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The nature of naturally fractured reservoirs

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 The Nature of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

Tom Bratton Naturally fractured reservoirs present a production paradox. They include reservoirs
Denver, Colorado, USA
with low hydrocarbon recovery: these reservoirs initially may appear highly
Dao Viet Canh productive, only to decline rapidly. They are also notorious for early gas or water
Nguyen Van Que
Cuu Long Joint Operating Company (JOC) breakthrough. On the other hand, they represent some of the largest, most productive
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
reservoirs on Earth. The paradoxical nature of this class of reservoirs is the impetus
Nguyen V. Duc behind the industry’s efforts to learn more about them and model them with a
VietSovPetro
Vung Tau City, Vietnam reasonable amount of certainty.

Paul Gillespie
David Hunt
Hydro Nearly all hydrocarbon reservoirs are affected in
Bergen, Norway some way by natural fractures, yet the effects of
fractures are often poorly understood and largely
Bingjian Li underestimated. In carbonate reservoirs, natural
Ahmadi, Kuwait fractures help create secondary porosity and
promote communication between reservoir
Richard Marcinew
compartments. However, these high-permeability
Satyaki Ray
conduits sometimes short-circuit fluid flow
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
within a reservoir, leading to premature water or
Bernard Montaron gas production and making secondary-recovery
Dubai, United Arab Emirates efforts ineffective. Natural fractures also occur in
siliciclastic reservoirs of all types, complicating
Ron Nelson seemingly straightforward matrix-dominated
Broken N Consulting, Incorporated production behavior. In addition, natural fractures
Cat Spring, Texas, USA are the main producibility factor in a wide range
of less conventional reservoirs, including
David Schoderbek coalbed-methane (CBM), shale-gas, basement-
ConocoPhillips
rock and volcanic-rock reservoirs. Although
Calgary
natural fractures play a lesser role in high-
Lars Sonneland porosity, high-permeability reservoirs such as
Stavanger, Norway turbidites, they commonly form barriers to flow,
frustrating attempts to accurately calculate
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Lee Conn, recoverable reserves and predict production
MI LLC, Houston; Phil Christie, John Cook and
Michael Williams, Cambridge, England; Adam Donald and over time.
Omer Gurpinar, Denver, Colorado; Peter Kaufman, Pittsburgh, Ignoring the presence of fractures is not
Pennsylvania, USA; and John Lassek, Sugar Land, Texas.
optimal reservoir management; eventually, frac-
BorTex, ClearFRAC, CMR (Combinable Magnetic Resonance),
ECLIPSE, FMI (Fullbore Formation MicroImager), Formation tures cannot be ignored because the technical
MicroScanner, GeoFrame, geoVISION, MDT (Modular and economic performance of the reservoir
Formation Dynamics Tester), Petrel, RAB (Resistivity-at-the-
Bit), Sonic Scanner, Variable Density and VDA (Viscoelastic degrades.1 The biggest risk in not characterizing
Diverting Acid) are marks of Schlumberger. natural fractures early is that such an oversight
can severely limit future field-development
options. For example, a company that does not
take advantage of the opportunities to evaluate
natural fractures during the early development
stage may waste resources on unnecessary infill
drilling. Asset teams may never extract the
hydrocarbons originally deemed recoverable
because, without understanding the impact of
natural fractures on production behavior, they
have not adequately prepared the field for
secondary recovery.
This article examines the impact of natural
fractures on hydrocarbon reservoirs at different
stages of reservoir development. The classifi-
cations of natural fractures and naturally frac-
tured reservoirs (NFRs) are reviewed, along with
factors that affect NFR behavior. We describe
methods used over a range of scales to identify
and characterize natural fractures and to model
the influence of fracture systems on production.
Case studies from around the world highlight
various approaches.
Natural Fractures in Field Development
The investigation of natural fractures should start
during the exploration stage. Relevant surface
outcrops of the reservoir section or reservoir
analogs can form the basis of a lithological,
structural and stratigraphic foundation from
which geologists build conceptual models. These
models often begin with knowledge of the
regional stresses (next page).2 The stress state is
important in NFRs because the stress state

4 Oilfield Review
 Method
Focal mechanisms
Breakouts
Drilling-induced fractures
Borehole slotter
Overcoring
Hydraulic fractures
Geological indicators
Regime
Normal fault
Strike slip
Thrust fault
Unknown
> World stress map showing stress data compiled from various sources. In oil and gas regions, borehole measurements are an important source of
present-day in-situ stress information. This basic information is used in modeling to help understand fracture networks in fields worldwide. (From the
World Stress Map Project, http://www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/casmo/content_frames/stress_maps_frame.html, used with permission.)
largely dictates whether fractures are open to
conduct reservoir fluids. In addition, the
magnitude and direction of horizontal stresses
play critical roles in hydraulic fracture design,
the primary stimulation method for NFRs.
Multicomponent (3C) seismic surveys acquired
early in field development yield important data for
determination of azimuthal anisotropy, which is
essential to characterize natural fractures and to
place wells effectively.3 For example, knowing the
general orientation of fracture systems during
well planning dramatically improves the chance
that a well will intersect fractures.
New wells present an opportunity to collect
appropriate geological, geophysical and mechan-
ical data from many sources, including infor-
mation from logging tools, borehole seismic
Summer 2006
surveys, sampling devices and fullbore cores.
Other valuable sources of information that can
be acquired during the early stages of field
development include drillstem tests, initial flow
tests, and buildup and drawdown tests. Properly
assessing the role of natural fractures can result
in early field-development successes and can lay
the groundwork for later development stages,
including secondary-recovery projects.
Information about natural fractures is also
important during the well-construction stage.
During overbalanced drilling and cementing
operations, open natural fractures can cause lost
circulation problems, loss of expensive drilling
fluids and the potential loss of wells. A less
obvious cost may be associated with the reduced
productivity that results when drilling fluids and
cement seal fractures that were once open and
potentially productive.4 Employing underbalanced
drilling techniques and using less damaging
1. Nelson RA: “Evaluating Fractured Reservoirs:
Introduction,” Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured
Reservoirs, 2nd ed. Woburn, Massachusetts, USA:
Gulf Professional Publishing (2001): 1–2.
2. For more on world stress data: http://www-wsm.physik.
uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/introduction/introduction_
frame.html (accessed May 18, 2006).
3. Kristiansen P, Gaiser J and Horne S: “How
Multicomponent Seismic Can Be Used to Manage
Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs,” paper SPE 93762,
presented at the 14th SPE Middle East Oil & Gas Show
and Conference, Bahrain, March 12–15, 2005.
4. Ehlig-Economides CA, Taha M, Marin HD, Novoa E and
Sanchez O: “Drilling and Completion Strategies in
Naturally Fractured Reservoirs,” paper SPE 59057,
presented at the SPE International Petroleum
Conference and Exhibition, Villahermosa, Mexico,
February 1–3, 2000.
5
drilling or cementing fluids are possible ways to
reduce lost circulation and its associated
damage. However, in many cases, drillers’ options
are more limited.
When drilling weakened and depleted NFRs
surrounded by low-permeability shales or
overpressured zones, drillers must maintain a
certain mud weight to support the shale or
prevent a blowout from the overpressured zone.
Through the years, innovative techniques have
been developed to limit the risk, cost and damage
caused by lost circulation problems. These include
heating the drilling fluid to alter the stress state
around the borehole; treating the mud with
specialized lost circulation material—such as
fibers—when losses start to occur; pretreating
the drilling fluid with particulate material; and
strategically changing the stresses around the
wellbore—for example, by creating fractures.5
In some cases, natural fractures are so large
that drastic measures are required. For example,
in some carbonate NFRs in central Asia, drilling-
fluid losses have reached 80,000 barrels
[12,712 m3] in long intervals of highly fractured
and porous rock. The keys to addressing serious
and recurring lost circulation problems are
planning for losses, defining the target and
having the required equipment and materials
available when problems occur.6 A detailed
knowledge of the fracture system is essential
to mitigation.
Today, MWD tools can monitor critical drilling
parameters in real time, allowing drilling
engineers to mitigate lost circulation problems.
In addition, LWD technology, such as the
geoVISION imaging-while-drilling service and
the RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool, help identify
natural fractures immediately after drilling past
them.7 Incorporating natural-fracture information
and rock mechanical properties into cement-job
designs reduces the risk of opening up natural
fractures or accidentally fracturing the forma-
tion, both of which could cause lost circulation.
Once well construction and evaluation are
finished, the focus moves to designing a
completion and stimulation program to undo the
damage caused by drilling and cementing. Some
form of stimulation is required for most NFRs
with a low-permeability matrix. Pumping reactive
fluids—acidizing, using various formulations of
hydrochloric acid [HCl] or chelants—into
natural fractures is most common in carbonate
reservoirs to remove near-wellbore damage,
enhance connectivity and improve the conduc-
tivity of the system.8 During carbonate-rock
stimulation using reactive fluids, zones with the
6 Oilfield Review
highest permeabilities commonly take most of
the treatment fluid, leaving the zones with lower
permeabilities untreated. Consequently, diver-
sion, leakoff and reaction-rate control are keys to
success when acidizing carbonates.9
Conventional approaches to diversion include
particulate- and viscosity-based-diversion methods.
Particulate diversion uses solids to bridge and
restrict flow to highly permeable or fractured
zones. For example, rock salt or benzoic acid flakes
are pumped to divert in the formation at the loss
zone, and ball sealers are used to mechanically
divert from inside tubulars at the perforations.
Viscosity-based diversion uses foams, and acids or
fluids gelled with viscoelastic surfactants or
polymers to divert treatment and provide fluid-loss
control within the formation. However, polymers
have damaged reservoirs, prompting service
companies to develop new surfactant-base fluids.
For example, the VDA Viscoelastic Diverting Acid
system has been used to successfully stimulate
fractured carbonate reservoirs all over the world,
including Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Mexico and
Kazakhstan.10 In addition, a new technique that
uses both technologies—fibrous particulate and
viscosity diversion—has been developed for
acidizing NFRs.
Natural fractures in siliciclastic reservoirs
are also occasionally acidized, typically using a
combination of HCl and hydrofluoric acid [HF].
Alternatively, hydraulic fracture stimulation of
NFRs requires that the main fracture path be
kept open and conductive with proppant.
Controlling the leakoff rate and effective
proppant placement, while minimizing damage
to the natural-fracture network, are critical to
achieve optimal stimulation and production.
Natural fractures can significantly limit the
ability to place large volumes of proppant within
a hydraulically created fracture. Various
techniques are used to limit natural-fracture
dilation and the corresponding fluid losses
during hydraulic fracturing. These include
reducing fracture net pressure by rate-control or
low-viscosity fluids, and incorporating properly
graded particulates to dynamically bridge
dilating fissures, thereby reducing total leakoff
volume. Additionally, conductivity damage within
the created hydraulic fracture and natural-
fracture system can be reduced by lowering the
total volume of polymer used—for example, by
using low-polymer crosslinked frac gels, increas-
ing breaker-to-polymer ratios through the use of
encapsulated breakers, or by replacing the
polymeric fracture fluid with nondamaging
viscoelastic surfactant fluid systems such as
ClearFRAC polymer-free frac fluid.11
The volume occupied by typical fractures—
open or mineral-filled—within a vast matrix is
usually relatively minuscule, yet the ability of
fractures to significantly impact fluid-flow
behavior in hydrocarbon reservoirs is enormous.
It is not surprising that one of the greatest
challenges facing reservoir experts is how to
adequately simulate the effects of fractures on
reservoir behavior. Understanding these
reservoirs requires the acquisition and analysis
of vast amounts of data, and usually begins with
detailed, foot-by-foot characterization of the
fracture and matrix systems. It is the interaction
between these two systems that must be
understood while reservoir properties change
with continued production or injection. As field
development continues, other information—for
example, well-test data, production data, and
passive and time-lapse seismic data—helps
validate and improve reservoir models.
The strategy a company uses to achieve field-
production and recovery potential is intertwined
with, and increasingly directed according to, an
ever-improving NFR model and simulation.
During the primary-production stage, changes in
reservoir pressure, and consequently effective
stress, alter the fluid flow within fracture
networks.12 Water or gas breakthrough is the
most common negative implication of conductive
fractures during the primary-production stage.
Besides adding water production and disposal
costs, producing high-mobility water leaves
behind substantial volumes of low-mobility oil.
Moreover, premature gas production can drain a
reservoir of its energy, damage downhole pumps
and complicate surface treatment of produced
reservoir fluids.
Secondary-recovery techniques using fluid
injection also change field pressure and effective
stress dynamics, and therefore change fracture
conductivity to fluid flow. At this stage in field
development, asset teams should be familiar
with the role natural fractures play in large-scale
fluid movement. Ideally, production and
secondary-recovery strategies—well patterns
and spacings, and selection of injection and
production zones—should reflect the level of
influence that natural fractures have on
hydrocarbon sweep as determined by simulation.

> Principal stresses and the creation of
fractures. The diagram shows the directions
of the three principal stresses—maximum
compressive principal stress, σ1, the minimum
compressive principal stress, σ3, and the
intermediate stress, σ2. The resultant fracturing
is also indicated. Tension fractures (green) form
parallel to σ1 and σ2. The acute angle that forms
between two shear fractures (red) is called the
conjugate angle. The angle that forms between
the shear fracture and σ1 is called the dihedral
angle. An obtuse angle forms between the shear
fracture and σ3, while the shear fractures are
parallel to σ2.
Classifying Fractures
When developing and modeling fractured
reservoirs, the ability to understand and predict
the characteristics of fracture and fault systems
is essential.13 The complexity of natural-fracture
systems is captured in the descriptive, genetic
and geometric methods that geoscientists
employ to classify natural fractures. Knowing
fracture types enhances the simulation of fluid
flow through fractures, because various types of
fractures conduct fluid differently.
To appreciate common classification schemes,
a basic understanding of how natural fractures
develop is needed. However, achieving this
understanding requires more than extensive
field observation of natural fractures; it requires
linking those observations with data from
controlled laboratory experiments.14 In the
laboratory, fracture types are divided into two
groups related to their mode of formation:
shear fractures that form with shearing parallel
to the created fracture, and tension fractures
that form with tension perpendicular to the
created fracture.
Summer 2006
In the laboratory, shear and tension fractures
form in consistent orientation with respect to
the three principal stress directions, namely
the maximum compressive principal stress, σ1,
the minimum compressive principal stress, σ3,
and the intermediate stress, σ2 (left). Shear
fractures are created under high differential
stress and in conjugate pairs, forming an
acute angle with σ1. Tension fractures, a term
sometimes used interchangeably with extension
fractures, form perpendicular to σ3 and at
relatively low differential stresses, when the
value of σ3, after adjustment for pore pressure—
the local effective stress—is likely tensile. In the
laboratory, it is common to observe the creation
of tension fractures during compression
experiments at low confining pressures and in
association with shear fracturing.15
Shear and tension fractures described from
laboratory experiments have clear counterparts
that occur naturally; shear fractures correspond
to faults, whereas tension fractures correspond
to joints.16 This mechanically based distinction
5. Aston MS, Alberty MW, McLean MR, de Jong HJ and
Armagost K: “Drilling Fluids for Wellbore Strengthening,”
paper IADC/SPE 87130, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, March 2–4, 2004.
Morita N, Black AD and Guh G-F: “Theory of Lost
Circulation Pressure,” paper SPE 20409, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, September 23–26, 1990.
6. Ivan C, Burton J and Bloys B: “How Can We Best
Manage Lost Circulation?” paper AADE-03-NTCE-38,
presented at the AADE National Technology Conference
“Practical Solutions for Drilling Challenges,” Houston,
April 1–3, 2003.
7. Inaba M, McCormick D, Mikalsen T, Nishi M, Rasmus J,
Rohler H and Tribe I: “Wellbore Imaging Goes Live,”
Oilfield Review 15, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 24–37.
Cheung P, Hayman A, Laronga R, Cook G, Flournoy G,
Goetz P, Marshall M, Hansen S, Lamb M, Li B, Larsen M,
Orgren M and Redden J: “A Clear Picture in Oil-Base
Muds,” Oilfield Review 13, no. 4 (Winter 2001/2002): 2–27.
Bargach S, Falconer I, Maeso C, Rasmus J,
Bornemann T, Plumb R, Codazzi D, Hodenfield K, Ford G,
Hartner J, Grether B and Rohler H: “Real-Time LWD:
Logging for Drilling,” Oilfield Review 12, no. 3
(Autumn 2000): 58–78.
8. Al-Anzi E, Al-Mutawa A, Nasr-El-Din H, Alvarado O,
Brady M, Davies S, Fredd C, Fu D, Lungwitz B, Chang F,
Huidobro E, Jemmali M, Samuel M and Sandhu D:
“Positive Reactions in Carbonate Reservoir Stimulation,”
Oilfield Review 15, no. 4 (Winter 2003/2004): 28–45.
9. Diversion is a technique used in injection treatments to
ensure uniform distribution of treatment fluid across the
treatment interval. Injected fluids tend to follow the path
of least resistance, such as an open natural fracture,
possibly resulting in the least permeable areas receiving
inadequate treatment. By using some means of diversion,
the treatment can focus on the areas requiring the most
treatment. To be effective, the diversion effect should be
temporary to allow full restoration of well productivity
when the treatment is complete.
10. Al-Anzi et al, reference 8.
Albuquerque MAP, Ledergerber AG, Smith CL and
Saxon A: “Use of Novel Acid System Improves Zonal
Coverage of Stimulation Treatments in Tengiz Field,”
paper SPE 98221, presented at the SPE International
Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage
Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February 15–17, 2006.
provides a useful way to classify fractures. Most
faulting occurs during significant tectonic events
when the differential stress is high. Tectonic
faults typically occur over a broad range of
scales, with displacements that range from
millimeters to kilometers. Seismic images
generally allow the detection of the larger faults,
while borehole data are required to identify and
characterize smaller faults. Tectonic faults
typically cut unimpeded through stratigraphy
and are therefore termed non-stratabound.
Joints, or fractures having no visible displace-
ment, form perpendicular to bedding. Joints can
be either stratabound or non-stratabound.
Stratabound joints stop at bedding surfaces and
often develop a regular spacing and form well-
organized connected networks in plan view.
Commonly, there is a long and continuous set of
joints, termed systematic joints, which are joined
by a perpendicular array of cross joints that
abut the systematic joints.17 Non-stratabound
joints occur on a wide range of scales and are
spatially clustered.18
11. Samuel M, Polson D, Graham D, Kordziel W, Waite T,
Waters G, Vinod PS, Fu D and Downey R: “Viscoelastic
Surfactant Fracturing Fluids: Applications in Low-
Permeability Reservoirs,” paper SPE 60322, presented at
the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Low Permeability
Reservoirs Symposium and Exhibition, Denver,
March 12–15, 2000.
Samuel M, Card RJ, Nelson EB, Brown JE, Vinod PS,
Temple HL, Qu Q and Fu DK: “Polymer-Free Fluid for
Hydraulic Fracturing,” paper SPE 38622, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
San Antonio, Texas, October 5–8, 1997.
Chase B, Chmilowski W, Marcinew R, Mitchell C, Dang Y,
Krauss K, Nelson E, Lantz T, Parham C and Plummer J:
“Clear Fracturing Fluids for Increased Well Productivity,”
Oilfield Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1997): 20–33.
12. Lorenz JC: “Stress-Sensitive Reservoirs,” paper
SPE 50977, Journal of Petroleum Technology 51, no. 1
(January 1999): 61–63.
13. http://www.naturalfractures.com/ (accessed April 20, 2006).
14. Stearns DW and Friedman M: “Reservoirs in Fractured
Rock,” in King RE (ed): Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields—
Classification, Exploration Methods and Case Histories,
American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
Memoir 16. Tulsa: AAPG (1972): 82–106.
15. Engelder T: Stress Regimes in the Lithosphere.
Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University
Press (1993): 24–25.
16. Pollard DD and Aydin AA: “Progress in Understanding
Jointing over the Past Century,” Geological Society of
America Bulletin 100, no. 8 (1988): 1181–1204.
17. Gross MR: “The Origin and Spacing of Cross Joints:
Examples from the Monterrey Formation, Santa Barbara
Coastline, California, Journal of Structural Geology 15,
no. 6 (June 1993): 737–751.
18. Odling NE, Gillespie P, Bourgnie B, Castaing C, Chilés J-P,
Christensen NP, Fillion E, Genter A, Olsen C, Thrane L,
Trice R, Aarseth E, Walsh JJ and Watterson J:
“Variations in Fracture System Geometry and Their
Implications for Fluid Flow in Fractured Hydrocarbon
Reservoirs,” Petroleum Geoscientist 5, no. 4
(November 1999): 373–384.
7
 vugs. The resulting porosity is termed karst and
Borehole Drift
is important in many fractured carbonate
0 deg 90 reservoirs. Maps of karst often show that the
Caliper 1 porosity is most strongly enhanced along the
125 mm 375 planes of preexisting fractures and so clarifying
Caliper 2 the underlying fracture system can often help in
125 mm 375 Fracture True Dip
understanding karst systems.
Orientation North Orientation North
Bit Size Because carbonates dissolve relatively easily
0 120 240 360 0 120 240 360 0 deg 90

Depth, ft
125 mm 375 under pressure, they have a tendency to form
FMI Static Image FMI Dynamic Image Bedding True Dip
Gamma Ray Resistive Conductive Resistive Conductive stylolites—uneven surfaces of insoluble residue—
0 gAPI 200 0 deg 90 that form perpendicular to σ1. Stylolites may cause
local permeability reduction, or alternatively they
X70.2
may facilitate subsequent dissolution and perme-
ability increase. Tension gashes, or fracturing
associated with stylolites, are common (next page,
X70.4
top).19 While tension gashes may contribute to
permeability measured in core, their subsurface
X70.6
impact on reservoir producibility is thought to
be minimal.
X70.8
A genetic classification system examines how
fractures relate to the formation and the
X71.0
structure in which they are located. The creation
of endogenetic fractures relates to the stresses
X71.2
during sedimentation, for example cleating in
coals. Exogenetic fractures are formed after
X71.4
sedimentation and lithification, usually from
tectonic stresses caused by folding and faulting.
X71.6
Once natural-fracture systems have been
classified in both geologic and engineering
X71.8 terms, the next step is to investigate their impact
on the reservoir.
X72.0

> Example of low-angle nonsystematic fractures in shales. FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager Classifying Fractured Reservoirs
images clearly show both fracturing (blue sinusoids in Track 3 and tadpoles in Track 4) and formation Most, if not all, reservoirs contain fractures. It is
bedding (green sinusoids and tadpoles). Track 1 displays caliper, borehole orientation and gamma ray the degree to which fractures influence fluid flow
data. Tracks 2 and 3 show the FMI static and dynamic images, respectively. Dip tadpoles are
through a reservoir that should dictate the level
presented in Track 4.
of resources needed to identify, characterize and
model fractures. The effects of fractures can
The origin of joints is often difficult to whether fractures of a given set are likely to be change throughout the productive life of the
determine, but it is known from rock mechanics faults or joints. It may be necessary in such cases reservoir as pressures and fluid types change
that they occur at low effective σ3. Truly tensile to develop a pragmatic classification system during primary- and secondary-recovery stages.
stress occurs at shallow depths, so some joints based on observed properties of the fractures. Moreover, fractures don’t always conduct fluid;
form close to the surface. However, at reservoir Other types of fractures are created by they are often barriers to flow. Fractured
depths, joints can probably form only under high volume-reduction mechanisms within the rock reservoirs are classified based on the interaction
fluid pressure, a process similar to hydraulic and not from external forces. These include between the relative porosity and permeability
fracturing during well stimulation. desiccation cracks, syneresis fractures, thermal contributions from both the fracture and matrix
As joints do not involve displacement that contraction fractures and mineral phase-change systems (next page, bottom).20
offsets bedding, they cannot be directly observed fractures. Of these, syneresis, or chicken-wire In Type 1 reservoirs, fractures provide both
on seismic images, but can be located and fractures, and mineral phase-change fractures in the porosity and permeability elements. Type 2
characterized by well-log data and borehole carbonates have the greatest importance in oil reservoirs have low porosity and low permeability
images (above). While it is relatively simple for a and gas production. Syneresis fractures are in the matrix, and fractures provide the essential
geologist to distinguish faults and joints at an formed by a chemical process that causes permeability for productivity. Type 3 reservoirs
outcrop, the distinction is often less clear using dewatering and associated volume reduction. have high porosity and may produce without
subsurface data, as stratigraphic offsets may not Carbonate rocks are easily dissolved in fractures, so fractures in these reservoirs provide
be resolvable. Geologists may therefore have to freshwater or aggressive fluids and the added permeability. Type M reservoirs have high
rely on a number of criteria, such as fracture fill, dissolution is often concentrated to form caves or matrix porosity and permeability, so open
orientation and spatial distribution, to determine fractures can enhance permeability, but natural

8 Oilfield Review
fractures often complicate fluid flow in these
reservoirs by forming barriers. Fractures add no
significant additional porosity and permeability
to Type 4 reservoirs, but instead are usually
barriers to flow. Another reservoir class, Type G,
has been created for unconventional fractured
gas reservoirs, such as CBM, and fractured gas-
condensate reservoirs. Most Type G reservoirs fall
within or near the Type 2 reservoir classification.
Before NFR classification can be done in any
meaningful way, both natural-fracture and
matrix systems within a reservoir must be
understood, along with the complex flow 0 cm 1

interaction between those systems. Many factors 0 inch 1

affect fluid flow within a NFR, including
present-day stress orientation, natural-fracture
directions, whether the fractures are mineral-
filled or open, reservoir fluid properties and
phases, and the production and injection history
of the field. While many of these factors cannot
be controlled, some problems can be mitigated.
Field-development strategies can therefore be
tailored to the natural-fracture systems to
optimize production and recovery. The sooner
this knowledge is acquired, the more prepared
asset teams will be to make important field-
management decisions early in field development.
Evaluating Fractures and Fields
There are many different ways to characterize
> Cross section of a stylolite. Stylolites are diagenetic features commonly
found in low-permeability carbonate rocks. They form as irregular surfaces
between two layers and are generally thought to be the result of pressure
solution under a state of differential stress. Stylolites normally inhibit
subsurface fluid flow, but are often associated with small fractures called
tension gashes, which sometimes appear permeable on core tests.
100% fracture
permeability
Type G
Type 1
Type 2
Total permeability, %

natural fractures and to evaluate their role in Type 3

reservoir exploitation. Dynamic methods seek to
characterize the effects of fractures by
measuring or directly describing the movement
of fluids through fractures and matrix. These
dynamic methods include medium-scale interval,
pressure-transient testing, which provides
information on fractures and fracture-related
flow, and estimates of fracture conductivity.21
These tests can be obtained with the MDT
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester. Another
medium- to large-scale dynamic method uses
injected tracers and water-composition analysis
to determine direct communication attributed to
fractures between zones and between wells.
19. Stylolites are wave-like or tooth-like, serrated, interlocking
surfaces, most commonly seen in carbonate and quartz-
rich rocks, that contain concentrated insoluble residue
such as clay minerals and iron oxides. Stylolites are
thought to form by pressure solution, a dissolution
process that reduces pore space under pressure
during diagenesis.
For more on stylolites: Nelson, reference 1: 163–185.
20. Nelson, reference 1: 101–124.
21. Jackson RR, Xian C, Carnegie A, Gauthier P and
Brooks AD: “Application of Interval Pressure Transient
Testing with Downhole Fluid Analysis for Characterising
Permeability Distributions, In-Situ Flow Fractions and
Water Cut,” paper SPE 92208, presented at the SPE
International Petroleum Conference, Puebla, Mexico,
November 7–9, 2004.
Increasing natural-fracture influence
(decreasing matrix influence)
Type M
(matrix
only)
100% matrix
permeability Type 4
100% matrix Total porosity, % 100% fracture
porosity porosity
> Naturally fractured reservoir classification system. Type 1 reservoirs,
with fractures providing both primary porosity and primary permeability,
typically have large drainage areas per well, and require fewer wells for
development. These reservoirs show high initial production rates. They are
also subject to rapid production decline, early water breakthrough and
difficulties in determining reserves. Type 2 reservoirs can have surprisingly
good initial production rates for a low-permeability matrix but can have
difficulties during secondary recovery if the communication between the
fracture and the matrix is poor. Type 3 reservoirs are typically more
continuous and have good sustained production rates but can have
complex directional permeability relationships, leading to difficulties during
the secondary-recovery phase. Type M reservoirs have impressive matrix
qualities but are sometimes compartmentalized, causing them to
underperform compared with early producibility estimates, and making
secondary-recovery effectiveness variable within the same field. Type 4
reservoirs would plot near the origin because the fracture contribution to
permeability in Type 4 reservoirs is negative. (Adapted from Nelson,
reference 1: 102.)

Summer 2006 9
 acquiring fullbore cores across intervals of
interest.22 Having access to fullbore core allows
geologists and petrophysicists to examine specific
properties that influence a fracture’s ability to
conduct fluids—for example, the presence of in-
filling minerals. Another extremely valuable use
of core data is to provide a “ground truth” from
which to calibrate other fracture-analysis
methods. However, fullbore coring can be
expensive and poor core recovery can be a
Hanoi
problem in highly fractured rock. Also, coring-
induced fractures can be difficult to distinguish
from unmineralized natural fractures.23 Despite
the difficulties, there are now innovative ways to
characterize NFRs using advanced technologies
Da Nang a Sea and processing techniques.
The fractured granite basement rocks of the
Cuu Long basin, offshore Vietnam, are mostly
VIETNAM
Chin

0 km 200
Type 1 reservoirs—both porosity and permeability
0 miles 200 in the basement rock are provided by natural
uth

Ho Chi fractures (left).24 However, in the fractured zones

So

Minh City
n surrounding faults, secondary porosity has been
asi
ongB documented because hydrothermal fluids dissolve
uL
Cu feldspars in the matrix. The result is a hybrid
Vietnam
Type 2/Type 1 NFR.
Since first production in the early 1990s,
common methods for measuring permeability—
the most daunting property to ascertain in these
fractured basement reservoirs—were performing
> Location of the Cuu Long basin, offshore Vietnam. Fracture swarms in a granite outcrop along Long well tests or acquiring and testing core. Well-test
Hai Beach, Vietnam, are an offshore analog of the field (photograph). Fracture swarms run parallel to analysis of fractured reservoirs requires
the beach for 300 to 400 m [984 to 1,312 ft]. The relative lack of published stress data makes it even numerous assumptions that can lead to errors,
more important to acquire usable stress data when possible (bottom right). (Stress map insert is from while core analysis is typically pessimistic
the World Stress Map Project, http://www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/casmo/content_frames/
stress_maps_frame.html, used with permission.)
because the most highly fractured reservoir
intervals often are not recovered and analyzed.
Even though Cuu Long reservoirs rely solely
on fractures to produce, their productivity can
be astonishing—some individual wells can
Geometric methods measure specific attri- to address NFRs. The most common small-scale, produce more than 20,000 bbl/d [3,180 m3/d] of
butes to identify and characterize natural log-based fracture-evaluation techniques use oil. A series of geologic episodes, including an
fractures and assess their potential impact on ultrasonic and resistivity borehole imaging extensional phase during rifting, which created
production or injection. While traditional logging technologies that can be deployed by wireline or the basin, followed by two major phases of
measurements, such as caliper and microresis- LWD methods. compression, has led to a complex but prolific
tivity logs, can allude to the presence of natural While the resolution of wireline-conveyed natural-fracture network that can be divided
fractures, they are generally not quantitative. electrical borehole imaging tools is exceptional, into three fracture classes—solution-enhanced
Today, various technologies have been developed the most detailed way to assess NFRs is by and unenhanced bounding fractures, straight-
walled fractures and discrete fractures (next
22. Lorenz JC and Hill R: “Measurement and Analysis of 25. Bounding fractures are defined as fractures on which page, left).25
Fractures in Core,” in Schmoker JW, Coalson EB and other fractures terminate.
Brown CA (eds): Geophysical Studies Relevant to 26. Zeolites are microporous crystalline solids with well- When not filled with clays, calcite and
Horizontal Drilling: Examples from North America. defined structures. Generally, they contain silicon, zeolites, the bounding network of fractures forms
Denver: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists aluminum and oxygen in their framework, and cations,
(1994): 47–57. and water or other molecules within their pores. From the main conduits for fluid transmission and
23. Lorenz JC, Warpinski NR and Teufel LW: “Natural http://www.bza.org/zeolites.html (accessed April 30, 2006). provides important storage volume for the
Fracture Characteristics and Effects,” The Leading 27. To compute fracture apertures, shallow-resistivity data
Edge 15, no. 8 (August 1996): 909–911. basement reservoirs.26 Some of the bounding
are needed to calibrate, or scale, the FMI or Formation
24. Li B, Guttormsen J, Hoi TV and Duc NV: “Characterizing MicroScanner tool response. For more on the technique: fractures are enormous, measuring more than 1.5
Permeability for the Fractured Basement Reservoirs,” Luthi SM and Souhaite P: “Fracture Aperture from m [4.9 ft] in fracture width. On the other hand,
paper SPE 88478, presented at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil Electrical Borehole Scans,” Geophysics 55, no. 7 (1992):
and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Perth, Australia, 821–833.
October 18–20, 2004.

10 Oilfield Review
 FMI Image
Resistive Conductive
Depth, m
Orientation North
0 120 240
X,Y84
X,Y85
X,Y86
X,Y87
X,Y88
> Fracture-classification system used in the Cuu Long basin. The FMI image (left) shows the
two main fracture types. The fracture flow system relationships for each type are described for
the discrete fracture system (top right) and the solution-enhanced system (bottom right).
the majority of discrete fractures are relatively
short, terminate at the bounding fractures,
contribute the majority of the storage capacity to
the bounding networks, and maintain apertures
that mostly range from 0.01 to 0.1 mm [0.0004 to
0.004 in.].
In the fields of the Cuu Long basin, perme-
ability is the driving factor for well productivity.
Using FMI image data, geoscientists from
Schlumberger, Cuu Long Joint Operating
Company (JOC) and VietSovPetro developed a
method to consistently calculate reservoir
permeability and calibrate it to core analysis, well-
testing results and production-log data. First,
fracture interconnectivity is assessed using the
image data and the BorTex texture classification
tool in the Schlumberger GeoFrame integrated
Summer 2006
Fracture Flow-System Relationships
360
Discrete Fracture System (Secondary)
•Tectonic only
•Low permeability
•Short length
•Short height
•Fine aperture—subject to principal
stress
•Highly tortuous flow paths
•Secondary production conduits
(behave like a matrix-porosity system)
Solution-Enhanced System (Primary)
•Tectonic modified by hydrothermal
and meteoric processes
•High permeability
•Long length
•Tall height
•Large aperture
•Linear to radial flow paths
•Primary production conduits
reservoir characterization system platform. This
processing essentially maps out the conductive
anomalies within the resistive granite matrix on
the borehole image and computes a relative
permeability indicator (RPI).
In another processing step, fracture
apertures and fracture density are calculated for
hand-picked fractures on the FMI resistivity
images.27 These outputs, along with a calibration
constant, are used to calculate fracture
permeability (Kf). In Type 1 reservoirs, Kf should
equal reservoir permeability (Kr) for the same
investigated volume. The RPI can then be scaled
to Kr to provide a continuous assessment of
permeability. The limited amount of core taken
in a zone of relatively low permeability was used
to calibrate Kr (above right).
Fracture
Permeability Permeability
0.1 mD 1,000
Core Permeability
Permeability
0.1 mD 1,000 0.1 mD 1,000
Permeability
Core Permeability
Estimated average permeability for the contributing zones is 69 mD.
0.1 mD 1,000
1m
> Calibration and validation of reservoir
permeability (Kr) using 3 m of core data
(left). The computed permeability log section
on the right shows the high-permeability
zones (yellow) that contributed to flow
during production logging and well testing.
These zones had an average permeability
from well testing of 69 mD. The continuous
computed Kr across the same intervals
averaged 92 mD.
This image-based interpretation technique
has been successful on numerous wells across
the Cuu Long basin. For example, on one well,
300 m [984 ft] of the granite basement rock was
penetrated at a top depth of around 3,900 m
[12,800 ft]. A standard openhole-logging suite
was acquired along with FMI images and only 3 m
[9.8 ft] of fullbore core. After initial production,
dynamic fracture-characterization methods were
employed on two occasions—shortly after the
well was completed and again after 17 months of
production—and included well testing and
production logging.
11
 A correlation between the calculated perme-
abilities and actual reservoir performance was very
good (below). Initially, oil flowed from three zones
as demonstrated by the production log, but there
were several high-permeability zones that did not
contribute. Experts at Cuu Long JOC and
VietSovPetro suspected that the lack of
contribution was caused by partial formation
damage, since mud losses were recorded during
drilling, for example from X,090 to X,100 m.
Reassuringly, after 17 months of production, other
zones began to contribute to production. Over
time, the damaged zones cleaned up with
assistance from the pressure drop in the wellbore.
In addition, the water cut had increased since the
start of production.
This technique has helped to minimize the
complicating effects that resistive fracture-filling
minerals have on fracture characterization in the
fields of the Cuu Long basin. However, conductive
minerals in the fractures, found mainly in
weathered zones at the top of the granite, still
pose a dilemma because resistivity-based imaging
tools cannot differentiate between conductive
minerals and conductive drilling fluid. In these
zones, special attention is paid to corroborative
data—mud-loss records, gas shows and log data
from the MDT or CMR Combinable Magnetic
Resonance tools. Importantly, this fracture-
characterization technique provides a detailed,
depth-continuous permeability output that can
help asset teams with individual well stimulation
and completion and injection designs, and can
be upscaled to reservoir models across an
entire field.

Caliper
6 in. 16
Gamma Ray Fracture
Permeability Permeability
0 gAPI 200 Orientation North
Bulk Density Shallow Laterolog 1 mD 10,000 0.1 mD 1,000
0 120 240 360
Relative Permeability
Depth, m

1.95 g/cm3 2.95 2 ohm.m 20,000 FMI Dynamic Permeability

Neutron Porosity Deep Laterolog Image Fracture Aperture Indicator Core Permeability Flow Rate Oil Rate, bbl/d Water Oil
Res. Cond. Rate, Rate,
0.45 m3/m3 -0.15 2 ohm.m 20,000 0.00001 cm 0.1 0.009 0.5 0.1 mD 1,000 0 bbl/d 4,000 bbl/d bbl/d

1,058
169 860

X,000

483 452

119
784

132 301

X,100 106

232 854

276

> Integrated fracture permeability analysis showing a comparison of computed permeability to production logging and well-testing results. Standard
openhole-log data are displayed in Tracks 1 and 2, FMI images are shown in Track 3, fracture apertures calculated from the FMI data are presented in
Track 4, Kf and RPI are shown in Track 5, and Kr with core-calibration points is displayed in Track 6. The yellow box in the Depth Track indicates the
location of significant mud losses during drilling. Tracks 7 and 8 include the interpreted production-log results in the first well-testing job shortly after the
well was drilled. Track 9 presents the interpreted production-log rate, showing zones that contributed water (blue) and oil (red) from the second well-
testing job, performed after the well had been on production for 17 months.

12 Oilfield Review
Fractures in the Rocky Mountains Anisotropy Flag, %
Hydrocarbon production from low-porosity, low-
0 2 4 6 16
permeability, hard-rock reservoirs depends on Compressional ∆T
successfully connecting open fracture networks 300 µs/ft 0
to the wellbore. Because the matrix quality is Time-Based Anisotropy
generally low, the surface area exposed to the 200 % 0 ∆T Stoneley
∆T-Based Anisotropy 250 µs/ft 150
wellbore along fracture planes often must be 0 % 200 Bit Size
increased for required production volumes. This Stoneley ∆T 4 in. 14
Offline Fracture Permeability
is accomplished by performing hydraulic fracture 300 µs/ft 0 Energy Caliper
100,000 mD 1010
stimulation. Open natural fractures contribute to Shear Difference 4 in. 14
Maximum Fracture Porosity
Azimuth Energy Washout ft3/ft3 FMI Image
production but can also cause problems during Uncertainty ∆T-Based Slow Shear 0.1 0
Resistive Conductive
0 100 Modeled Stoneley Fracture Width Fracture Trace Length
drilling, cementing, completion and stimulation Fast Shear 300 µs/ft 0
Minimum
Stoneley Variable
∆T-Based Fast Shear Energy 250 µs/ft 150 0
Azimuth in. 0.5 10 1/ft 0 Density Log
operations. Therefore, it is essential to identify Orientation North
-90 deg 90 300 µs/ft 0 0 100 S-Se Stoneley Aperture Stoneley Permeability 0 µs 20,440 0 120 240 360
fractured intervals for cement- and stimulation-
X,100
staging considerations.

Depth, ft
A powerful combination of high-resolution
borehole imaging and innovative acoustic
measurements from the Sonic Scanner acoustic
scanning platform adds dynamic elements to X,200
detailed fracture analysis from wireline tools.28
Schlumberger geoscientists and petrophysicists
in the Rocky Mountain region, USA, use Stoneley
and dipole flexural-wave data from the Sonic
Scanner tool and FMI image data to clearly X,300
identify formation bedding, sedimentary features
and fractures.29 The improved low-frequency
Stoneley response—down to 300 Hz—of the
Sonic Scanner tool enables the detection of high-
angle to vertical fractures. Also, using an X,400

attenuation technique called normalized

differential energies (NDE) makes it possible to
differentiate natural fractures from drilling-
induced fractures, even when they are oriented
in the same direction—usually parallel to the
present-day maximum horizontal-stress direction.
However, when the stress-related anisotropy
direction differs only slightly from the fracture-
induced anisotropy direction, the new tool is
still able to differentiate the two because
of the improved ability to resolve small amounts
of anisotropy—now 2%, versus 5% with the
previous technology.
Frequency-content and signal-strength
variations occur in naturally fractured intervals.
Another processing technique called slowness-
frequency analysis (SFA) allows the interpre-
tation of dipole flexural-wave frequency and
amplitude data and shows the quality of the
estimation of shear slowness from flexural-wave
dispersion analysis up to several feet into the
formation from the wellbore.
In the Type 2 reservoirs in the Rocky
Mountains, porosities range from 3 to 7% and
matrix permeabilities are in the microdarcies.
The FMI tool enables the calculation of fracture
aperture, fracture porosity, fracture density and
fracture trace length at the wellbore.30
> Fracture characterization using Sonic Scanner and FMI data. Borehole anisotropy analysis includes
the slowness-frequency analysis (SFA) and slowness-time-coherence (STC) projections for the fast
inline and slow inline waveforms. In Track 2, the anisotropy magnitude and direction vary with depth,
ranging from more than 16% (red) to less than 2% (blue). The high-anisotropy zones correspond to
zones with fractures visible on the FMI image in Track 7. Minimum and maximum offline energy
differences are displayed in the Depth Track from the shear-wave anisotropy analysis. Large
differences between measured Stoneley slowness and slowness modeled for an elastic, impermeable
formation are observed in Track 3. Fracture-aperture computations from the Sonic Scanner reflection
and attenuation analysis in Track 4 are compared with fracture apertures calculated on hand-picked
fractures in Track 5 from the FMI image in Track 7. Track 6 displays the Stoneley Variable Density log.
Combining independent fracture-characterization the analysis of maximum and minimum hori-
methods from the Sonic Scanner Stoneley-wave zontal stresses. All this information is captured
and shear-wave analysis with FMI image in the mechanical earth model that is used by
interpretation shows an unambiguous assessment stimulation designers to optimize hydraulic
of fracturing across the interval (above). Armed fracture design.
with this log-based characterization of the
fractures, the asset team can better judge the 28. Arroyo Franco JL, Mercado Ortiz MA, De GS, Renlie L
and Williams S: “Sonic Investigations In and Around the
optimal way to cement, complete and stimulate Borehole,” Oilfield Review 18, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 14–33.
this potentially productive interval. 29. Donald A and Bratton T: “Advancements in Acoustic
Technique for Evaluating Open Natural Fractures,”
Experts in the Rocky Mountain region have Transactions of the SPWLA 47th Annual Logging
developed a hard-rock completion solution that Symposium, Veracruz, Mexico, June 4–7, 2006, paper QQ.
combines Sonic Scanner data with FMI data to 30. Hornby B and Luthi S: “An Integrated Interpretation of
Fracture Apertures Computed from Electrical Borehole
optimize hydraulic fracture design. The solution Scans and Reflected Stoneley Waves,” in Hurst A,
incorporates natural-fracture characterization— Griffiths C and Worthington P (eds): Geological
Applications of Wireline Logs II, Geological Society
including the determination of fracture aperture, Special Publication 65. London: The Geological Society
fracture permeability and fracture extent—and (1992): 185–198.

Summer 2006 13
Coalbed Methane Reservoirs
There may be no other NFR as difficult
to stimulate as a coalbed methane (CBM)
reservoir, an unconventional but growing source
of methane. Beginning with its deposition as
peat, coal is a unique reservoir rock. To be
productive, coalbed reservoirs require natural
fractures. Vertical natural fractures in coal are
called cleats, and these form during coalifi-
cation. Systematic coal cleats are classified
geometrically with the primary, more continuous
fracture set called face cleats and the
secondary, less continuous fracture set called
butt cleats (below).
Coal fractures can also be classified
genetically. Endogenetic fractures, or classic
cleats, are created under tension as the coal
matrix shrinks because of dewatering and
devolatilization during coalification. These cleat
sets are orthogonal and nearly always perpen-
dicular to bedding. In contrast, exogenetic
fractures form due to tectonism, and regional
stress fields dictate their orientation. Shear
fractures also are observed in some coals. Cleats
are the primary permeability mechanism in
virtually all CBM reservoirs, so understanding
cleating and natural fracturing in coals is critical
during all facets of CBM reservoir development.
Methane is stored in coal by adsorption, a
process by which the individual gas molecules
are bound by weak electrical forces to the solid
organic molecules that make up the coal.
Coal’s ability to store methane largely reduces

Alberta Plains Coal Alberta Foothills Coal

Caliper Caliper
Measured depth, m

Measured depth, m
125 mm 375 Face Cleat 125 mm 375 Face Cleat
Bit Size Orientation North Bit Size Orientation North
125 mm 375 0 120 240 360 0 deg 90 125 mm 375 0 120 240 360 0 deg 90
Gamma FMI Dynamic Image Bedding True Dip Gamma FMI Dynamic Image Bedding True Dip
Ray Resistive Conductive Ray Resistive Conductive
0 gAPI 150 0 deg 90 0 gAPI 150 0 deg 90

X,X59
X,X20

Face cleat Shear

fractures

X,X60 X,X21

Butt cleat

Face cleat

X,X22

Plains Coal Foothills Coal

Face cleat Shear fracture

Butt cleat Bedding
> Examples of Canadian coals on FMI images and outcrops. The FMI image (top left) and a photograph from a representative
outcrop (bottom left) of the Alberta Plains coal show both face and butt cleats. Shear fractures, face cleats and butt cleats are
shown on both the FMI image (top right) and the outcrop photograph (bottom right) of the Alberta Foothills coal. Interestingly,
shear fractures usually degrade coal permeability.

14 Oilfield Review
 Alberta

Ardley coal thickness

0 km 200 0 to 6 m
0 miles 200 6 to 12 m
Edmonton 12 to 18 m
>18 m

Edmonton
0 km 100
0 miles 100

Calgary
Alberta

> Maps showing the distribution of Alberta coals (left), thickness of the Ardley coal (top right) and
published stress data (bottom right). The map on the left shows the area of the Ardley coal play (red)
where the Ardley coal thickness is greater than 12 m [39.4 ft]. (Stress map insert is from the World
Stress Map Project, http://www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/casmo/content_frames/
stress_maps_frame.html, used with permission.)

the need for conventional reservoir-trapping
mechanisms, making coal’s gas content—which
increases with increasing coal rank—and the
degree of cleating or natural fracturing the
overriding considerations when assessing an
area for CBM production potential.31
This storing ability gives coals unique early-
time production behavior that is related to
desorption, not pressure depletion. Coals may
contain water or gas, or both, in the cleat and
natural-fracture systems, in addition to gas
sorbed onto the internal surface of the coal
matrix. Any water present in the cleat system
must be produced to reduce the reservoir
pressure in the cleat system before significant
volumes of gas can be produced. Dewatering
increases the permeability to gas within the
cleats and fractures, and causes the gas in the
matrix to desorb, diffuse through the matrix and
move into the cleat system, resulting in CBM
production profiles that are unique by
comparison with other fractured reservoirs.
In most CBM reservoirs, water production is
initially high. As the water moves out of the cleats
and fractures, gas saturation and production
increase and water production decreases. The
speed at which the reservoir dewaters depends on
several factors, including original gas and water
saturations, cleat porosity, relative and absolute
permeability of the coal, and well spacing. When
permeability to gas eventually stabilizes, the coal
is considered dewatered and gas production
peaks. From this point, both water and gas
production slowly decline, with gas being the
dominant produced fluid.
In just a few years of development, CBM gas
production in Alberta, Canada, has surpassed
300 million ft3/d [8.50 million m3/d]. Most of this
production comes from the Horseshoe Canyon and
Mannville coal zones, and a small percentage—
less than 1%—comes from the Ardley coals in the
Upper Cretaceous Scollard formation (above).
The less-exploited Ardley coals, however, are a
significant potential CBM resource, exceeding
40 trillion ft3 [1.13 trillion m3].
Burlington Resources, now ConocoPhillips,
has investigated the Ardley coals using the FMI
tool.32 In two wells, the borehole images have
allowed geoscientists at ConocoPhillips and
Schlumberger to determine the present-day
stress regime from drilling-induced fractures,
which are oriented northeast to southwest, in
the direction of maximum horizontal stress.
This direction is consistent with previous
assessments.33 The FMI images have also
provided insight into the nature and direction of
31. Anderson J, Simpson M, Basinski P, Beaton A, Boyer C,
Bulat D, Ray S, Reinheimer D, Schlachter G, Colson L,
Olsen T, John Z, Khan R, Low N, Ryan B and
Schoderbek D: “Producing Natural Gas from Coal,”
Oilfield Review 15, no. 3 (Autumn 2003): 8–31.
32. Schoderbek D and Ray S: “Reservoir Characterization
of Ardley Coals, Scollard Formation, Alberta: Borehole
Image Interpretation,” presented at the AAPG Annual
Meeting, Calgary, June 16–19, 2005.
33. Bell JS, Price PR and McLellan PJ: “In-Situ Stress in the
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin,” in Mossop GD and
Shetson I (compilers): Geological Atlas of the Western
Canada Sedimentary Basin. Calgary: Canadian Society
of Petroleum Geologists and Alberta Research Council
(1994): 439–446.

Summer 2006 15
 Borehole Borehole
Drift Drift
0 deg 90 0 deg 90
Caliper 1 Caliper 1
125 mm 375 125 mm 375
Caliper 2 Caliper 2
Orientation Fracture True Dip Orientation Fracture True Dip
125 mm 375 North 125 mm 375 North
0 360 Orientation North 0 360 Orientation North
Bit Size Bit Size
0 120 240 360 0 deg 90 0 120 240 360 0 deg 90

Depth, m

Depth, m
125 mm 375 FMI Static 125 mm 375 FMI Static
Image FMI Dynamic Image Bedding True Dip Image FMI Dynamic Image Bedding True Dip
Gamma Ray Res. Cond. Resistive Conductive Gamma Ray Res. Cond. Resistive Conductive
0 gAPI 200 0 deg 90 0 gAPI 200 0 deg 90

Mineralized Small-scale
Val D’Or cleating Arbour
X52.0 X86.5

X52.5
X87.0

X53.0
X87.5

Well-cleated Shaly
Silkstone Mynheer
Y12.5 Y31.5

Y13.0
Y32.0

Y13.5
Y32.5

Y14.0

> Images of Ardley coals. The FMI tool successfully identifies cleating, or lack of cleating, in the four Ardley coal zones.
The FMI static image of the Val D’Or coal appears very bright (top left), indicating a high degree of mineralization. The
Arbour coal image (top right) indicates no large cleats, while the Silkstone coal image (bottom left) shows abundant
face cleats, mostly striking northeast to southwest. The Mynheer coal is dominated by shale interbeds (bottom right).

cleating within the Ardley coals—the Val D’Or,
the Arbour, the Silkstone and the Mynheer zones
(above). Interpretation of FMI images suggested
that within the Scollard formation, the Silkstone
coal had the most productive potential and the
Arbour coal had some potential.
ConocoPhillips integrated public and
proprietary cleat-orientation information from
mines and outcrops. In addition, geoscientists
performed a detailed examination of six
unoriented conventional cores that were cut
from the Ardley coals five to ten years earlier. To
supplement the regional study of Ardley coal
cleating, these cores had to be oriented after the
fact, years after their acquisition. To accomplish
this, ConocoPhillips utilized a technique
developed by Applied Paleomagnetics called
paleomagnetic core orientation, which requires
that whole cores be reassembled and that plugs
cut from the core be selectively demagnetized.34
The cores are oriented using the secondary
magnetization of magnetite found in nearly all
rocks. This magnetization points to present-day
geographical north and represents the average
geomagnetic field over the past 780,000 years,
which is the time since the last geomagnetic
polarity reversal. Once the north direction on the

34. Bleakly DC, Van Alstine DR and Packer DR: “Core
Orientation 1: Controlling Errors Minimizes Risk and
Cost in Core Orientation,” Oil and Gas Journal 83, no. 48
(December 2, 1985): 103–109.
Bleakly DC, Van Alstine DR and Packer DR: “Core
Orientation 2: How to Evaluate Orientation Data, Quality
Control,” Oil and Gas Journal 83, no. 49 (December 9,
1985): 46–54.
Hamilton WD, Van Alstine DR and Butterworth JE:
“A Fracture-Orientation Comparison Between Core-
Based and Borehole-Imaging Techniques:
Paleomagnetic, Electronic Multishot, and FMI,”
presented at the AAPG Annual Convention, San Diego,
California, May 19–22, 1996.
35. Barkved O, Bartman B, Compani B, Gaiser J,
Van Dok R, Kristiansen P, Probert T and Thompson M:
“The Many Facets of Multicomponent Seismic Data,”
Oilfield Review 16, no. 2 (Summer 2004): 42–56.
Caldwell J, Christie P, Engelmark F, McHugo S,
Özdemir H, Kristiansen P and MacLeod M: “Shear
Waves Shine Brightly,” Oilfield Review 11, no. 1
(Spring 1999): 2–15.
36. Fracture intensity is a qualitative description of the
degree of natural fracturing that is usually derived from
seismic traveltime attributes.

16 Oilfield Review
reassembled core is determined, the results from Ardley coal thickness 0
Well 5 330 20%
30

the detailed analysis can then be oriented, 6 to 12 m

300
15%

60
10%

yielding orientation data comparable to outcrop 12 to 18 m 5%

90
FMI cleats
>18 m 270 5% 10% 15% 20%

and mine studies and FMI image analyses (right).

All sources of data indicated that a dominant 240 120

0
210 150
northeast-to-southwest face-cleat system might 180
330
10%

8%
30

Well 2
be open because of its favorable alignment with
6%
300 60
4%

2%

the present-day maximum horizontal stress. The 270 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 90

butt-cleat system in the Ardley coals is much less 5 240 120

persistent and is aligned less favorably with 210

180
150

respect to present-day stresses. The lack of butt Well 4

Well 6
cleats in Ardley coals is in contrast to Horseshoe 2
Canyon and Mannville coals.
4
Horizontal wells drilled perpendicular to the
6
face-cleat system may require hydraulic 3
1
fracturing of multiple intervals within the Rose Diagram Symbols
Coal cleats
horizontal section to effectively stimulate the Well 3 Well 1
Natural extension fracture
coals and optimize production potential. A more Natural shear fracture
effective stimulation promotes the dewatering of High-angle induced fracture
Low-angle induced fracture
the cleat systems and speeds up gas desorption. Cleats from FMI tool
The challenging permeability scenario will also
> Determining major cleat directions in the Ardley coals. Paleomagnetic core orientation was used to
influence well-design considerations, such as
supplement the ConocoPhillips Ardley coal database. Rose diagrams showing the cleat strike data
drilling updip to maximize drainage.
from the rotated core analysis are displayed on the left side of the map, while the rose diagrams from
Exploration for coalbed methane in the the FMI interpretation are shown to the right of the map. Overall, the data support a northeast to
Ardley coals of the Scollard formation is in its southwest face-cleat strike.
infancy. ConocoPhillips plans to integrate the
results of this cleat study with hydrogeological SW NE

and structural interpretations to develop its

future exploration strategy. Fast
North South

Velocity
Slow
A Seismic Net to Capture Fractures
Natural East West
The ability to characterize fracture systems in
fractures
the early field-development stage reduces Azimuth
economic risk because it enables asset teams to Slow
determine optimal horizontal well directions to shea
r, W
E
maximize production and recovery. So far, most S
r, N
of the discussion on fracture characterization hea N W Slow
Fas
t s Fast E
has dealt with the investigation of fractures using S
Seabed
relatively high-resolution techniques as receiver
compared to seismic methods, which use t N W Slow cable
Fas E
wavelengths up to 100 m [328 ft] to detect the S
presence of natural fractures using azimuthal
anisotropy analysis.35 These techniques do not
detect individual faults or fractures, but rather
exploit the average response across a large
volume of rock. For example, measuring
traveltime differences between the fast and slow Natural
shear waves, together with the polarization fractures
direction of the fast shear wave, helps to infer
> Seismic azimuthal anisotropy methods. The diagrams show land and marine seismic acquisition
the fracture intensity and fracture orientation, methods used to detect fracture-induced anisotropy. The fracture diagram (top left) shows vertical
respectively.36 Seismic fracture-characterization fractures striking north-south in the example, causing shear-wave splitting that helps determine the
methods include velocity anisotropy determina- fast-shear direction (north-south red polarization vectors) and the slow-shear direction (east-west
tion, azimuthal amplitude variation with offset, blue polarization vectors). The sinusoid shows how anisotropy can be determined from compressional
and shear velocity variations with azimuth (top right). The land seismic diagram (bottom left) shows the
and normal moveout (NMO) variation with rays for common midpoint gathers from two source-receiver directions. The seabed seismic diagram
azimuth (right). (bottom right) demonstrates the effects of seismic anisotropy by showing two rays: a south-going fast
ray from a source position to the north of the seabed receiver cable; and a west-going slow ray
from an east source position above the seabed receiver cable. In 3D surveys, all azimuth directions
are interrogated.

Summer 2006 17
 Seismic investigations of NFRs include those
from multioffset, multiazimuth vertical seismic
profiles (VSPs). Walkaway- and walkaround-VSP
techniques permit velocity anisotropy and
amplitude variation with offset and azimuth
(AVOA) analyses at higher resolutions than with
surface seismic methods and can be used to
calibrate surface seismic results. Integrating all
available data to optimize the VSP configuration
is important for extracting high-quality
anisotropy information. This information can
then be used to design 3D surface seismic
surveys to cover areas remote from well control.37
Through the years, geophysicists have noted
that compressional- (P-) wave velocities exhibited
azimuthal variations when processing some 3D
seismic surveys, especially those in areas of high
tectonic stress.38 The fast P-wave direction aligns
with the maximum compressional stress
direction, parallel to natural fractures resulting
from the stress. In this simple scenario, the slow
P-wave direction would be aligned perpendicular
to the fracture strike, and the fracture-filling
fluid would affect the velocity. Azimuthal
variations in other seismic attributes, such as
reflection amplitudes, have also been observed
and exploited to determine fracture azimuth.
The advantage of examining amplitude
variations is that it detects local azimuthal
variations in contrast to velocity-based
techniques, which respond to the accumulating
effects of overlying strata.39 Consequently, AVOA
analysis is a higher vertical resolution depiction
of a NFR than that obtained with velocity-based
methods. Reflection amplitude, or reflectivity,
depends on the effective elastic properties of the
fractured rock at the seismic scale. Because both
P- and shear (S-) velocities change with azimuth
in a fractured medium, an AVO response will be
influenced by fracture properties, including
fracture azimuth. While AVOA processing and
interpretation are fairly simple where there is a
single alignment in an otherwise homogeneous
medium, multiple fracture directions—
for example near faults—and additional sources
of anisotropy may significantly complicate
the analysis.40
Another approach examines the azimuthal
variation of P-wave normal moveout (NMO)
velocity.41 A minimum of three azimuthal measure-
ments is required to construct an ellipse in the
horizontal plane that shows NMO velocities in all
azimuthal directions. Although most seismic
fracture-analysis methods assume a simple
geometry—horizontal beds and vertical
fractures—the NMO technique allows some
further assessment where beds are dipping and
18
Natural
fractures
Production or Production or
injection well injection well
Monitoring
well
> Tracking acoustic emissions induced by fluid production or injection.
Producing from or injecting into rocks in the subsurface changes net stress
in fractures and faults, inducing small shear events that emit acoustic
signals (red stars). These emissions can be recorded in nearby monitoring
wells that contain sensitive multicomponent seismic recording equipment.
Special localization processing creates a record of the events in space and
time. These acoustic emissions are located in 3D space and help identify
fracture and fault directions.
where natural fractures may not be vertical. Marine seismic studies have been successful in
However, this technique also suffers from velocity- identifying anisotropy direction and magnitude
related degradation of vertical resolution. at the specific target horizon by effectively
A carbonate reservoir study in a field in removing the influence of the overburden in a
southwest Venezuela compared seismic-based layer-stripping approach.44
fracture-orientation results with fracture Passive seismic methods that detect the
orientations based on FMI images.42 Different reservoir response to production or injection can
seismic data types were used in the study, also be thought of as dynamic fracture- and fault-
including 2D three-component (3C) P- and characterization techniques. Natural fractures
S-wave data, and 3D P-wave data. The study and faults emit microseismic events—mostly
found that most of the results from the rotation due to shear readjustments—in response to
analysis of the converted-wave 2D-3C data, and changes in effective stress following field
the AVOA and NMO analyses of the 2D and 3D production and injection, and especially during
P-wave data determined the general direction of hydraulic fracture stimulation operations.45
the regional maximum horizontal stress. Sensitive seismic sensors positioned in nearby
However, results varied between the different wellbores detect these acoustic emissions, which
methods because of local structural variations. in this method serve as the seismic source
With the 3D P-wave data, the AVOA technique (above). Special processing methods estimate
appeared more robust than the NMO analysis. event locations, producing a continuous time-
The Venezuelan study also found that there were based record of production- or injection-induced
quantifiable advantages to acquiring land 3C activity. Seismic methods represent medium- to
data, including the ability to estimate fracture large-scale fracture detection and character-
orientation and fracture density, or intensity. ization methods, and therefore have implications
Acquiring multicomponent seismic data in a in the effort to model the interwell volume of
marine setting requires sophisticated four- these complex reservoirs.
component (4C) seabed acquisition equipment.43
Oilfield Review
 Regardless of the technique, information
cultivated from seismic data contributes to
reservoir modeling that guides primary- and
secondary-recovery planning. However, in many
fields, wells from which to draw detailed fracture
information are too few and too widely spaced to
populate the model volume. Geologists gather
detailed fracture data—orientation and possibly
spacing—from analog outcrops. However, this
process rarely captures a comprehensive descrip-
tion of the fracture network for modeling purposes
and sometimes overestimates fracture intensity.
Geoscientists at Hydro and Schlumberger in
Norway have developed a way to capture the
detailed quantitative information needed to make
NFR models from outcrop analogs. This method
uses a combination of high-resolution optical
photography, radar technologies and an automatic
surface-extraction technique now widely used for
mapping faults in 3D seismic datasets.46 Hydro and
Schlumberger experts have tested this new
technique using a well-studied NFR outcrop analog
in the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico, USA.
Z For several years, Hydro, together with the
X University of Texas at Dallas, has been using
Y
detailed 3D photorealistic models for high-
> Using 3D data from light detection and ranging (LIDAR) technology to map resolution mapping of outcrop analogs.47
major fracture sets. The digital photograph is photorealistically mapped Photorealistic models are derived from the
onto a surface derived from the LIDAR data (top). The major fracture
patterns are apparent from both image (center) and vector analysis. The Y- mapping of high-resolution 2D photographs onto
component of the surface normal vector (bottom) shows vertical features 3D outcrop scans using light detection and
that are mostly fractures. The height of the vertical outcrop face ranges ranging (LIDAR) technology.48 LIDAR equipment
from about 20 to 25 ft [6.1 to 7.6 m].
transmits laser light—visible electromagnetic
radiation—to a target and receives back the
reflected signal for analysis to determine certain
37. Peralta S, Barrientos C and Arroyo JL: “The Specialized For more on normal moveout (NMO): http://www.
Use of the VSP to Define Fracture Orientation and to searchanddiscovery.com/documents/geophysical/liner/ properties of the target. The most common type
Help in a Multicomponent Survey Design,” Transactions images/liner.pdf (accessed May 7, 2006). of LIDAR is used for precise range finding—
of the SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium, 42. Perez MA, Grechka V and Michelena RJ: “Fracture
Veracruz, Mexico, June 4–7, 2006, paper SS. Detection in a Carbonate Reservoir Using a Variety
accurate to 2 mm [0.08 in.]—and the returned
Leaney WS, Sayers CM and Miller DE: “Analysis of of Seismic Methods,” Geophysics 64, no. 4 (July– radiation intensity can help define other
Multiazimuthal VSP Data for Anisotropy and AVO,” August 1999): 1266–1276.
Geophysics 64, no. 4 (July-August 1999): 1172–1180.
characteristics of the target.
43. 4C marine seismic data are typically acquired using
38. Corrigan D, Withers R, Darnall J and Skopinski T: three orthogonally oriented geophones and a Digitizing sufficient detail of sedimentary
“Fracture Mapping from Azimuthal Velocity Analysis hydrophone within an ocean-bottom sensor. Provided architecture from photorealistic models for the
Using 3D Surface Seismic Data,” Expanded Abstracts, the system is in contact with the seabed, the 3C
SEG International Exposition and 66th Annual Meeting, geophones measure shear waves. The hydrophone building of reservoir models is a straightforward
Denver (November 10–15, 1996): 1834–1837. measures compressional waves. process. However, manual digitizing and analysis
39. Hall SA and Kendall JM: “Constraining the Interpretation 44. Gaiser J, Loinger E, Lynn H and Vetri L: “Birefringence
of AVOA for Fracture Characterization,” in Ikelle L and Analysis at the Emilio Field for Fracture
of fractures from these datasets are impractical,
Gangi A (eds): Anisotropy 2000: Fractures, Converted Characterization,” First Break 20, no. 8 (August 2002): because several hundred thousand to millions of
Waves and Case Studies. Tulsa: The Society of 505–514.
Exploration Geophysicists (2000): 107–144.
fractures are commonly present. The new
45. Bennet L, La Calvez J, Sarver DR, Tanner K, Birk WS,
40. Sayers CM: “Misalignment of the Orientation of Water G, Drew J, Michaud G, Primiero P, Eisner L, automated approach to outcrop mapping is
Fractures and the Principal Axes for P and S Waves Jones R, Leslie D Williams MJ, Govenlock J, Klem RC organized to take advantage of the 3D directional
in Rocks Containing Non-Orthogonal Fracture Sets,” and Tezuka K: “The Source for Hydraulic Fracture
Geophysical Journal International 133, no. 2 (May 1998): Characterization,” Oilfield Review 17, no. 4 (Winter information inherent in LIDAR data and couple
459–466. 2005/2006): 42–57. it with the detailed information within high-
Sayers CM and Dean S: “Azimuth-Dependent AVO in 46. Pedersen SI, Randen T, Sønneland L and Steen Ø:
Reservoirs Containing Non-Orthogonal Fracture Sets,” “Automatic 3D Fault Interpretation by Artificial Ants,”
resolution 2D image data.
Geophysical Prospecting 49, no.1 (January 2001): 101–106. paper Z-99, presented at the 64th EAGE Conference and To achieve this, the LIDAR and photographic
Williams M and Jenner E: “Interpreting Seismic Data in Exhibition, Florence, Italy, May 27–30, 2002.
data are first analyzed separately. Because the
the Presence of Azimuthal Anisotropy; or Azimuthal 47. http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2004/06jun/lasers.cfm
Anisotropy in the Presence of the Seismic Interpretation,” (accessed July 3, 2006). outcrops naturally weather along fractures, fault
The Leading Edge 21, no. 8 (August 2002): 771–774. 48. For more on photorealistic models: http://www. planes and bedding, the major fracture sets and bed
41. Grechka V and Tsvankin I: “3-D Description of Normal utdallas.edu/~aiken/LASERCLASS/TSPSphotoFINAL.pdf
Moveout in Anisotropic Inhomogeneous Media,” (accessed June 30, 2006).
boundaries are captured by vector analysis of the
Geophysics 63, no. 3 (May–June 1998): 1079–1092. LIDAR data (above left). The orientations of target

Summer 2006 19
 > Using components of a photorealistic model, photography and innovative software to map
bedding, fractures and faults. A high-resolution digital photograph of an analog outcrop in the
Guadalupe Mountains (top) is processed. The software detects and enhances the discontinuities
on the photograph (middle). The white coding indicates a high level of discontinuity, and the black
coding represents a low level of discontinuity. Both bedding (green) and fracture faces (red)
are mapped (bottom). The height of the vertical outcrop face ranges from about 20 to 25 ft
[6.1 to 7.6 m].

surfaces are described using the three directional
components of the normal vector. Radiation
intensity is then corrected for both the distance to
the LIDAR apparatus and the angle of the outcrop
surface. A 3D LIDAR model grid is created and
populated with the directional and intensity data.
The corrected LIDAR intensity and directional-
component data can then be partitioned into value
ranges for mapping and analysis.
Although there is good detail in the LIDAR
data, an even higher level of information is
contained in the photographs (above). However,
before an automated structural interpretation of
the photographic data is accomplished, the digital
image must be filtered for noise—anything in the
image that does not represent part of the rock
exposure, such as vegetation or scree.
Next, an attribute or combination of
attributes is selected and the Automated
Structural Interpretation process, adapted from
what is now used in Petrel software, can begin
enhancing surfaces. The process uses an
adaptation of the technique developed for fault
interpretation in 3D seismic volumes. At first, a
fault or fracture may appear only as a trend
within the data, but as signal-to-noise character-
istics are improved along the surfaces, a more
defined plane is mapped by “agents” using the
principles of “swarm intelligence” (next page). A
large number of process agents are deployed in
the data volume, making decisions based on
precoded behavior. Like ants, the agents traverse
the various surfaces emitting an “electronic
pheromone” along the trail, from which an
estimate of the surface orientation is made and
stored; in this case fractures and bedding are

49. Ali AHA, Brown T, Delgado R, Lee D, Plumb D, Smirnov N,
Marsden R, Prado-Velarde E, Ramsey L, Spooner D,
Stone T and Stouffer T: “Watching Rocks Change—
Mechanical Earth Modeling,” Oilfield Review 15, no. 2
(Summer 2003): 22-39.
50. Will R, Archer R and Dershowitz B: “Integration of
Seismic Anisotropy and Reservoir-Performance Data for
Characterization of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs Using
Discrete-Feature-Network Models,” paper SPE 84412,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Denver, October 5–8, 2003.
51. Rawnsley K and Wei L: “Evaluation of a New Method to
Build Geological Models of Fractured Reservoirs
Calibrated to Production Data,” Petroleum Geoscience 7,
no. 1 (February 2001): 23–33.

20 Oilfield Review
 A B
> Automatic fracture and fault delineation. One or several attributes are selected for the generation of Cube B from the seismic Cube A. Conditioning by
the Petrel Automated Structural Interpretation module is applied to Cube B using “swarm intelligence,” which enhances the fracture and fault features to
produce the resulting Cube C. The fault surfaces are then extracted as separate objects as shown on Cube D. These surfaces can then be incorporated
into geologic models.
picked. The result is a 2D map of linear outcrop
features—mostly fractures and bedding—but at
a higher resolution than that extracted from the
LIDAR data.
Once the innovative processing is made on
the high-resolution digital photographs and
LIDAR data, the results are recombined into the
3D photorealistic model for manual verification
and analysis. At this stage, the 2D maps derived
from the photos are transformed into 3D data as
they are projected onto the photorealistic
outcrop model as a series of planes and
attributes. The results of the photographic
and LIDAR analysis are displayed as attributes
in an editing window, and compared to the
photorealistic model by the interpreter for
quality control.
Following editing of the data, the structural
geologist is able to begin the process of quanti-
tative fracture interpretation. Because bedding
is automatically mapped as a part of the process,
the interpreter is able to perform quantitative
analysis of fracture extent, density and orienta-
tion on a layer-by-layer basis, thus establishing a
mechanical stratigraphy. The analyzed joint
planes and their relationship to bedding and
faults can then be used as the basis for a discrete
fracture network model. Such models can be
analyzed in terms of representative fracture
volumes and flow heterogeneity related to the
fracture systems.
Modeling the Effects of Fractures
There are perhaps no other simulation tasks as
challenging in today’s oil and gas fields as
constructing valid NFR models to simulate
reservoir fluid flow with a reasonable degree
of certainty. The challenges span multiple
Summer 2006
C D
disciplines and multiple scales, and must always
be addressed with limited information. The
ultimate aim in reservoir simulation is to
estimate and predict the distribution and flow of
fluids within the reservoir in response to
production or injection. Natural fractures make
achieving this aim considerably more difficult.
Some experts simplify the challenges of NFR
fluid-flow simulation into three categories. First,
a model must resolve the fluid pathways by
determining fracture connectivity. Connectivity
depends on fracture length, orientation and
intensity, which come from subsurface data and
outcrop analogs. Second, knowledge of fracture-
system permeabilities, permeability variation
across the field, and the interaction between
fractures and the matrix is essential. Third, the
fluid pressure, or capillary pressure, and the
relative permeabilities in the reservoir must be
captured. Additionally, a good understanding of
the in-situ stress regime is needed for credible
NFR simulation. This information comes from a
variety of sources—including logging measure-
ments, borehole breakout and leakoff tests—and
is used in mechanical earth models.49
The complexity of NFRs represents a real
challenge in reservoir simulation. The most
geologically realistic models are discrete
fracture network (DFN) models. In these models,
each fracture is represented as a plane in the
reservoir with attached properties such as
aperture and permeability. DFNs are able to
represent the geometric complexity of fractured
reservoirs with a high level of detail. Fluid flow
can be simulated through DFNs using finite-
element methods, and the effects of matrix flow
can also be incorporated.
Creating a plausible model, however, places
great demands on geoscientists, and the fracture
system must be parameterized in all its detail.
This model is typically built from high-quality
data near wellbores—for example, borehole
image data, core analysis and pressure-transient
data—and is expanded to the interwell region
using geostatistical techniques. DFN models can
also be guided by seismic anisotropy fracture-
characterization results and production data.50
Well and seismic data are generally not sufficient
to provide information about fracture extent and
connectivity and so outcrop analogs become
crucial sources of information.
Today, the generation of DFNs still has
limitations. DFNs are computationally intensive,
so it is not possible to model all of the fractures
within a reservoir in this way. While a DFN could
be used for an individual well test history-match,
commercially available DFNs can handle only
single-phase flow and thus cannot model
secondary-recovery mechanisms.51 It is possible
to represent only the largest fractures geometri-
cally in cellular models, while smaller fractures
have to be represented as modified cell
properties. However, the physics of flow between
fractures and matrix in cellular models can be
represented using the finite-difference method
and using dual-porosity and dual-porosity/
dual-permeability techniques.
It is difficult to provide a link between the
geologist’s view of a fractured reservoir and a
cellular representation. One method for dealing
with this problem is to create small-scale DFN
models that represent the details of the
fracturing and to upscale them to cellular grid
blocks using either static or dynamic methods.
For example, a joint system was mapped from a
21
 helicopter photograph of a field outcrop (left).
100
90 Joints were picked on the photograph using
Length-weighted orientation what is now the Petrel Automated Structural
80
of 1,669 fractures
Permeability (Kx), mD

70 Interpretation technique. The results were used

60 to build a DFN, capturing the entire complexity
50
of the network. With an assumed aperture, the
40
30
upscaled permeabilities in three different
20 directions were determined using a pressure
10 solver and input to a cellular simulation model.52
0 Flow simulation in cellular models is
performed in two ways: by finite-difference and
Y (N)
by streamline simulation.53 Finite-difference
X (E) simulators typically offer a wide range of
Z
10 m functionalities and are preferred in long-term,
mature project environments. Also, finite-
difference simulators have been more suited for
Permeability, X direction Fracture Porosity
10 simulating fluid flow not dominated by reservoir
3
9 heterogeneities in models with fewer uncertain-
Frequency, number of blocks

Frequency, number of blocks

8 ties. Streamline simulators, such as the three-

7
2 phase ECLIPSE FrontSim module, are better for
6
5 accessing dynamic reservoir behavior in large,
4 multimillion-cell models. Streamline simulators
3 1 are faster to run and allow asset teams to quickly
2 validate upscaled reservoir models with dynamic
1
0 0
data (below left).
2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
27.5
32.5
37.5
42.5
47.5
52.5

0.0170
0.0174
0.0178
0.0182
0.0186
0.0190
0.0194
0.0198
0.0202
0.0206
0.0210
0.0214
0.0218
Armed with a suitable flow simulator, asset
Permeability (Kx), mD teams can now examine connectivity across the
Fracture porosity, % reservoir and consider strategies to maximize
> Example of an automatically generated fracture pattern from an outcrop in a 50-m by 50-m [164-ft by hydrocarbon recovery. As more data come into
164-ft] area (top left) incorporated into a discrete fracture network (DFN) model. A constant aperture the model, each portion of the reservoir model
was assigned to the fractures, and the permeability was upscaled using a pressure solver. The upscaled
permeability in the X-direction, Block Kxx, is scaled according to the color bar (left). Histograms (bottom) can be fine-tuned. This may involve improving
show Block Kxx and the fracture porosity for each 10-m by 10-m [32.8-ft by 32.8-ft] cell. The rose structural and mechanical earth models, matrix
diagram (top right) shows the orientation of 1,669 fractures interpreted by what is now the Petrel and fracture models, and matrix-fracture
Automated Structural Interpretation process. exchange models (next page).

52. A pressure solver is a tool in modeling software that

G04 G14 enables the calculation of pressure at every point in
Sw G12 a model.
1.0 G01 34-5
G11 53. Afilaka JO, Bahamaish J, Bowen G, Bratvedt K,
G03 Holmes JA, Miller T, Fjerstad P, Grinestaff G, Jalali Y,
G09 G13 G07 Lucas C, Jimenez Z, Lolomari T, May E and Randall E:
G05 “Improving the Virtual Reservoir,” Oilfield Review 13,
no. 1 (Spring 2001): 26–47.
G02 54. Ahr WM, Allen D, Boyd A, Bachman HN, Smithson T,
G06 Clerke EA, Gzara KBM, Hassall JK, Murty CRK, Zubari H
0.1 and Ramamoorthy R: “Confronting the Carbonate
Conundrum,” Oilfield Review 17, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 18–29.
Akbar M, Vissapragada B, Alghamdi AH, Allen D,
Herron M, Carnegie A, Dutta D, Olesen J-R,
Chourasiya RD, Logan D, Stief D, Netherwood R,
Russell SD and Saxena K: “A Snapshot of Carbonate
Reservoir Evaluation,” Oilfield Review 12, no. 4
(Winter 2000/2001): 20–41.
55. Kossack CA and Gurpinar O: “A Methodology for
Simulation of Vuggy and Fractured Reservoirs,” paper
SPE 66366, presented at the SPE Reservoir Simulation
Symposium, Houston, February 11–14, 2001.
Gurpinar O, Kalbus J and List DF: “Numerical Modeling
of a Large, Naturally Fractured Oil Complex,” paper
> Streamline simulation. Streamline simulators, such as the ECLIPSE SPE 59061, presented at the SPE International Petroleum
Conference and Exhibition, Villahermosa, Mexico,
FrontSim software, allow reservoir engineers and geoscientists to quickly February 1–3, 2000.
simulate fluid flow in heterogeneous reservoirs. These simulators are
Gurpinar O, Kalbus J and List DF: “Numerical Modeling
especially useful when simulating the effects of fractures or other high- of a Triple Porosity Reservoir,” paper SPE 57277,
permeability conduits on waterflooding for secondary recovery. In this presented at the SPE Asia Pacific Improved Oil Recovery
example, the streamlines and reservoir layers are color-coded according Conference, Kuala Lumpur, October 25–26, 1999.
to water saturation, Sw.

22 Oilfield Review
 NFR Modeling
Reservoir-
Management
Model
Project
Objectives
Predictive
Status of Reservoir
the Field Reservoir and Dynamic
Data for Flow Modeling Model
Status of
Data Engineering PVT, production, pressure,
Evaluation well completion, injection, Three-phase
Project test database, Kr , P,c Multiphase
Time/$$ •Pressure
•Production prediction objectives Two- Yes
Fracture phase
•Injection analysis Indicators
•Well summaries Kr , Pc
Flow Reproduce
Data •Pressure- •Regional Model Historical
Flow
Collection, treatment analysis structural Structural
Simulation Behavior
Verification •Reservoir setting Fault Framework
Model Grid
and permeability (Kr ) •Structural No
Validation •Capillary pressure (Pc ) framework
•Single-well models •Curvature
•Well location •Lithology
•Unique identifier •Drilling Fracture Discrete
Intensity Connectivity
•Directional survey Geological events Fracture Review
•Well completion •Well tests Direction Model
Evaluation Dual
•Production •Production System
•Wellbore facilities •Cores behavior Fracture
•Pressure •Sedimentology •Image logs Streamline
Index Simulator
•Well test •Facies model •Sonic logs
•PVT •Stratigraphy DFN Fracture
•Core analysis •Correlations Verification Model
•Relative permeability •Synthetics
•Logs •Seismic
•Image logs interpretation
•Dipmeter logs •Faults and Log-Derived Properties
•Sedimentology horizons Total and matrix petrophysics 3D Matrix
•Seismic data •Structure Model layering influence Property Model
•Seismic navigation modeling Model grid influence Distribution
•Velocity control •Dipmeter
•Drilling records interpretation
•Reports •Petrophysical
•Previous studies evaluation

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> Modeling naturally fractured reservoirs. A workflow example describes the major elements involved in NFR modeling during the project startup (green
background), model creation (yellow background) and model fine-tuning (blue background) phases. The numbers at the bottom indicate where in the
workflow that model fine-tuning should take place, in order of preference.

Typically, models are tested and calibrated
using historical pressure and production data—
history-matching—and must be updated and
fine-tuned with new information. An asset team’s
ability to quickly update reservoir models and
run multiple simulations has been enhanced,
and continues to improve, with the availability of
increased computing power.
Fracture Breakthroughs
Some of the largest hydrocarbon reservoirs in the
world are naturally fractured carbonate
reservoirs in the Middle East, Mexico and
Kazakhstan.54 In many cases, these reservoirs
have three porosity systems: fracture, matrix and
vuggy—both connected and isolated—and
involve multiphase fluid flow, adding to the
modeling difficulties. The challenges facing
operators in these fields are daunting. Declining
hydrocarbon productivity, increasing water research in land seismic technologies, geology,
production and significant volumes of unswept rock physics and fluid dynamics.
oil are the most obvious reasons for concern. In the past, available static and dynamic data
Closer examination has revealed inherent have dictated an asset team’s approach to NFR
difficulties in modeling heterogeneous, dual- and characterization, modeling and simulation. Today,
triple-porosity reservoirs with multiphase fluid a better understanding of NFR complexities,
flow. In these cases, it has been useful to develop improved measurements and interpretation
special relationships for relative permeabilities techniques across a wider range of scales, faster
and capillary pressure that take the complexities and vastly improved modeling capabilities and
into account.55 exciting new research will make the industry’s
On March 25, 2006, Schlumberger, in an progress in fractured reservoirs natural. —MGG
alliance with King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, officially opened the Schlumberger
Dhahran Center for Carbonate Research (SDCR)
to engage in collaborative projects focusing on
carbonate reservoirs, the majority of which are
NFRs. Scientists at this state-of-the-art research
center will focus on the development of
technologies that address the challenges of
exploiting these complex reservoirs, including

Summer 2006 23

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