adult
may become highly dependent on his parents
following the breakup of his own marriage.
Regressive behavior is usually temporary. It
only becomes a problem when it is used fre-
quently to avoid adult behavior.
Projection A motion picture projector
thrusts an image outward onto a screen.
Freud believed that people sometimes deal
with unacceptable impulses by projecting
these impulses outward onto other people.
In other words, people see their own faults
in other people. For example, hostile people,
unable to think of themselves as hostile, may
accuse other people of hostility. As a result of
this projection, they may think of the world as
a dangerous place.
Effects of Defense Mechanisms According
to Freud, when used in moderation, defense
mechanisms may be normal and even useful
to protect people from painful feelings such
as anxiety, guilt, and shame. Such defense
mechanisms become unhealthy, he said, when
they lead a person to ignore the underlying
issues causing those feelings. However, Freud
also noted that a person with a strong and
healthy ego is able to balance the id and the
superego without the use of such mechanisms.
Therefore, the use of defense mechanisms
may indicate the presence of inner conflict or
personal anxiety.
Reading Check Summarize What are some com-
mon defense mechanisms?
Stages of Personality Development
Freud believed that an individual’s personal-
ity develops through a series of five stages.
These stages of development begin at birth
and continue to shape human personality
through adolescence. Freud claimed that peo-
ple instinctively seek to preserve and extend
life. He also thought that these instinctive
efforts to survive are aided by a psychological
energy he labeled libido. (Libido is the Latin
word for “desire.”) This theory is one of the
most controversial personality theories.
Freud organized psychological develop-
ment into five periods: oral, anal, phallic,
latent, and genital. Children were said to
encounter conflicts during each stage. If the
conflicts were not resolved, Freud believed
that the child might become fixated, or stuck,
at an early stage of development. The child
would then carry that stage’s traits into adult-
hood. Thus, Freud believed that an adult’s
psychological problems might actually stem
from unresolved childhood conflicts.
More Defense Mechanisms
Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud, worked to explain defense
mechanisms in depth, including the ones listed below.
Displacement Displacement is defined as the
transfer of an idea or impulse from a threatening or
unsuitable object to a less threatening object. For
example, a football player who is yelled at by his
coach may go home and yell at his little brother.
Reaction Formation People who use the defense of
reaction formation act contrary to their genuine feel-
ings in order to keep their true feelings hidden. For
example, someone who is unconsciously attracted to
another person may keep the impulses out of mind
by being mean to that person.
Denial In the mechanism of denial, a person refuses
to accept the reality of anything that is bad or upset-
ting. For example, people who smoke cigarettes may
ignore the risks of lung cancer and heart disease from
smoking because they think, “It can’t happen to me.”
Sublimation Individuals can channel their basic
impulses into socially acceptable behavior through
sublimation. For example, a hostile student may
channel aggressive impulses into contact sports.
Skills Focus INTERPRETING CHARTS Which defense
mechanisms might be healthy?
The Oral Stage In Freud’s theory, psychologi-
cal development begins in the first year of life.
He noted that infants are continually explor-
ing their world by picking up objects and put-
ting those objects into their mouths. Infants
also receive their main source of pleasure—
food—with their mouths. For these reasons,
Freud termed the first stage of development
the oral stage. He theorized that the infant’s
survival is dependent on the attention of
adults. A child whose caretakers do not meet
his or her needs during this stage may become
fixated at the oral stage. Some examples of
this fixation might include smoking, overeat-
ing, excessive talking, and nail biting. In addi-
tion, as an adult, such a person might have
clinging interpersonal relationships.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 399
 The Anal Stage During this stage, according
to Freud, children between the ages of one and
a half to two and a half learn that they can
control their bodily functions, and the issue of
self-control becomes vital. Conflict during the
anal stage can lead to two sets of adult per-
sonality traits. So-called anal-retentive traits
involve an excessive use of self-control, result-
ing in excessive needs for order and cleanli-
ness. People with anal-expulsive traits, on the
other hand, may be careless and messy.
The Phallic Stage The third year of life marks
the beginning of the phallic stage. Young girls
and boys begin to discover the physical differ-
ences between the two sexes and become more
focused on their own bodies. Children may also
develop strong attachments to the parent of
the opposite sex. At the same time, they may
view the same-sex parent as a rival for the
other parent’s affections. Freud argued that
the complex emotions of the phallic stage can
lead to several psychological disorders later in
life, including depression and anxiety.
The Latency Stage By age five or six, Freud
believed, children have been in conflict with
their parents for many years. In response,
children retreat from the conflict and repress
all aggressive urges. This marks their entry
into the latency stage. Latent means “hidden,”
and during the latency period, impulses and
emotions remain hidden, or unconscious.
The Genital Stage Freud wrote that people
enter the final stage of psychological develop-
ment, the genital stage, at puberty. The ado-
lescent does not generally encounter any new
psychological conflicts during this period and
does become more aware of his or her own
gender identity. However, the conflicts of the
early development stages resurface.
Reading Check Sequence At what age do each of
the stages of development occur?
Other Important Theorists
Other important psychoanalysts contributed
their own theories about personality develop-
ment. Some of these theorists followed Freud;
others made their own mark on the study of
personality.
Carl Jung Sigmund Freud had several intel-
lectual heirs. The best known of these theo-
rists is Carl Jung (1875–1961). Jung was a
Swiss psychiatrist who had been a colleague
of Freud’s. He fell into disfavor with Freud,
however, when he developed his own psycho-
analytic theory—known as analytic psychol-
ogy—which places a greater emphasis on the
influences of shared symbols and religion on
human behavior.
Jung, like Freud, was intrigued by uncon-
scious processes. But he dramatically altered
Freud’s theory of these processes. In addi-
tion to an individual unconscious that stores

Jung’s Four Main Archetypes INTERACTIVE

Jung wrote extensively about four archetypes that he thought func-

tioned as separate systems within an individual’s personality.

Self the center of the human psyche and personality; unifies conscious-
ness and unconsciousness; total unity; God; often symbolized by a circu-
lar image called a mandala, like the image at right

Shadow the darker side of human nature; embodies chaos and uncon-
trollable or unacceptable emotions; often represented by devil figures or
mysterious enemies

Anima/Animus Anima: feminine qualities within a man’s personality;

Animus: masculine qualities within a woman’s personality

Persona the public self; the image or character that a person wants to
show to the outside world

Interactive Feature thinkcentral.com

400 CHAPTER 14
 material that has been forgotten or repressed,
Jung argued that all people also possessed an
inherited collective unconscious. According to
Jung, the collective unconscious is a store of
human concepts shared by all people across
all cultures.
The structural components of the collec-
tive unconscious are basic, primitive con-
cepts called archetypes. Archetypes are ideas
and images of the accumulated experience of
all human beings. Examples of archetypes
include the supreme being, the young hero,
the fertile and nurturing mother, the wise
old man, the hostile brother, and even fairy
godmothers, wicked witches, and themes of
rebirth or resurrection. Jung found that each
of these concepts appears in some form across
most cultures and religions.
Jung argued that although these images
remain unconscious, they often appear to us
as figures in our dreams. He declared that
these images influence our thoughts and feel-
ings and that they help form a foundation on
which personality develops. Despite his inter-
est in the collective unconscious, Jung granted
more importance to conscious thoughts than
Freud did.
Jung believed that one archetype is the
sense of self. According to Jung, the self is a
unifying force of personality that gives people
direction and provides them with a sense of
their own completeness. Jung believed that
every person’s conscious sense of self can be
characterized by four functions of the mind—
thinking, feeling, intuition, and sensation. He
argued that all four of these elements exist
in every individual’s unconscious. However,
an individual can be identified by the func-
tion that becomes his or her primary form of
expression. He thought that people could form
healthy personalities by bringing together, or
integrating, these conscious elements with the
collective unconscious archetypes. His name
for this integrating process is individuation.
Many psychologists consider Jung’s the-
ory of the collective unconscious to be mysti-
cal and unscientific. But Jungian theory has
developed a tremendous following among the
general public. Many people enter Jungian
analysis to examine their dreams and to
work toward individuation. Scholars explore
the use of archetypal symbols as they appear
in literature and the arts. In addition, Jung’s
py10se_THE_sect2.indd 401
focus on myth has made his theory of the col-
lective unconscious very popular with those
who study religion.
Reading Check Find the Main Idea What is
Jung’s theory of the collective unconscious?
Alfred Adler Alfred Adler (1870–1937) was
one of the followers of Freudian psychoanaly-
sis theory. Adler believed that people are basi-
cally motivated by a need to overcome feel-
ings of inferiority. To describe these feelings
of inadequacy and insecurity, Adler coined the
term inferiority complex.
In some people, Adler theorized, feelings
of inferiority may be based on physical prob-
lems and the need to compensate for them.
This theory may have developed in part from
Adler’s own attempts to overcome repeated
bouts of illness. As a child, Adler’s legs were
deformed by a disease called rickets and he
nearly died from pneumonia.
Physical problems are not the only source
of feelings of inferiority, according to Adler. He
believed that all of us have some feelings of
inferiority because of our small size as chil-
dren. He thought that these feelings give rise
to a drive for superiority. Adler also intro-
duced the term sibling rivalry to describe the
jealousies among brothers and sisters.
Adler, like Jung, believed that self-aware-
ness plays a major role in the formation of
personality. Adler’s spoke of a creative self
that is capable of free will and self-determi-
nation. The creative self is strives to over-
come physical and environmental obstacle.
For example, president Theodore Roosevelt
exemplified Adler’s belief in the individu-
al’s potential for self-creation. As a child,
Roosevelt was frail and asthmatic. Through
physical training, he overcame these chal-
lenges to become a strong and robust adult,
and president of the United States.
Karen Horney In agreement with Freud,
Karen Horney (1885–1952) believed that
childhood experiences play a major role in
the development of adult personality. She
believed that the greatest influences on per-
sonality are social relationships—and the
parent-child relationship.
Horney, like Freud, saw parent-child rela-
tionships to be of paramount importance.
Small children are completely dependent.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 401
5/8/09 11:36:10 AM
 ERIK ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson believed that social relationships are the most important factors in
personality development. Here are the eight stages of Erikson’s theory.

Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4:

Trust versus Mistrust
Infancy (Age 0–1)
Coming to trust the mother
and the environment—to
associate surroundings with
feelings of inner goodness
Autonomy versus
Shame and Doubt
Early childhood (Age 2–3)
Developing the desire to
make choices and the self-
control to exercise choice
Initiative versus Guilt
Preschool years (Age 4–5)
Adding planning and
“attacking” to choice;
becoming active and on
the move
Industry versus Inferiority
Grammar school (Age 6–12)
Becoming eagerly absorbed
in skills, tasks, and produc-
tivity; mastering the funda-
mentals of technology

When their parents treat them with indif-
ference or harshness, children develop feel-
ings of insecurity that Horney termed basic
anxiety. Because children also resent neglect-
ful parents, Horney theorized that feelings
of hostility would accompany the anxiety.
She agreed with Freud that children would
repress rather than express feelings of hos-
tility because they would fear driving their
parents away. In contrast to Freud, however,
she also believed that genuine and consistent
love could temper the effects of even the most
painful childhoods.
Erik Erikson Like Horney, Erik Erikson
(1902–1994) thought that social relationships
are the most important factors in personality
development. He placed great emphasis on
the general emotional climate of the mother-
infant relationship. Erikson also granted more
powers to the ego than Freud had allowed.
According to Freud’s theory, people may think
that they are making choices, but they may
only be rationalizing the compromises forced
upon them by inner conflict. According to
Erikson’s theory, on the other hand, people
are entirely capable of consciously making
real and meaningful choices.
Erikson, like Freud, devised a develop-
mental theory of personality. Erikson, how-
ever, expanded on Freud’s five stages of devel-
opment and formulated a psychosocial theory
of development consisting of eight stages.
Whereas Freud’s developmental stages end
with adolescence, Erikson’s theory is based
on the idea that personality development is
a lifelong process.
Erikson named his stages after the traits
people might develop during each of them. For
example, the first stage of psychosocial devel-
opment is “trust versus mistrust.” A warm,
loving relationship with the mother (and
others) during infancy may lead to a sense of
basic trust in people and in the world. On the
other hand, a cold, unfulfilling relationship
might create a sense of mistrust that could
damage other relationships if left unresolved.
Erikson believed that most people maintain a
blend of trust and mistrust.
Reading Check Compare How are the views on
childhood of Adler, Horney, and Erikson similar?
Evaluation of the
Psychoanalytic Approach
Although psychoanalytic concepts such as
libido and id strike many psychologists as
unscientific today, Freud was an important
champion of the idea that human personality
and behavior are subject to scientific analysis.
In Freud’s day, serious psychological problems
were still seen as signs of weakness or so-
called craziness. Freud’s thinking contributed
greatly to the development of compassion for
people with psychological disorders.
Psychoanalytic theory also focused the
attention of scientists and therapists on the
far-reaching effects of childhood events. Freud
and Erikson suggested that early childhood
traumas can affect us throughout our lives.
As a result, psychoanalytic theorists have
heightened society’s awareness of the emo-
tional needs of children.

402 CHAPTER 14
 Stage 5: Stage 6:
Identity versus Intimacy versus Isolation
Role Diffusion Young adulthood
Adolescence (Age 13–18) (Age 19–30)
Connecting skills and social Committing oneselff to
roles to formation off per- another person; engaging
sonal and career objectives in sexual love
Freud also helped us recognize that sexual
and aggressive urges are common. He pointed
out that there is a difference between recog-
nizing these urges and acting on them. He
realized that our thinkingg may be distorted by
our efforts to avoid anxiety and guilt. To help
people understand their motives, he devised
an influential method off psychotherapy.
Psychoanalytic theories—particularly the
views off Freud—have, however, been criti-
cized on many counts. Even followers off Freud
argued that he placed too much emphasis on
unconscious motives and neglected the impor-
tance off social relationships. Opponents of
Freud’s theories also assert that most people
consciously seek self-enhancement and intel-
lectual pleasures and do not merely try to
gratify the dark demands off the id.
SECTION 2 Assessment
Assessment
Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary
1. Recall What did Freud believe dreams could reveal?
2. Analyze What are the relationships between the id, ego,
and superego?
3. Infer According to Freud, at what stage might people
recognize a sexual preference?
Thinking Critically
4. Draw Conclusions Which defense mechanism might
people use to justify stealing office supplies from an
employer?
5. Evaluate According to Jung, why do certain archetypes
appear in people’s dreams?
py10se_THE_sect2.indd 403
Stage 7: Stage 8:
Generativity versus Integrity versus Despair
Stagnation Late adulthood
Middle adulthood Accepting the end off one’s
Needing to be needed; own life cycle; achieving
guiding and encouraging wisdom and dignity
the younger generation;
being creative
Critics have also questioned Freud’s meth-
ods for gathering evidence from clinical ses-
sions. Usingg this method, therapists may sub-
tly
y influence clients to say
y what the therapists
expect to hear. Freud himselff may have pro-
jected his own childhood experiences and feel-
ings onto his clients. Also, Freud and many
other psychoanalytic theorists gathered their
evidence only from case studies off white, mid-
dle-class individuals who sought help for their
psychological problems. Moreover, because
people who seek therapy are likely to have
more problems than the general population,
Freud’s clients may not have been the most
representative sample from which to gather
information.
Reading Check Analyze What important contri-
butions has Freud made to psychology?
Online Quiz thinkcentral.com
6. Support a Position What is your opinion off Freud’s theory
about the stages off personality development? Explain
whether you thinkk his theory is valid.
7. Compare and Contrast Using
your notes and a graphic
organizer like the one opposite,
choose two psychoanalysts dis-
cussed in this section and com-
pare and contrast their theories.
FOCUS ON WRITING
8. Narrative Write a brieff dialogue between either a Freudian
or a Jungian psychoanalyst and a client describing a dream.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 403
5/8/09 11:36:43 AM
Psychology in today’s world

Password to Personality
Nowadays, just about every computer-user creates passwords to guard brand or a celebrity lifestyle. Top
personal secrets large and small. Most people pick their passwords in a choices for passwords in this category
split second. Others think long and hard to come up with what they think included singer Madonna, cartoon
is an unbreakable code. Regardless of how you devise your own secret character Homer Simpson, actor
login, chances are it will be easier to crack than you think. George Clooney, and soccer player
David Beckham.
Recently, psychologists have con- ideas, things, and feelings that exist Another 11 percent of respon-
firmed something that computer just below consciousness. dents fit into a category that Petrie
hackers have known for a long time: Moreover, when it came to pick- defined as “fantasists.” These com-
most people create passwords that ing passwords, the survey results puter-users often picked passwords
reflect their personal lives and inter- revealed four distinct categories of that expressed an interest in sex or a
ests. A recent psychological study computer users. About 48 percent fantasy identity, such as “goddess,”
suggests that passwords are like of users fell into the family category. that the user was unlikely to ever live
modern-day personality tests, reveal- For passwords, these computer-users out. According to the study’s results
ing clues about a computer user’s tended to choose a name, nickname, the majority of fantasists were men.
personality, as well as providing entry or birth date belonging to themselves However, 37 percent of fantasists
into his or her electronic world. or to someone special to them, such identified themselves as women.
Under the direction of psycho- as a child, spouse, or pet. The study The most security conscious and
logist Helen Petrie, now professor of also found that people in the family computer literate respondents fit into
human-computer interaction at the category were occasional computer the study’s smallest category—the
University of York, the study surveyed users with strong family ties. cryptics. Often identified as “geeks,”
1,200 workers from 30 companies in Some 32 percent of the study’s the cryptics created obscure pass-
the United Kingdom. The study found respondents fit into the fan category. words by mixing letters, numbers,
that passwords are unintentionally “Fans” used the names of athletes, symbols, and punctuation to come
revealing because people tend to sports teams, movie stars, singers and up with passwords such as “PA*591!”
choose the first things that come into fictional characters for passwords. Although uninteresting, these care-
their minds. In this way, passwords According to Petrie, fans are typically fully selected passwords tend to be
tap into the unconscious, revealing young and want to identify with a the safest choices.
If computer passwords are indeed
a window into personality, one thing
may hold true: people may be gener-
ally easier to read than they think.
This should make computer hackers
happy for a long time.

Thinking Critically
1. Summarize What personality char-
acteristics characterize each of the
four main types of password users?
2. Discuss How do you select your
computer passwords? What do they
reveal about your personality?
Psychologists have found that computer passwords reveal personality traits.

404 CHAPTER 14
SEC TION 3

The Learning Approach

Before You Read Use a graphic
Main Idea Reading Focus Vocabulary organizer
The learning approach has 1. What are some of the beliefs socialization like this one to compare
two branches: behaviorism behind behaviorism? social cognitive theory behaviorism and social-
and social-learning theory. learning theory.
2. How do social-learning
Behaviorists believe that theorists approach learning?
our actions are learned. Social-
3. Why are some psychologists Behaviorism Both Learning
Social-learning theorists
dissatisfied with the learning Theory
think that we learn by
approach?
observation.

Personality Makeover
Who do you want to become? Are you
shy and reserved? Would you like to be
outgoing and the life of the party? Such
a transformation might just be possible. Some personal-
ity psychologists claim that character traits can be learned.
Apparently, your personality isn’t set in stone.
Researchers studied the personality traits that most peo-
ple admire, such as integrity, loyalty, kindness, and vitality,
and the people who possess them. It turns out that the traits
didn’t necessarily come to these people naturally—they
were behavioral habits that had to be learned. Of course,
transforming your personality isn’t easy, and it doesn’t hap-
pen overnight. Psychologists compare the process to that of
a chronically overweight person trying to shed the pounds.
Changing one’s personality isn’t impossible, but it often
forces people to step outside of their comfort zones.
With practice, though, the new personality can come to
feel natural. Studies have shown that people who behave like
extroverts are treated like extroverts. Positive reinforcement
and experiences encourage the transition. Over time, the
behavior becomes spontaneous. Eventually, it doesn’t really
matter whether you are actually shy by nature. You have
learned to reshape your personality.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 405

 Behaviorism
CO N N E C T I O N
The learning approach emphasizes the effects
You Are What
of experience on behavior. Some of the theo-
Makes You Laugh
rists who take this approach might assume
A recent study
that your sense of humor—to use an exam-
suggests that people
ple—is largely a learned behavior. They might
learn different
explain that you make jokes because you have
humor styles that
often reveal aspects learned that you will somehow be rewarded or
of their personality positively reinforced for such behavior. Your
family’s laughter and obvious amusement
would be examples of such positive reinforce-
ACADEMIC
ment. The psychological approach that offers
VOCABULARY
such an explanation is called behaviorism,
utopian ideal
and is a branch of the learning approach.
John Watson and B. F. Skinner The founder
of behaviorism is John B. Watson. He claimed
that external forces or influences—not inter-
nal influences such as traits or inner con-
flict—largely shape people’s preferences and
behavior. In the 1930s, Watson’s approach was
taken up by B. F. Skinner. Skinner agreed
that we should pay attention to how organ-
isms behave and avoid trying to see within
people’s minds, which he believed was unsci-
entific. Skinner also emphasized the effects of
reinforcement on behavior.
Socialization Most of us assume that our
wants originate within us. But Watson and
Skinner largely discarded ideas of personal
freedom, choice, and self-direction. Skinner
suggested that environmental influences, such
as parental approval and social custom, condi-
tion or shape us into wanting some things and
not wanting others. Socialization is the process
by which people learn the socially desirable
behaviors of their particular culture and adopt
them as part of their personalities.
In his 1948 novel, Walden Two, Skinner
described a utopian society in which people
are happy and content because every mem-
ber of the society contributes to and receives
the benefits of the society. They have been
socialized from early childhood to help other
people and society at large. Because of child-
hood socialization, people in the fictional com-
munity want to be decent, kind, and unselfish.
They see their actions as a result of their own
free will. According to Skinner, however, no
one is really free. In his view, we are shaped
into wanting what is good for society at an
early age.
Reading Check Summarize According to behav-
iorists, how do people learn acceptable behavior?

Have External Forces
Influenced Your Personality?
You may think that who you are and what you want
is all your idea. But is it? In this lab, you will answer a
series of questions that will help you consider whether
outside forces may have influenced your behavior.
PROCEDURE
1 Read the following questions and write your answers to
them on a separate piece of paper.
a. What do you want to do with your life?
b. Has anyone you know well pursued a similar path?
c. Has anyone you know well expressed approval of
your choice?
2 As you write your answers, try to recall exactly how your
family and friends have reacted to your future plans. Be as
objective as possible.
Quick Lab
ANALYSIS
1. After you have answered the questions, discuss your
responses with a partner.
2. Consider whether your plans are a natural outcome of your
personality, talents, and preferences. Are your future plans
a good fit for you?
3. If someone you know has followed a similar path, reflect
on your relationship with this person. Do you admire this
person? Have you ever imitated his or her behavior?
4. Think about the people in your life who approve of your
future plans. Do you crave approval and positive reinforce-
ment from them?
5. Has your environment influenced your future plans?

Quick Lab thinkcentral.com

406 CHAPTER14
 Social-Learning Theory SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL
Social-learning
g theory y is another branch off the
learningg approach. Psychologists who support
this theory might suggest that you learned
how to be funny by observing g how other peo-
ple use humor. Proponents off social-learning
Behavioral
theory include psychologist Albert Bandura.
Factors
Social learning
g theorists, like Bandura, focus
on the importance off learning g by observation,
and on the role off the cognitive processes that
produce individual differences. Personal
Development
Albert Bandura For Albert Bandura, “learn-
ing
g would be exceedingly y laborious, not to men-
tion hazardous, iff people had to rely solely on
Personal Environmental
the effects off their own actions to inform them Factors Factors
what to do.”” Bandura argued that practically
anyy behavior that could be learned from direct
experience, could also be learned by observing
and modeling g other people.
Bandura tested his theory in a famous This model demonstrates Bandura’s social cognitive theory, in which
experiment known as the “Bobo Doll”” study. people, behavior, and environment continually influence each other.
A bobo doll is an inflatable toy that stands Skills Focus INTERPRETING VISUALS What does the model
upright on a rounded base and bounces back suggest about how personality develops?
up when it is pushed. In his study, Bandura
wanted to see whether people learn aggres-
sive behavior from modeling. He had children,
aged three to six, enter a playroom one by one • environmental factors, which include
with an adult. Halff off the children witnessed the social, cultural, and political forces
the adult violently hit a bobo doll; the other that influence behavior.
halff did not. Once left alone in playroom with The theory presents a way to understand
a bobo doll, the children who had witnessed and predict human behavior. It states that
the aggressive behavior were far more likely a person’s environment provides models for
to act violentlyy toward the bobo doll than those behavior. In other words, we watch another’s
who had not witnessed violent behavior. behavior—and the reinforcements he or she
In a later, related study, Bandura found receives as a result—and model our own
that children who witnessed an adult being behavior on what we have observed. Social-
punished for aggressive behavior were less learning
g theorists refer to this process as pur-
likely to copy the adult’s behavior. The stud- poseful learning.
ies suggest that children learn what society
Purposeful Learning To behaviorists, learn-
deems acceptable behavior by watching and
ing
g is the mechanical result off reinforcement.
modeling g others.
To social-learning theorists, on the other
Social Cognitive Theory Bandura’s findings hand, people engage in purposeful learning.
formed the basis off his social
i cognitive
iti theory. Unlike behaviorists, who believe that people
Accordingg to this theory, personality is shaped are at the mercy off their environments, social-
and learningg is acquired by the interaction of learning theorists argue that people can act
the following: intentionally to influence the environment.
• personal factors, which include one’s Individuals seek to learn about their environ-
thoughts, beliefs, values, expectations, ments and have a certain degree off control
emotional disposition, and biological and over reinforcement. Observational learning
genetic makeup; extends to reading g about others or watching
• behavior, orr one’s actions and experience; them in media such as television and film.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 407

py10se_THE_sect3.indd 407 5/8/09 11:44:55 AM

 According to social-learning theorists,
behavior is not based solely on what is learned
from observation. Internal variables also
influence how we act in certain situations.
These internal factors include the following:
• Skills: Skills include a person’s physical
and social abilities.
• Values: The value we put on the outcome
of a certain behavior affects how we act.
For example, if you value good grades,
you will study.
• Goals: We regulate ourselves by setting
goals. Once the goal is set, we plan the
most effective way to achieve it.
• Expectations: Expectations are predic-
tions of what will happen in certain
situations.
• Self-efficacy expectations: This term,
coined by Bandura, refers to beliefs peo-
ple have about themselves. They include
people’s beliefs that they can succeed and
accomplish the goals that they set for
themselves. For example, if you believe
that you are a good public speaker, you
will be motivated to speak before the
class assembly. People with high self-effi-
cacy expectations are also more likely to
persist at difficult tasks.
Reading Check Identify Supporting Details
What is social cognitive theory?
SECTION 3 Assessment
Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary
1. Define What is socialization?
2. Identify Cause and Effect According to behaviorists, what
happens as a result of positive reinforcement?
3. Infer According to social-learning theorists, how might
children’s behavior be affected by domestic violence?
Thinking Critically
4. Draw Conclusions Many students strive to get good
grades. How would social-learning theorists explain this
behavior? How would behaviorists explain it?
5. Evaluate How would social-learning theorists claim that
having an optimistic personality might influence behavior?
6. Support a Position Do you agree with the behaviorist view
that true personal freedom does not exist? Why or why not?
408 CHAPTER 14
Evaluation of the
Learning Approach
What are the strengths and weaknesses of
learning theories? Learning theorists have
made key contributions to the understanding
of behavior, but their theories have left some
psychologists dissatisfied. Psychoanalytic the-
orists and trait theorists focus on internal vari-
ables such as unconscious conflict and traits to
explain behavior. Learning theorists empha-
size the influence of environmental conditions
on behavior. They have shown that people learn
to do things because of reinforcement.
Behaviorism is limited in its ability to
explain personality. Behaviorism does not
describe, explain, or even suggest the richness
of inner human experience. Behaviorism does
not deal with thoughts, feelings, and people’s
complex inner maps of the world.
Social-learning theory does deal with these
issues. But critics of social-learning theory
argue that it has not come up with satisfy-
ing explanations for the development of traits
or accounted for self-awareness. Also, social-
learning theory—like behaviorism—may not
pay enough attention to the role genetic varia-
tion plays in determining individual differ-
ences in behavior.
Reading Check Contrast In what way do learning
theorists disagree with psychoanalytic theorists?
Online Quiz thinkcentral.com
7. Analyze Using your notes
and a graphic organizer like Bobo Doll Study
the one at right, determine
what social-learning theorists
learned from Bandura’s bobo
doll study.
FOCUS ON WRITING
8. Expository Write a brief report in which you evaluate the
learning approach for yourself. Discuss whether you think
personality can be learned or observed.
SEC TION 4
The Humanistic and
Sociocultural Approaches
Before You Read Use a graphic
Main Idea Reading Focus Vocabulary organizer
Humanistic psychologists 1. What is the focus of humanistic self-concept like this one to take notes
believe that people shape psychology? congruence on the characteristics of
their personalities through acculturation humanistic and sociocul-
2. Who is Carl Rogers? tural psychology.
free choice and action.
3. How do psychologists evaluate
Sociocultural psychologists Humanistic Sociocultural
the humanistic approach?
focus on the roles of ethnicity,
gender, and culture in person- 4. What is sociocultural psychology?
ality formation. 5. How does the sociocultural
approach view personality
development?

How do you want to be rewarded for

a great performance? If you work hard
to do your very best, would you rather
You Deserve
receive flowers and applause from an audience or get a big
paycheck? When you go to a rock concert, do the band mem-
bers really care that you holler and clap when they begin
a Reward
your favorite song? Or are they just in it for the money? To
our brains, the two types of rewards are actually similar.
Japanese researchers wanted to know the answers to
the questions above. They asked what happens in the brain
when someone is offered either cash or a compliment as
compensation for a job well done. Test subjects played a
gambling game, answered a personality questionnaire, or
made a video. When these efforts were reviewed favorably
by others and cash or compliments were offered in return,
the researchers used functional magnetic resonance imaging
(f MRI) to observe the activity in a reward-related area of the
brain. Both types of reward caused activity in the reward area
of the brain. The scientists concluded that the pleasure we
receive from compliments means that we really do care what
other people think of us.
Clearly, we get a psychological boost from having a
good reputation, and we have a powerful need to belong.
Issues related to how we see ourselves as individuals and as
members of a group are of interest to psychologists who take
humanistic and sociocultural approaches to personality.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 409


Humanistic Psychology
Behaviorists argue that psychologists
should not attempt to study self-awareness.
Humanists, on the other hand, begin with
the assumption that self-awareness is the
very core of humanity. They focus on people’s
pursuits of self-fulfillment and ethical con-
duct. To humanistic psychologists, people are
truly free to do as they choose with their lives.
Moreover, because people are free to choose,
they are fully responsible for the choices that
they make.
Abraham Maslow Humanistic psychologist
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) believed that
humans are separated from lower animals
because they recognize a desire to achieve self-
actualization—to reach their full potential. He
also believed that because people are unique,
they must follow their own paths to self-
actualization. However, accomplishing this
requires taking risks. Maslow argued that peo-
ple who stick to what is tried and true may find
their lives boring and predictable. For exam-
ple, a gifted young musician may be very close
to her friends, but she may also realize that
she possesses a unique musical ability and so
accepts a scholarship to a distant music college.
According to Maslow’s theory, her willingness
to pursue her talent and her courage to leave
her friends behind and go away to college are
factors in her search for self-actualization.
Hierarchy of Needs Before self-actualization
can be achieved, however, Maslow recognized
that certain basic needs must first be met. He
developed this concept by creating what he
called a “hierarchy of needs.” Maslow claimed
that each need in the hierarchy had to be ful-
filled before the next one could be addressed.
Below are the five levels of Maslow’s hier-
archy of needs, beginning with the first, most
basic level.
• Physiological needs: water, air, food,
and sleep. Maslow asserted that all other
needs were secondary to these very basic
and instinctive needs.
• Security needs: safety and security.
These needs include shelter, employment,
health insurance, and safe environments.
• Social needs: love, belonging, and accep-
tance. These include the needs for family,
friends, and romantic attachments.
410 CHAPTER 14
py10se_THE_sect4.indd 410
• Esteem needs: self-esteem, respect,
social recognition, and accomplishment.
These include the need for a career or
hobby that provides an individual with a
sense of self-worth.
• Self-actualization needs: self-aware-
ness and personal growth. These include
the need to achieve one’s full potential.
According to Maslow, once the first three sets
of needs have been met, esteem and self-actu-
alization needs become increasingly impor-
tant. However, Maslow stressed that the hier-
archy is not rigid. People progress through the
hierarchy sequentially, but not necessarily in
the same way. For example, one person may
feel a stronger need for social recognition than
for romantic attachments. The hierarchy, like
the humanistic psychologist who designed it,
allows for an individual’s freedom of choice in
the quest for self-actualization.
Reading Check Identify Supporting Details
What is self-actualization?
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (1902–1987), another advocate of
the humanistic approach, believed that peo-
ple are basically good and mentally healthy.
Furthermore, he claimed that all people have
within them the drive to grow and develop
their potential. Building on Maslow’s hier-
archy, Rogers thought that we seek to fulfill
all of our basic and personal growth needs
because it is simply in our nature to do so.
Like Maslow, Rogers believed that people
are to some degree the conscious architects
of their own personalities. In Rogers’s view,
people shape their personalities through free
choice and action. Because Rogers’s theory
revolves around people’s sense of self, it is
termed self theory.
Rogers placed great emphasis on the
human ability to derive a self-concept, a view
of oneself as an individual. He also believed
that the self is concerned with recognizing
personal values and establishing a sense of
one’s relationships to other people. The self
is the center of each person’s experience, an
ongoing sense of who and what one is. It pro-
vides the experience of being human in the
world, and it is the guiding principle behind
both personality and behavior.
5/8/09 11:51:59 AM
The Self-Concept and Congruence Our
self-concepts are made up of our impressions
The Psychology of The Sims
of ourselves and our evaluations of our ade-
quacy. Rogers believed that the key to happi-
ness and healthy adjustment is congruence,
or consistency between one’s self-concept and
one’s experience. For example, if you consider
yourself to be outgoing and friendly, this self-
concept will be reinforced if you have good
relationships with other people. This will prob-
ably lead to feelings of happiness and a sense
that your self-concept is accurate. If, however,
you have difficulty getting along with others,
the inconsistency between your self-concept
and your experience will probably cause you
to feel anxious or troubled.
Self-Esteem and Positive Regard Rogers
assumed that we all develop a need for self-
esteem. At first, self-esteem reflects the
esteem in which others hold us. For example,
parents help children develop self-esteem
when they show them unconditional positive Millions of people play The Sims, the popular computer
regard. Parents show unconditional positive game developed in the late 1990s. But did you know
regard when they accept children as they are,
that the game’s creator, Will Wright, based the Sims on
no matter what the children’s behavior is at
humanistic psychology? Wright’s game designers, like
any particular moment.
the one above, program the Sims characters to engage
Parents show children conditional positive
in activities—work, play, and romance—that help
regard if they accept children only when they
them fulfill themselves according to Maslow’s hierarchy
behave in a desired manner. Conditional posi-
of needs. For example, Sims characters cannot enjoy
tive regard may lead children to think that
they are worthwhile only if they behave in a movie if they are hungry. In fact, the designers have
certain ways. created characters so true to life that many Sims fans
Humanistic psychologists believe that create virtual versions of their own lives. How might
each of us has a unique potential. Therefore, you help a Sim achieve self-actualization?
children who think that they are worthwhile
only if they behave in certain ways will end up
being disappointed in themselves. Humanistic perceive their parents’ disapproval, they may
psychologists believe that we cannot fully live come to see themselves as rebels and label
up to the wishes of others and also remain their feelings as selfish, wrong, or evil. If they
true to ourselves. wish to retain a consistent self-concept and
The expression of the self does not always self-esteem, they may have to deny many of
have to lead to conflict. Rogers was optimistic their genuine feelings. They may, in a sense,
about human nature. He believed that we hurt have to disown parts of themselves.
others or act in antisocial ways only when we According to Rogers’s theory, the path to
are frustrated in our efforts to develop our self-actualization requires getting in touch
potential. When parents and others are lov- with our genuine feelings and acting on them.
ing and tolerant of the ways in which we are This is the goal of person-centered therapy,
different, we, too, are loving. Rogers’s method of psychotherapy.
However, Rogers believed that children
Reading Check Identify Cause and Effect What
in some families learn that it is bad to have
might happen as a result of a parent’s conditional
ideas of their own, especially about political,
positive regard?
religious, or sexual matters. When children

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 411

 that both family and environmental influ-
Evaluation of the ences are key factors in the development of
Humanistic Approach the children’s personalities.
For most animals, to be alive is to move, to
Individualism versus Collectivism One
eat, to breathe, and to reproduce. However,
aspect of culture that sociocultural theorists
humanistic psychologists think that humans
focus on is the level of individualism or col-
are not merely animals. They believe that
lectivism in a society. Individualism is a trait
for human beings an essential aspect of life
valued by many people in the United States
is conscious experience—the sense of one’s
and in many European nations. Individualists
self as progressing through space and time.
tend to define themselves in terms of their
Humanists grant consciousness a key role in
personal identities. They usually give priority
our daily lives. This focus on conscious expe-
to their personal goals. When asked to com-
rience is one reason that humanistic theories
plete the statement “I am . . . ,” they are likely
have tremendous popular appeal.
to respond in terms of their own personality
Another reason for their popularity is that
traits or occupations. For example, they are
they stress human freedom. Psychoanalytic
likely to say, “I am friendly and outgoing” or
theories see us largely as products of our child-
“I am a computer programmer.”
hoods. Learning theories, to some degree, see
In contrast, many people from Africa, Asia,
us as products of circumstances. Both theories
and Central and South America tend to be
argue that our sense of freedom is merely an
more collectivistic. Collectivists tend to define
illusion. Humanistic theorists, however, say
themselves in terms of the groups to which
that our freedom is real.
they belong and often give priority to the
The primary strength of the humanistic
goals of their groups. They feel complete only
theories—their focus on conscious experi-
in terms of their social relationships with oth-
ACADEMIC ence—is also their main weakness. Conscious
ers. When asked to complete the statement “I
VOCABULARY experience is private and subjective. Therefore,
am . . . ,” they are likely to respond in terms of
subjective not some psychologists question the soundness of
objective, personal
their families, religion, or nation. For example,
framing theories in terms of consciousness.
they are likely to say, “I am a father,” “I am a
Others, however, believe that the science of
Buddhist,” or “I am Japanese.”
psychology can afford to relax its methods if
The Western capitalist system fosters
loosening them will help it address the rich-
individualism. It assumes that individuals
ness of human experience.
are entitled to amass personal fortunes if
Critics also note that humanistic theo-
they have the drive and ability to do so. The
ries, like learning theories, have little to say
individualist perspective is found in the self-
about the development of traits and personal-
reliant heroes of Western entertainment—
ity types. Humanistic theorists assume that
from the gritty cowboy featured in scores of
we are all unique, but they do not predict the
movies to such comic book superheroes as
sorts of traits, abilities, and interests that
Batman. The traditional writings of many
people might develop.
non-Western cultures, on the other hand, have
Reading Check Summarize Why are humanistic praised people who put the well-being of the
theories popular? group ahead of their personal ambitions.
There are, of course, conflicting ideals—as
Sociocultural Psychology well as individual differences—within cul-
tures. In the United States, for example, chil-
The sociocultural perspective focuses on the
dren may be taught to be “Number One,” but
roles that ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic
they are also taught to share with other chil-
status, and culture play in shaping person-
dren. But, on the whole, the contrast between
ality, behavior, and mental processes. Many
the individualist Western world and the more
children in the United States are raised by
collectivist nations of other parts of the world
parents who have grown up in another coun-
is a generally reliable measure of some per-
try. Nonetheless, these children are comfort-
sonality differences between individuals from
able in American schools with their American
these regions.
friends. Sociocultural theorists would claim

412 CHAPTER 14
Sociocultural Factors and the Self Accord-
ing to sociocultural theorists, social and cul-
tural factors also affect the self-concept and
Statistically
self-esteem of the individual. Carl Rogers Speaking...
noted that our self-concepts tend to reflect
how we believe other people see us. Members
of ethnic groups who have been subjected to
discrimination and poverty may have poorer
self-concepts and lower self-esteem than peo-
ple who have not experienced discrimination
and poverty. Similarly, members of ethnic
groups that have traditionally held power in
society are likely to have a positive sense of
self because they share in the expectations
of personal achievement and respect that are
typically given to members of such groups.
In some cases, however, things are not so
simple. Many women in the United States,
particularly white women, are unhappy with
their appearance. This is in part because the
media ideal is found in female models who
are on average 9 percent taller and 23 percent
slimmer than the average American woman.
But, a survey found that African American Cultural Views on Body Image The bar graph below
girls are likely to be happier with their shows the percentage of girls who are happy with their appear-
appearances than are white girls. ance. The yellow bars reveal the percentages of white girls, African
How do sociocultural theorists explain this American girls, and Hispanic girls in elementary school who claimed
that it is “always true” that they are happy the way they are. The
difference? It appears that African American
orange bars show the percentages of white girls, African American
girls are taught that there is nothing wrong
girls, and Hispanic girls in high school who made the same assertion.
with them if they do not match the ideals of
the majority culture. They come to believe
GIRLS’ SELF-ESTEEM BY RACE AND ETHNICITY
that if the world treats them negatively, it is
because of prejudice, not because of who they 100

really are or what they do. White girls, on the Elementary school
80 High school
other hand, may be more likely to look inward
and blame themselves for not attaining the 60
Percent

unreachable ideal.
Acculturation and Self-Esteem Personalities 40

are influenced by more than personal traits

20
and learning experiences. They are also
influenced by cultural settings. For example, 0
Korean American children may absorb tradi- White African American Hispanic
tional Korean values from their family mem- Race/Ethnicity
bers. At school, however, they are exposed
daily to values that are uniquely American. Skills Focus INTERPRETING GRAPHS Based on the graph, how
Acculturation is the process of adapting to
do girls’ perceptions of their appearance change between elementary
a new or different culture. People who immi- school and high school? Which cultural group indicates a greater
grate to the United States undergo accultura- acceptance of their appearance?
tion. If they come from Africa, Asia, or Latin
Source: Shortchanging Girls, Shortchanging America. Published by the American
America, they are likely to find that differ- Association of University Women, 1994.
ences in language are only the tip of the ice-
berg of cultural differences.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 413

 Acculturation occurs in various patterns.
Some immigrants become completely assimi-
lated, or absorbed, into the culture of the area
to which they move. They may stop using both
the language and customs of their country of
origin. Others choose to maintain separa-
tion. They retain the language and customs
of their country of origin and never become
completely comfortable with those of their
adopted country. Still others become bicul-
tural. That is, they integrate both sets of cus-
toms and values.
Research suggests that people who are
bicultural have the highest self-esteem. For
example, Mexican Americans who are flu-
ent in English are more likely to be emotion-
ally stable than Mexican Americans who
do not speak English as well. Adopting the
ways of the new society without giving up a
supportive cultural tradition and a sense of
ethnic identity apparently helps people func-
tion most effectively. According to the socio-
cultural approach, for example, a Korean
American woman who achieves musical and
educational success and who has high self-
esteem might reflect a balance between her
traditional Korean heritage and her cultural
surroundings in the United States.
Reading Check Contrast What are key differences
between an individualistic society and a collectiv-
istic one?
SECTION 4 Assessment
Reviewing Main Ideas and Vocabulary 7. Rank Using your notes and a graphic organizer like the
1. Recall According to the humanistic approach, what is the
role of self and free choice in shaping human behavior?
2. Summarize What is Carl Rogers’s concept of congruence?
3. Draw Conclusions How can acculturation affect self-
esteem and self-concept?
Thinking Critically FOCUS ON WRITING
4. Contrast How does humanistic psychology differ from psy-
8. Persuasive Do you believe, like Carl Rogers, that each indi-
choanalytic and learning approaches?
5. Evaluate What roles does self-esteem play in both human-
istic and sociocultural psychology?
6. Elaborate Why might a person who abandons his or her
culture of origin have lower self-esteem than a person who
becomes bicultural?
414 CHAPTER 14
Evaluation of the
Sociocultural Approach
The sociocultural perspective provides valu-
able insights into the roles of ethnicity, gen-
der, culture, and socioeconomic status in
personality formation. Sociocultural factors
are external forces that are internalized and
affect all of us. They run through us deeply,
touching many aspects of our personalities.
Without reference to sociocultural factors, we
may be able to understand generalities about
behavior and mental processes. We cannot,
however, understand how individuals think,
behave, and feel about themselves within a
given cultural setting. The sociocultural per-
spective also enhances our sensitivity to cul-
tural differences and allows us to appreciate
much of the richness of human behavior.
The sociocultural approach has particular
implications for education. It indicates that
learning is not just a function of an individu-
al’s personality. Social and cultural contexts
also have an impact on learning. As a result,
some sociocultural psychologists believe that
more attention should be paid to such learn-
ing tools as group activities, which may be
heavily tied to social and cultural practices.
Reading Check Make Generalizations What
implications might the sociocultural approach
have for learning and education?
Online Quiz thinkcentral.com
one below, create your own hierarchy of needs. Place the
five needs in the order that they are most important to you.
Briefly explain what each need involves.
vidual takes charge of his or her environment? State your
opinion and defend it in a paragraph or two.
Current Research in Psychology

The Science of Well-Being

You might have come across the term “positive psychology” on TV, radio, of happiness. All of the young nuns
or even in fashion magazines. But what is it really? What does it mean? had similar, moderate lifestyles. They
In a nutshell, positive psychology is a science of the positive aspects of didn’t smoke or drink, had a balanced
human life: happiness, well-being, and flourishing. Positive psychology is diet, and worked as teachers.
different from many self-help books, though. It aims to bring solid empir- The study’s results indicated
ical research into areas such as personal strengths, wisdom, creativity, that the happiness expressed by the
motivation, and the characteristics of positive groups and institutions. applicants at age 18 could have been
used to predict how long the nuns
For a long while it seems that the found that happiness is partly innate would live. Years later, when the nuns
field of psychology has emphasized and partly depends on us. All objec- reached age 85, 90 percent of the
the shortcomings and struggles of tive life circumstances combined nuns whose happiness was in the top
individuals rather than their poten- account for not more than 10 percent 25 percent at the time of their appli-
tials (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, of variance in well-being. The effects cation were still alive compared to 34
2000). Positive psychology is differ- of being fired or promoted lose their percent of those who were among
ent. In short, it is not concerned with impact on our happiness levels within the least happy. Even at the age of 94,
how to move individuals from –8 to three months. Winning the lottery over half of the happiest nuns were
–2 for example, but with how to bring often brings people misery and desir- alive, while only 11 percent of those
them from +2 to +8. In other words, ing money doesn’t make one much who were least happy were still alive.
its fundamental objective is to study happier either (Boniwell, 2006). So the study suggests that happiness
what sort of life is worth living. Even more fascinating is the possi- can buy us an extra 9.4 years of life
Despite being a young discipline, bility that well-being is tied to a long (Danner, Snowdon and Friesen, 2001).
positive psychology has succeeded in life. One study analyzed the applica- Recent research indicates that
making some groundbreaking discov- tion letters of young women entering using simple well-being strategies
eries. For example, researchers have convents at age of 18 for indicators can make people lastingly happy. For
example, a randomized controlled
trial carried out by Seligman and
his colleagues demonstrated that
spending some time in the evening
thinking of three things that went
well that day can increase one’s hap-
piness for up to six months (Seligman,
2005). That would seem to be a small
investment of time for a big return of
happiness!

Thinking Critically
1. Draw Conclusions Why do you think
happy people live longer?
2. Discuss With so much misery and
suffering in the world, why should
psychologists spend time and
According to positive psychologists, people can create their own happiness and well- resources studying people who are
being by thinking positive and healthful thoughts. already doing well?

Current Research thinkcentral.com

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 415

Your Self: Applying
Theories of Personality
Can theories of personality explain what makes you unique?
1. Introduction
This lab will help you review the different theories of
personality presented in this chapter. First, you will review
the key approaches and people discussed in this chapter.
Then, you will be asked to select four of the approaches and
apply them to your own personality. Working individually
you will create a collage with four distinct regions. Each
region will analyze your personality from the point of view
of one of the four approaches you have selected. Then,
each student will be asked to present his or her collage to
the class. Finally, the entire class will evaluate each collage
and try to determine which approaches are represented. To
complete this lab, follow the steps below.
■ Read all of the steps of the lab. Then select four of the
approaches to personality discussed in this chapter to
illustrate in your collage (See the chart on Key Approaches
and People on the next page.)
■ Review the chapter material on each of your four approaches.
Write down a few main points about each approach, taking
note of important ideas and people.
■ Conduct additional library or Internet research if your teacher
instructs you to do so.
■ Gather the materials you will need to complete your lab: note
cards, poster board, magazines, markers, scissors, and glue.
416 CHAPTER 14
Reading and
Activity Workbook
Use the workbook to
complete this lab.
2. Profiling Your Personality
Who do you think you are? What features of your personality
are well-known to your friends and family? Which of your
personality traits are known only to a few people? All of
us have distinct personality traits that distinguish us from
others. Use a graphic organizer like the one below to
brainstorm a list of personality traits that make you unique.
My Personality Profile
I am . . . I like to . . .
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
3. Creating Your Collage
Use your notes and your personality profile to create a
collage that represents your personality from each of the
four approaches to personality you selected. Follow the steps
below to complete your collage.
1 Divide a sheet of poster board into four distinct regions.
Each region will represent a different approach to
personality theory.
2 In each region, create an illustration or select images and
words to represent your personality from one approach
to personality discussed in this chapter. For example, for
the psychoanalytic approach, you could choose an iceberg
to show the relationship between the conscious and the
unconscious mind. The part of the iceberg above water
could represent the conscious mind. In this part of the
collage, you could place images representing aspects of
your personality that others easily recognize. The iceberg
below water could represent the unconscious. Here, you
could place aspects of your personality you are less aware of.
3 Once you have completed all four sections of your collage,
write a paragraph explaining which approach to personality
you think most clearly explains your personality and why.
 From the classroom of Kathleen Reutherr, Marquette High School, Chesterfield, MO

4. Presenting Your Collage KEY APPROACHES AND PEOPLE

Following your teacher’s instructions hang your collages for the class
to see. When called upon, present your collage to the class. Be careful The Trait Approach
not to reveal which approaches to personality you chose to illustrate. • Gordon Allport
Invite your classmates to guess which approach is represented in each • Hans Eysenck
section off your collage. Finally, using points from the paragraph that
• The Five Factor Model
you wrote, explain to the class which approach you thinkk best describes
your personality. The Psychoanalytic Approach
• Sigmund Freud
5. Discussion • Carl Jung
What did you learn from this lab? Your teacher will call the class • Alfred Adler
together to hold a discussion that focuses on the questions below. Be • Karen Horney
prepared to use your collage to help explain your answers to the class.
• Erik Erikson
■ Overall, how successful were you at applying the different approaches
to personality to your own personality? The Learning Approach
■ Were some approaches to personality particularly difficult or easy to • Behaviorism
illustrate? Iff so, why? • John Watson
■ What major features off your personality were depicted in each part of • B.F. Skinner
your collage? • Social Learning Theory
■ In terms off depicting specific features off your personality, did you think • Albert Bandura
any off the approaches were limited? • Social-Cognitive Theory
■ In your opinion, which aspects off your personality are most important
to survival? To self-fulfillment? Explain. Humanistic Psychology
• Abraham Maslow
• Carl Rogers

Sociocultural Psychology
• Individualism
• Collectivism
• Sociocultural factors

Applying What You’ve Learned thinkcentral.com

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
TY 4 7
41

py10se_THE_lab.indd 417 5/8/09 11:30:05 AM

CHAPTER 14 Review
Comprehension and Critical Thinking
SECTION 1 (pp. 392–395)
1. a. Recall Which factors would a person who is
hostile, selfish, and unreliable score low on
according to the Five Factor Model?
b. Explain How did Hans J. Eysenck build on
Carl Jung’s distinction between extroversion
and introversion?
c. Support a Position Do you think that it is ever
possible for a person to be too conscientious or
too open to new experiences? Explain.
SECTION 2 (pp. 396–403)
2. a. Identify Main Ideas According to Carl Jung,
what is the relationship between archetypes
and the collective unconscious?
b. Sequence Describe Erikson’s stages of psycho-
social development.
c. Predict What do you think might happen to
society if the structure of the human mind had
an id, but not an ego or a superego?
SECTION 3 (pp. 405–408)
3. a. Identify According to social cognitive theory
which factors shape personality development?
b. Contrast In what ways does behaviorism differ
from social cognitive theory?
c. Evaluate What are the strengths and weak-
nesses of social-learning theory?
SECTION 4 (pp. 409–414)
4. a. Describe What roles do the self and free choice
play in humanistic psychology?
b. Interpret How can the process of acculturation
have both positive and negative effects on self-
esteem?
c. Rank Which factors do you think have the
greatest influence on shaping a teenager’s per-
sonality: free choice and individual action, or
sociocultural factors such as ethnicity, gender,
and culture? Explain.
418 CHAPTER 14
Reviewing Vocabulary
Match the terms with their correct definitions.
5. personality 10. rationalization
6. trait 11. archetypes
7. introverts 12. socialization
8. extroverts 13. self-concept
9. defense mechanisms 14. congruence
A. ideas and images of the accumulated experiences
of all human beings
B. the consistency between one’s self-concept and
one’s experience
C. methods used by the ego to avoid anxiety
D. people who tend to be active and self-expressive
and gain energy from interacting with others
E. people who tend to be imaginative and look
inward for ideas and energy
F. the patterns of feelings, motives, and behavior
that set people apart from one another
G. the use of self-deception to justify unacceptable
behaviors or ideas
H. a view of oneself as an individual
I. the process by which people learn socially desir-
able behaviors
J. an aspect of personality that is considered to be
reasonably stable
INTERNET ACTIVITY
15. What personality traits do psychologists pos-
sess? Choose two psychologists discussed in this
chapter and conduct Internet research to find
biographical information about each one. Then,
using either Hans Eysenck’s dimensions of per-
sonality or the Five-Factor Model, come up with
a set of trait words for each psychologist.
Psychology in Your Life
16. Albert Bandura studied how children learn vio-
lence from adult models. Today many people are
concerned about how the media and computer
games model violence. Keep a diary for a week of
your own television and gaming activity. Record
how many acts of violence you see in each show
or game. Write a paragraph summarizing your
findings, and tell how you think exposure to vio-
lence might affect your attitudes or behavior.
 SKILLS ACTIVITY: INTERPRETING PRIMARY SOURCES Connecting Online
Read the following
g excerpt, in which psychologist Alfred Adler discusses
why he believes people strive for superiority. Then answer the questions Visit thinkcentral.com for
that follow. review and enrichment
activities related to this chapter.
“ Now I began to see clearly in every psychical phenomenon the striv-
ing for superiority. It runs parallel to physical growth. It is an intrinsic
necessity off life itself. It lies at the root off all solutions off life’s problems,
and is manifested in the way in which we meet these problems. All our
functions follow its direction . . . Willing, thinking, talking, seeking after
rest, after pleasure, learning, understanding, workk and love, betoken
[show] the essence off this eternal melody. Whether one thinks or acts
more wisely or less, one always moves along the lines off that upward
tendency. In our right and wrong conceptions off life and its problems, in Quiz and Review
the successful or the unsuccessful solution off any question, this striving
for perfection is uninterruptedly at work. ”
—Alfred Adler, Understanding Human Nature
ONLINE QUIZZES
Take a practice quiz for each
section in this chapter.
17. Explain What importance does Adler give the idea off “strivingg for
superiority”” in this excerpt? WEBQUEST
18. Predict How might a behaviorist such as John B. Watson have Complete a structured
Internet activity for this
responded to Adler’s arguments in this excerpt?
chapter.

WRITING FOR AP PSYCHOLOGY QUICK LAB

Reinforce a key concept
Use your knowledge off personality to answer the question below. Do not with a short lab activity.
simply list facts. Present a clear argument based on your critical analy-
sis off the question, using
g the appropriate psychological terminology.
APPLYING WHAT
YOU’VE LEARNED
19. Briefly describe the main points off each off the approaches to person- Review and apply your
ality listed below. For each approach, include a general description of knowledge by completing a
who helped developed the approach and how it can be used to under- project-based assessment.
stand personality.
• The Five Factor Model Activities
• Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic approach
eACTIVITIES
• humanistic approach
Complete chapter Internet
activities for enrichment.

INTERACTIVE FEATURE
Explore an interactive version
off a key feature in this chapter.

KEEP IT CURRENT
Linkk to current news and
research in psychology.

Online Textbook
Learn more
about key topics
in this chapter.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 419

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