World Englishes Implications for international communication and English language teaching ANby KIRKPATRICK Hong Kong Institute of Education (8 CAMBRIDGE ip) UNivensery mazss‘To Mum, Lyn, Jan and HelenAcknowledgements The author ‘A great many people have helped inthe writing of this book, not least the many students 1 have been privileged to teach. would ike to make particular mention of recent doctoral stu dents including Zi Adnan, James McLellan, David Prescott, Hlen Singleton, Rusdi Tab Glenn Toh and Xv Znichang. Their scholarship continues to hea great source of stimulation 1 also need to thank other fiends who so generously offered thei time and voices — Karen Higgins, Marion Johnston, Thiru Kendiah, KC, KT, 'tope Omoniyi, Sivanes Phillipson and (Claudia Sullivan ~ and all the others whose voices are also recorded here, including Budi, Dalvindar, Erlinda, Janet, Myint, Phan, Phuong, Setys, Shwe Qo, Tirotc, Un and Yusnizs {would also like to thank the Cambridge editorial team who have been such a pleasure to \work with, in particular Jane Walsh, Alison Sharpe, Clive Rumble, Michelle Simpson and Sylvia Gould The publishers ‘he author and publishers are grateful tothe following for permission to reproduce copy ight material, While every effort has been made, it has not always been possible to identify the sources ofall the material used, or to contact the copyright elders. If any omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy co include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting gain Group (UK) for permission to use 2 naraber of small extracts taken from Crystal, . (2004) The Stories of English, Penguin Allen Lane, 2004. @ David Crystal, 2004 Osford University Press for permission (0 use a number of small extracts taken from Birchfield R. (2986) The English Language, Oxford: Oxford University Pres Muliingual Matters for permission to use the extracts on p35 and pp1y7-8 taken from Phillipson, (1997) “Realities and Myths of Linguistic Imperialism’ Journal of Muliingua ‘and Mediculeweal Development, Vol 18,1997, 38-48 “Leopard Magazine for permission to use the cartoon ‘Councillor Swick’ on pso taken from Issue No. 314, April 2005. Used by kind permission of Leopard Mag Acknowiedgements ix Mainstream Publishing for permission to use short quotes by Ky on ps2, taken from Ky, B. (986) Scot: The Mither Tongue, Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing Co, ‘Cambridge University Press for permission to use the extract on pr taken from MeArthas, ‘T. (4998) The Shapes of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press for permission to ute the extracts om pps, 86 and 93 taken from Mehrotra, R. R, (2003)'A British Response to some Indian English Useges, English Today, vol 39:5, ppIg-a5 Pearson Faucation for permission to use extracts om ppio3, 109-31 and 26 taken from Schmieg, J.J (a992} Buglsh in fica: Ar Introduction, New York, Longenan Dr James McLellan for kind permission to use the quotes on ppi2y-f: The frst quote post: Ing date 188/200, Brudiret ("Have your Say”) forurp, bng>/hswwhraneidrethys thy! indexphp, the second quote posting date /1a/2001, Bruclass forum, nif beelascom! (Asian Community Macquarie Dictionary for permission o use the table on pry, Gonsalez, A. ‘The vowel and consonant sounds of cultivated Philippine English; pusa, Butler, S. ‘Five Criteria taken from Bautista, MI. S,(ed.) (0997) English isan Asian Language: The Philippine Context, Sidney, Australia: Macquarie Library Pry Li, ‘Blackwell Publishing for permission to Use the adapted table on pi4s taken from Adamson, B, (2002) ‘The historical role and starus ofthe English Language in Chins, World Englishes Wola, No Mare Xu Zhichang for kind permission to use the extracts on ppl taken from the the sis by Zhichang Xu (2003) Chinese English: What i it and is to Become a regional variety lsh, Perth, Australis: Curtin University, Random House Group for permission to use the extrac on pprso-si Ha Jin (2000) I the Pond, New Yorks Vintage ‘The Australian Broadcasting Corporation for permission to use the recording and the tran script on pp208-10 MacNamarra, ‘Australia allover’ frst broadcast 7 March 2003 0n ABC Local Radio. Reproduced by permission ofthe Australian Broadcasting Casporstion and ARC Online © 2003 ABC. All rights reserved. For the recording and transcript on pato “Childcen of the Bushy interview with John Williamson, frst broadcast on ABC Radio National. Reproduced by permission of te Australian Broadcasting Corporation andl ABC Online © 2007 ABC. All rights reverved Matthews Music Pty Ltd for permission so use the three lines af Iyries on pate by Williamson, J (2986) True Bluc. © Emusic Pty Ltd (APRA), wsejohnviliomon com.implications fr international communication and ELT ‘Yasmine Gooneratne for kind permission to use the poem on ppa:t-12 Meni and forthe poem on ppat2-14"The Lizard’s Cry, both from Gooneratne,¥. 1972) The Lisand’s Cry and (Other Poems, published privately in Kandy, Sci Lanke, Asiazo0o Ltd. for permission to use the poem on p2a5 Yellow flowers on a battlefield by ‘Agnes Lam, forthe poem on paa6‘Hong Kong Riots, 1967, by Louise lo and for the poem ‘on p226 End of an era! by Louise Ho. Dieta O'Shaughnessy for permission to use the recording and wanseript on ppss-17, «Soweto Flying Squad (SFS) Policeman. Interview on Curtin Radio, Curtin Austria, Used by permission of Pieta O'Shaughnessy; ‘Interview University, Pert “tope Omoniyi for permission to use the recording and transcript of four poems on ppp2iy-2o,"Let them who have ears heat, T do not know anymore, Midwives or a deluge” and "The Dogs of Baidos taken from Omoniyi, tope. (2003) Farting Presidents and Other Poems, Lagos, Nigeria: Kraft Books Ltd. Introduction All over the world peopl in ever-increasing numbers are using moze and more vari ties of English. English has now become the language of international communication. Perhaps the most remarkable fact behind this increasing use of English is thatthe majority ff English speakers are now multilingual people who have learned English and who use English to communicate wth fellow multingvals. Theve are many more epeakers of World Englishes and people who use English for international communication than there native speakers of it. This book will consider the implications for international communi cation and English language teaching of this extrzordinary growth in the varieties of English and in the numbers of English speakers. ‘Courses in World Englishes ate becoming ever more popula and are ssn, especialy among PLT practitioners and professionals, s relevant for these who plan to become English language teachers. Indeed, one noted scholar has suggested that no TESOL devel ‘opment course should be without a course in World Englishes {Gorlach, 1997). Thete are a number of excallent introductory texts to World Englishes, of which Kachru’s The Other ‘Tongue (1982/02) remains an outstanding example, MeArthur's The English Langunges (1968) and his Oxford Guide t World Englishes (2002) provide exttemely valuable ba ground and reference materials. Gérlach (2991) and Schneider (1997) have both edited series on World Englishes. Melchers'and Shaw's (2003) book World Englishes offers a use fil introduction, and Jenkins (2005) isan excellent resource that provides a summary of current developments and key debates. There are also a number of tex that focus on one variety of Word Englis For exarapie, Fong Keng University Press is currently publishing 2 series on Englishes in Asia (Adamson, 2004; Stanlaw, 20043 Kachru, 2005). This book difers from all the above in that it aims to describe selected varieties of World Englishes an then discusses the implications of these varieties for English language Jearniag and teaching in specific contexts, la this way, the text describes selected varitis of World Englishes for an audience of English language teachers and teacher trainers. alse «considers and compares international contexts ia whieh English is used asa lingua fianea Im pattcwar, the book hopes to be both relevant and useful to so-called non-native speak: cer teachers, who make up the overwhelming majority of English language teachers world wide (Braine, 1999) It stresses the importance and validates the roles and contributions of ‘multilingual and mulsicultural English language teachers who may be ether speakers of a nativised model of English, such a¢ Singaporean, or non-native speaker teachers who il the great use English primarily as fingu® franca with fellow non-native speokers, a2 __Woyld Englishes: |mplications for internationst communication and LT majority of their students. In this context it argues that native speaker and nativised vat cies of English have developed in comparable ways, The book is simed primarily at ELT professionals and trainee weachers undertaking TESOL training throughout the world. It also aims to become an important text om World Englishes for undergraduate and postgraduate students of World Englishes ‘The book is divided into three sections. Part A (Chapters 1-3) introduces readers to relevant key sociolinguistic and linguistic concepts, and provides a brief background his tory of the development of Woeld Englishes. Part A thus offers readers an introduction to basic concepts that are developed throughout the book. ‘Part & (Chapters 4-n)} provides a description of the linguistic features of selected veri of World Englishes, including examples from phonology, las, syntax, discourse and -agmatic norms, Bach chapter describes the cocio-political features of the variety and typ. ‘ealy includes th historical background lending to the development ofthat variety its cu rene status the atgtudes that speakers ofthe variety and "outsder® have ta the variety under discussion, and its current roles and Functions in the society viv a-vis other languages spo- ken in the community. Each of the chapters in Patt 8 alzo provides spoken and written examples of the relevant variety in real us, including, where at, samples from i rate written in the variety Examples which are spoken or read by speakers of ther respec Live varieties canbe heard on the accompanying CD, allowing readers to Histen to how these diferent varieties actually sound in eal life. Transcripts ofthe recordings are provided in the appendix J: would be impossible to include all the current varieties of English. J have chosen to start with «description of three so-called native speaker varieties ~ British, American and Australian ~and then describe varieties from the Indian eubcoatinent, fica and fram East and South-East Asa. As the reader will discover all these varieties themselves represent 2 ange of diferent varieties, so that British English, for esample,is actually ¢ range of British Englishes. [ have also included a description of English when it is used as a lingua franca and considered its rele as a lingue franca in Burope. Part C considers the controversies and debates associated with the emergence of new vatieties of English and their existence alongside more established varieties. ssues thet are «covered here include the question of which model or vaiety of English is the most appro- priate for which context. The relative roles of native and non-native speaker teachets are ‘considered and the recognition of the importance of multilingual and mulicultral ELT fea (2) that variation is natural, normal and continocs ~ and that ELT professionals ‘must establish tolerance and understanding of variations (b) that, while prejudice agains varieties is likely to occu, these prejudices are vim: ply that ~ prejudice 6) that the diferene ‘and comparables Derween all varieties, both native and nativised, are similar Introduction 3 (a) that the specific teaching and learning contexts and the specific needs of the learners in those contexts should determine the variety to be taught; and 6) that multilingual non-native teachers represent ideal teachers in many ELT contexts (On having read the book, zeaders will understand that English has severl different vati- tes. They wil know how these varieties nd how cach variety reflects the cures ofits speakers. They will also understand the roles played by diferent varieties of English in different contexts and be aware ofthe tensions that an exist between ‘Anglo’ and natvised varieties of English. They will be familiar with the debates and controversies surrounding the spread of English and the development of Englishes, especially as they relate to language teaching and international communication. ‘Why issuch a text important? The model of English that should be used in classrooms in outer (post-colonial) and expanding (EEL) circle countries (Kachra, 19922) has been a subject of discussion for some time (Kachru, 1992, 895; Conrad, 19965 Widdowson, 1997; Seidthofer, 2001; Kirkpatrick, 20023, 29062). This debate has taken place alongside the dr atic increase in the pace of globalisation and the expanding role of English as an International Language as well asthe increased recognition of World Englishes and English sa Lingua Franca (ELF). By World Englishes I mean those indigenous, nativised varieties that have developed around the world and that reflect the cultaral and pragmatic norms their speakers second phenomenon connected wth the global use of English bas been ‘the use of English as a Figua franca by people for wom English is not their ist anguoge. In the southeast Asian region, 2 good example of this is the acceptance by the Assocation ‘of South-East Asian Nations dat English is the de facto ling fame of ASEAN. tn lingua franc contexts such a8 these, the question of which model of English should be taught is lone of heated debate. sues of conteoversy tha this book will consider inclade the rele vance or otherwise of native speaker models and cultures for English linguage teaching ip such contexts, As many earners of English workdwide are learning English to communicate with fellow non-native speakers the appropritteness of native speaker models and the eu tures associated with them needs to be questioned. In certain contexts, it may be that the local or lingua franca mode should be used a8 2 cassmom model and regional cultures — at least the cultures of the learners ~ should constitute the cursiculum, In short, the cur- riculum should comprise the cultures ofthe people using he language for cross-cultural ‘communication rather than Anglo-American caltutes. OF course, ths is not to say that native speaker models should be abandoned. The speaker model and culture i the most appropriate model forth ‘explored in depth in Part C ofthe book, fer linguistically and socio-cultraly may be contexts in which native ners. These issues arePart A: The Framework 1 Key sociolinguistic concepts Part A comprises three chapters. It provides an introduction wo the terms used inthe book along witha bref discussion of any controve of these terms. Chapter facases on what Ihave, fr tic’ concepts Ihave chosen those concepts that I believe to be important to any debs about World Englishes. have called them ‘sociolinguistic’ to distinguish them ftom the “Tnguinc’ terms that are covered in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the theories behind World Englishes, The terms and isues that I shall discuss in Chapter tare ies that may surround the use of some of reference, called ‘sociolinguis- 1.1. Native varieties ve nativied varieties vs Hingua ramen Englishes 1a. The native speaker vs the non-native speaker 23, The functions of language and the identity-communication continu! 1.4. Pidgins vs creoles vs varieties of English 15, Linguistic prejudice 11 Native varieties vs nativised varieties vs lingua franca Englishes It is customary to distinguish berecen native and natvised varieties of English (ct MeArthur, 1998). The ‘traditional varieties of British, American and Australian English are said to be native varieties and spoken by native speakers. Netivised varieties are new varieties that have daveloped in places where English was ndTOPBRally spoken and which have been influenced by local languages and cultures. ties are native speakers or non-native speakers i debated and I discuss these terms below. Hore I point out that the distinction between native and netivised varities of English can her speakers of nativised vari=6 be questioned. After al, other languages preceded English in England andthe British vat tis of English have certainly been influenced by local languages and cultures. The same can be sid of American and Australia varieties of English, Other languages were spoken in Ameria and Ausra before Englih arrived tere and the Englishes that have developed in both places have been influenced by local languages and cakures, I shall give specific examples ofthe ways local cultures and languages hav influenced thei respective Englishes, Uhrowghout Pat ‘The to criteria ofen used for classifi a variety of Enis a ‘native rather than patra (a) hat the native varity hasbeen arate HE orig BroDand Th) thet thas inacnsed younger varies f English in some way. Yet iS TOC POS to ind a enshe definition ot'slong time, and 8 we halle, al angus routinely inflasnes cach oer hile tis quite tru sy that British Engish as been around longer and has infuenced the develop does this mean tha British English native and that Amaican is natvse” The two criteria identified above would! suggest that Amercen English ia nativised variety but mot pople would call American English native vit. \e have the sime argument for Australian English This is younger than ether Bish o¢ Amsiean English and hasbeen ntnced by both, Docs this mean Austrian English i nivied variety rather than © native variey? Once agin, the extra classify tat ¢ ratvsed variety while most people think of ta a native variety, Why! ‘A thie erterion may have something to do with peje, and ater this chap ter | look at the concept of linguistic prejudice and give some examples of it. By ‘native English’ people usually mean a variety of Fnglidsapoken bya native speaker of English ad this spealeris usally thought ofa bi whit) Thus British English and American English would be considered as beingnstivé-Engshes, Malaysian and Indian Egishes 1 being natvied. Howeve, iti quite obvious that many people who are not wit speak British and American English. As we salle in Chapters 4 and 5, this is extreme- iy complex: there are ‘black vsraies of both Sitsh and American English and many people speak many vaietiss, both black and white, Fist al vareis of British and American English ~ whether these be Cornish, Glaswegian, Southern American or Urban Black = are varctios of English Speakers cannot be disqualified fe speaker status simply om the grounds ofthe variety theyspenk Second it fs nora people to be able w speak more than one variety of Engith and many British and ‘Amazin copa, whether they he Back or white or anything else arcabl to speak more __than one variety of Enalish ‘A fourth citron alo bated on prj cy of English is somehow peri ‘aiey i the better itis. Ns "arietes, The idea tat varieties of rish English are somehow pare than later varieties very dificult suppor, however. Is Cornish Engh purer than American East Coast Engle in the contest of 5 English age doesnot bring with i superonny Nor cane say that the older vary the purer Engl Lived and manw parents, Around the ffeenth century thee paren produced a variety of | i {American En This criterion sugeests that a native vari Key sociolinguistic concepts 7 fit s diffe to find rationsl criteria for lassfying vatetes of English as native es easier to classify them as natvise. I suggest thatthe difference between varieties of English can be explained by the fact that they are all patiised, By an mean cultured or indigenisd variety of English is thus one th His been influenced bythe local cultures in which i¢ has developed. By this detnton all english that arespaken varieties of British English area native es varieties of Palippino Engi the distinction between native and native varies can Become importan how cverin contents wher so-called native vatey, such as Bridsh or English, set against so-called natvised variety, such as Malaysian English. Inthe contest of English language teaching, some people may argue thai British English provides a hetter_model ¢ _Malarsian English because it represent pops’ English, Bat itis important to remem shat both these varieties sre natvised in The sense that they reflec ket own ealtures. The Malaysian variety of English i liferent from the British variety preciely because i elects local caltres. The Bish variety fren from the Malaysian variety because it reflects British culture, So. people chonse Hrs English a¢ the model, they are ale, witingly or sein allowing Brith eultne sep into tei ering of English 1 shal consider the sss surrounding the question of which variety to choot For language teaching in specific contexts in Pare. But T want to stess here that dete fn _nged to worry if You feet that you speak «natvied variety and therefore the variety you speak igpeantow wirec and are nativted. By the same token, thee sno justification in assuming + puce-tbar: the ‘native variety spoken by someone els. I Ione, All var ‘that te ‘native variety you speak isso 3. It isn't By the definition adopted here, vou also speak «nativised how better and purer than the nativised vasiety spoken by someone variety This leaves the definition of English as a Lingus Pranca (ELP).A lingua franco is the ‘common language used hy people of differen langusge backgrounds to communica with each other. Lingua fiancas can be used beth within countries and internationally. In Indonesia, the national language, Bahasa Indonesia, s used as a ational linge france to provide the many differen: peoples of Indonesia with a common language in which to communicate with each other Ix China is used av a fingue franca to alow speakers of diferent Chinese dialects to communicate anguages are spoken, 19 is used os the lingua franca or common language. In Part B ofthe book, I compere Mandarin ar Putoaghus, che common language, with exch other In countries of Eas Arica, where many ferent the international use of FLF within the European Comunity and within the Association ‘of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN). In bath cases, peuple who are not born as le to communicate with ether people in these communitics. In the ASEAN community therefore, a Thai and an Indonesian may ish speakers lave lexzned English in order to b