Patton: The Human Body in Health & Disease, 7th Edition

Chapter 01: Introduction to the Body

Chapter Summary

Here’s a tip: Listen to this summary after reading the chapter to help you
reinforce the key concepts. Before class or your next test, you can also use
the summary as a quick review.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Science involves logical inquiry based on experimentation and we can use a

variety of methods to test scientific claims. To ensure the validity of claims,
scientists employ a systematic approach to discovery. Many experimental
approaches involve these steps:

1. Formulate a hypothesis. A hypothesis states an idea about how nature

works, often based on prior observations, that can be tested with
experiments.
2. Conduct experiments. Experimentation is simply a series of tests to
determine if a hypothesis is true. A controlled experiment is designed to
avoid biases or outside influences.
3. A hypothesis that has been tested repeatedly and thus has a high level of
confidence among scientists is known as a theory or law.

The scientific method allows the process of science to remain active and
evolving as new experiments add new knowledge.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZA TION

Organization is the most important characteristic of body structure. The body

as a whole is a unit constructed of the following units:

1. Atoms and molecules, which describe organization at the chemical level

ZZZ2. Cells, the smallest structural units of life, consisting of various

chemicals
3. Tissues, which are organizations of similar cells
4. Organs, which are organizations of different kinds of tissues
5. Systems, the organizations of many different kinds of organs
6. Organisms, which is all of the systems working together

The microbiome is a set of interacting communities of bacteria and other

microorganisms that inhabit the human body. It influences normal body
function.

ANATOMICAL POSITION

Anatomical position gives meaning to directional terms. It is the reference

position in which the body is standing erect with the feet slightly apart and
arms at the sides with palms turned forward. When the body is not in
anatomical position, it can be described as supine, lying face upward, or
prone, lying face downward.

ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS

Directional terms are useful in describing relative positions of body parts and
are best thought of as opposite pairs:

1. Superior and inferior—superior, meaning toward the head, upper, or

above, and inferior, meaning toward the feet, lower, or below
2. Anterior and posterior—anterior refers to the front or in front of and is the
same as ventral in humans, whereas posterior refers to the back or in back
of, which is the same as dorsal in humans
3. Medial and lateral—medial means toward the midline of a structure and
lateral means away from the midline or toward the side of a structure
4. Proximal and distal—proximal is defined as toward or nearest the trunk, or
nearest the point of origin of a structure; distal is defined as away from or
farthest from the trunk, or farthest from a structure’s point of origin
5. Superficial and deep—superficial, meaning nearer the body surface, and
deep, meaning farther away from the body surface

All of these directions can be indicated on an anatomical compass rosette,

which is an illustration using abbreviated directional terms.

PLANES OF THE BODY

It is useful to subdivide or “cut” the body into smaller, uniform segments by

dividing the body into planes or sections identified by the following names:

1. Sagittal plane, a lengthwise plane that divides a structure into right and
left sections
2. Midsagittal plane, a sagittal plane that divides the body into two equal
halves
3. Frontal or coronal plane, a lengthwise plane that divides a structure into
anterior and posterior sections
4. Transverse plane, a horizontal plane that divides a structure into upper
and lower sections
5. Oblique plane, any plane that is not parallel to the other planes, producing
a slanted section
BODY CAVITIES

The two major body cavities are called the dorsal and ventral body cavities.

The dorsal body cavity consists of the cranial cavity, which contains the
brain, and the spinal cavity, which contains the spinal cord.

The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and the abdominopelvic cavities. The
thoracic cavity consists of the mediastinum, which is the mid-portion of the
thoracic cavity. The heart and trachea are located in the mediastinum. The
other subdivisions include the right and left pleural cavities. The right lung is
located in the right pleural cavity and the left lung is in the left pleural cavity.

The lower part of the ventral cavity includes the abdominal cavity and pelvic
cavity, forming one cavity known as the abdominopelvic cavity. The
abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder,
pancreas, and spleen. The pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, the
urinary bladder, and the lowest part of the intestine.

For the purpose of referencing organs, the abdominopelvic cavity is further

divided into either four quadrants or nine regions.

BODY REGIONS

The body can be divided into two large regions. The axial region is composed
of the head, neck, and torso or trunk, whereas the appendicular region is
composed of the upper and lower extremities. Body structure and function
vary among individuals and also throughout an individual’s life span. For
example, atrophy (which is a decrease in size) may occur when an organ is
not used.

BALANCE OF BODY FUNCTIONS

The body maintains mechanisms to ensure functionality of genes and the

survival of the individual.

Survival depends on the maintenance or restoration of homeostasis, defined

as the relative constancy of the internal environment. The internal
environment is a fluid that must be kept stable by the operation of various
organ systems. To maintain this stability, the body uses stabilizing negative
feedback loops and, less often, amplifying positive feedback loops to
maintain or restore homeostasis. Feedback loops involve a sensor, a control
center, and an effector.

All organs function to maintain homeostasis. The ability to maintain the

balance of body functions is related to age. Peak efficiency of the body
occurs during young adulthood and diminishes thereafter.